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Photography
o Literal Definition: To write with light. From
2 Greek words: phos light and graphia write.
o Modern Definition: It is an art or science
which deals with the reproduction of images through
the action of light, upon sensitized materials, with the
aid of a camera and its accessories, and the chemical
processes involved therein.
Photography
o Technical/Legal Definition: It is any means
for chemical, thermal, electrical or electronic
recording of the images of scenes, or objects formed
by some type of radiant energy, including gamma
rays, X-rays, ultra-violet rays, visible light and
infrared rays.
Technical/Legal Definition: This definition is broad
enough to include not only the conventional methods of
photography but almost any new process that may be
developed.
Police Photography An art or science which deals
with the study of the principles of photography, the
reproduction of photographic evidence, and its application
to police work.
Forensic Photography The art or science of
photographically documenting a crime scene and
evidence for laboratory examination and analysis for
purposes of court trial.
Basic Camera Parts and Functions
1. Light Tight Box. This part of the camera is very
essential because of its capability to exclude all
unwanted light that may expose the sensitized
materials or film. It is an enclosure that is devoid of
light.
2. Lens. The lens is the only responsible in focusing the
rays of light coming from the subject. It is one of the
most important parts of camera because without lens,
it is impossible to form a sharp image of the film.
3. Film Holder. The film holder holds the film firmly
inside the camera. It is always located at the opposite
side of the lens of the camera.
4. Shutter. The shutter served as the barriers of the rays
of light that will enter and effect the film inside the
camera. It is usually placed at the path of the light
passing thru the lens
Major Types of Camera
1. Viewfinder type.
2. Single Lens Reflex.
3. Twin Lens Reflex Type.
4. View or Press Type.
5. Special Cameras.
Major Types of Camera cont
Viewfinder Type
The smallest and simplest type of camera. This is also known
as instamatic camera. Viewfinder camera suffers parallax
error.
Single-Lens Reflex Type
The best way to determine the entire coverage of the camera is
to look behind the lens of the camera. In this manner, the
object can be framed properly and recorded on the film. This
type of camera eliminates the problem on parallax error.
Twin Lens Reflex Camera 2 lenses: 1. for viewing &
focusing of the subject, & 2. for taking lens. In this type of
camera, the image to be photographed is seen as flat surface as
the image is reflected by the mirror behind the viewing lens.
This suffers also parallax error.
Parallax The difference between what the
viewfinder on a point-and-shoot camera sees and
what the lens sees (and thus records on film). At close
shooting distances, this difference can cause you to
crop off the top of a subjects head.
Parallax error The image you see through the
viewfinder is different from the image the lens will
capture.
VIEW OR PRESS TYPE CAMERA. The biggest and most
sophisticated among the different type of camera. This type of
camera is practically useless for candid and action
photography.
SPECIAL CAMERAS. These are cameras that have been
devised that offer unique advantage or serve special purposes.
Among the special cameras are: a. polaroid, b. panoramic
cameras, c. aerial cameras, d. miniature and ultra-miniature
cameras e. digital cameras (using computer processing)
3 Important Controls of Camera
FOCUSING CONTROL. The camera lens bends
light rays to form an image or likeness of the object.
Adjusting the lens to form the clearest possible image
is called focusing.
Focusing is defined as the setting of the proper
distance in order to form a sharp image.
Three Types of Focusing
Rangefinder Type (e.g. viewfinder, instamatic camera
and 35mm cameras)
Ground Glass Type (e.g. twin-lens reflex camera and
digital camera)
Scale Bed Type (e.g. press and view camera, and
Polaroid Evidence Camera)
Rangefinder Type
The rangefinder type is classified into two:
Coincidence type the object to be
photographed looks double when the
focusing control is not in proper distance,
and by moving this control, one of the
objects will move and coincide with the
other object to make as one and become
accurate appearance of an object.
Split Type Splits the objects to be
photographed into two. While moving the
focusing control, the split image will move
and unite to form an undivided appearance
and therefore the focus is accurate and
perfect.
Ground Glass Type

Ground glass type focusing mechanism clearly
indicates whether the object distance and the camera is
out of focus or not. If the object is not well focused, the
object to be photographed will appear blurred. To make it
clear and accurate the focusing ring of the camera is
adjusted on clockwise or counter clockwise to get the
desired clearness of the object.
Scale-Bed or Focusing Scale
In the scale or bed type focusing mechanism, the
distance of the object to be photographed is calculated by
means of feet or meter. There are cameras where
estimated distance from the camera to objects is being
indicated in the focusing ring.
DIAPHRAGM CONTROL (lens opening)
A device called a diaphragm usually serves as the
aperture stop, and controls the aperture. The diaphragm
functions much like the iris of the eyeit controls the
effective diameter of the lens opening. Reducing the
aperture size increases the depth of field, which describes
the extent to which subject matter lying closer than or
farther from the actual plane of focus appears to be in
focus.
SHUTTER SPEED. Shutter is a device that allows
light to pass for a determined period of time, for the
purpose of exposing photographic film or a light-
sensitive electronic sensor to light to capture a
permanent image of a scene.
There are many factors to be considered in using this
control. Some of these factors are:
The light sensitivity of the film, which are
determined through its ISO;
The lighting condition;
The motion of the subjects on different
angles; and
The purpose of the photographs to be taken,
etc.
Types of Lenses
1. Biconvex
2. Biconcave
3. Plano-convex/plano-concave
4. Convex-concave or meniscus
5. Positive or converging lens
6. Negative or diverging lens
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Inherent Lens Defects or Aberrations
1. Spherical Aberration
2. Coma
3. Curvature of Field
4. Distortion
5. Chromatic Aberration
6. Astigmatism
7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification
SPHERICAL ABERRATION
When light passing through near the central part of a
converging lens is bended more sharply than those rays falling
in the edge, thus the rays coming from the edges are focused
on a plane nearer the lens than those coming from the central
part.
COMA
This is another form of spherical aberration but is
concerned with the light rays entering the lens obliquely. The
defect is noticeable only on the outer edges and not on the
central part of the lens. If a lens has coma, circular objects
reproduced at the corners of the negative are comet-like form.
Just like the spherical aberration, it is reduced by
combinations of lenses of different curvatures.
CURVATURE OF FIELD
This is a kind of defect where the image formed by a
lens comes to a sharper focus in curved surface than a flat
surface. The correction of this defect is similar to spherical
aberration and coma.
DISTORTION
A lens with distortion is incapable of rendering
straight lines correctly; either horizontal or vertical lines in an
object. This is caused by the placement of the diaphragm. If
the diaphragm is placed in front of the lens, straight lines near
the edges of the object tends to bulge outside. This is known
as the barrel distortion.
If the diaphragm is placed behind the lens, straight
lines near the edges tends to bend inward. This is known as the
pincushion distortion. Distortion is remedied by placing the
diaphragm in between the lens component and the two
opposite distortions will neutralize each other.
CHROMATIC ABERRATION
This defect is the inability of the lens to bring
photographic rays of different wavelengths to the same focus.
Ultraviolet rays are bent the most while infrared rays are bent
to the least when they pass through the lens. This defect is
reduced by utilizing compound lenses made up of single lens
made up of glass of different curvatures.
ASTIGMATISM
This defect is present when the size of image
produced by photographic rays of one wavelength is different
from the size produced by another. Size of the image increases
as the wavelength of the rays decreases.

In color photography it produces a rainbow colored fringes
around the edges of objects while in black and white
photography, it appears as a slight blue.
Types of Lenses (as to degree of correction to lens aberration)
1. Achromatic lens corrected for chromatic
aberration.
2. Rapid-rectilinear lens corrected for distortion.
3. Anastigmat lens corrected for astigmatism as
well as the other lens defects.
4. Apochromatic lens also corrected for
astigmatism but with higher degree of correction to color.
Focal length is the distance measured from the
optical center of the lens to the film plane when the lens is set
or focused at infinity position or far distance.
Focal distance is the distance from the optical center
of the lens to the film plane.
Focal length is a measure of the light-bending power
of a lens. It is invariably measured in millimeters (mm). The
longer the focal length of a lens, the narrower the angle of
view, and the larger objects appear in the viewfinder without
the need to move any closer to them. Long focal length lenses
are called telephotos short focal lengths are called
wideangles.
Wide-angles
A lens with a focal length of 50mm is known as a
standard lens the view that it gives is similar to that of the
human eye. Any lens with a shorter focal length, and wider
angle of view, is known as wide-angle.
Telephoto Lenses
Telephotos are lenses with focal lengths greater than
50mm. They range from 70mm short telephotos to long toms
with focal lengths of 1000mm or more.
Zoom Lens
It is a kind of lens with variable focal length.
A. BLACK & WHITE FILMS
1. Emulsion - a suspension of a sensitive silver
salt or a mixture of silver halides in a viscous
medium (as a gelatin solution) forming a coating on
photographic plates, film, or paper.
2. Gray or Anti-Halation Backing - a layer
found in modern photographic films. It is placed
between the light-sensitive emulsion and the tough
film base, or sometimes on the back of the film base.
The light that passes through the emulsion and the
base is absorbed by the opaque anti-halation layer.
This keeps that light from reflecting off the pressure
plate or anything else behind the film and re-
exposing the emulsion, reducing contrast. The anti-
halation layer is rendered transparent or washed from
the film (as in K-14 films) during processing of the
film.
3. Film Base - A film base is a transparent
substrate which acts as a support medium for the
photosensitive emulsion that lies atop it. Despite the
numerous layers and coatings associated with the
emulsion layer, the base generally accounts for the
vast majority of the thickness of any given film stock.
Historically there have been three major types of film
base in use: cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate
(cellulose diacetate, cellulose acetate propionate,
cellulose acetate butyrate, and cellulose triacetate),
and polyethylene trephthalate polyester (Kodak trade-
name: ESTAR).
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Characteristics of B & W Films:
1. Emulsion Speed
2. Spectral Sensitivity
3. Granularity or Graininess
Emulsion Speed
a. ASA (American Standards Association)
rating. This is expressed in arithmetical value.
b. DIN (Deutsche Industrie Normen) rating,
which is expressed in logarithmic value.
c. ISO (International Standards Organization)
rating. This is expressed in the combined arithmetical
and logarithmic values.
Spectral Sensitivity
a. Blue sensitive film sensitive to UV rays and blue
color only
b. Orthochromatic film sensitive to UV rays, to blue
and green color. It is not sensitive to red color.
c. Panchromatic film sensitive to UV radiation to
blue, green, and red light or all colors.
d. Infra-red film sensitive to UV rays, to blue, green,
red light and infrared rays.
Granularity or Graininess
This refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that
are formed after development of an exposed film. Generally,
the size of metallic silver grains are dependent on the
emulsion speed of the film and the type of developing solution
that is used in processing.
RULES to remember:
1. The lower the emulsion speed rating of the film, the
finer is the grain.
2. The higher the emulsion speed rating of the film, the
bigger are the grains.
3. A film developer will produce a finer grain that a
paper developer when used for film processing.
B. COLOR FILMS
A color film is a multi-layer emulsion coated on the
same support or base.
Main types of color film in current use
Color negative film forms a negative (color-reversed)
image when exposed, which is permanently fixed
during developing. This is then exposed onto
photographic paper to form a positive image. Ex:
Kodacolor
Color reversal film, also known as slide film, forms a
negative image when exposed, which is reversed to a
positive image during developing. The film can then
be projected onto a screen. Ex: Kodachrome
C. Photographic Papers (Black & White)
Photographic paper is exposed to light in a controlled manner,
either by placing a negative in contact with the paper directly
to produce a contact print, by using an enlarger in order to
create a latent image, by exposing in some types of camera to
produce a photographic negative, or by placing objects upon it
to produce photograms. Photographic papers are subsequently
developed using the gelatin-silver process to create a visible
image.
Characteristics of a Photographic Paper
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1. Chloride paper has a slow speed and is suited for 2. Black is the absence of all colors or the absence of
contact printing. light.
2. Bromide paper has a fast speed and is
recommended for projection printing or enlarging. BENDING OF LIGHT
3. Chloro-bromide paper is a multi-speed and could When traveling in open space, light travels in a
be used in both contact printing and enlarging. straight line (186,000 miles/second). However, when light
comes in contact with an object, it may be bended in the
TYPES OF FILTERS following manner:
a. Light Balancing Filter
b. Color Compensating Filter Reflection of Light
c. Neutral Density Filter 1. Specular or Regular Reflection - If the reflecting
d. Polarizing Filter surface is very smooth, the reflection of light that
occurs is called specular or regular reflection.
Light Balance Filter 2. Diffuse or Irregular Reflection When light strikes a
A filter used to change the color quality of the rough or granular surface, it bounces off in all
exposing light in order to secure proper color balance for directions due to the microscopic irregularities of the
artificial light films. interface.

Color Compensating Filter Refraction

This is used to change the over-all color balance of It is the change in direction of a wave due to a change
photographic result obtained with color films and to in its speed. This is most commonly observed when a wave
compensate for deficiencies in the quality of exposing energy. passes from one medium to another.

Neutral Density Filter Diffraction

This filter is used when the light is too bright to allow It is described as the apparent bending of waves
the use of desired f-number or shutter speed with a particular around small obstacles and the spreading out of waves past
film. small openings. It is also described as the bending of light
when it hits a sharp edge of an opaque object.
Polarizing Filter
It is used to reduce or minimize reflections on Kinds of Objects
subjects like water glass, and highly polished surfaces. 1. Transparent objects allows sufficient visible light to
pass through them that the object on the other side
Light: Its Characteristics & Sources may be clearly seen.
2. Translucent objects allows light to pass, however
Light is a form of energy, and to understand light we diffuse it sufficiently that objects on the other side
begin with the electromagnetic spectrum which is basically a may not be clearly distinguished. In some cases the
grouping of all electromagnetic radiation arranged according objects on the other side may be recognizable but
to the amount of energy contained in the radiation. sharp detail and outline are obscured.
3. Opaque objects so greatly diffuse the light that
Visible light is a part of this electromagnetic recognizing the object on the other side is very
spectrum that creates the sensation of light when it falls on the difficult if not impossible.
human eye.
Sources of Light
Rainbow Colors: 1. Natural Light Source
Violet - 400 to 440nm 2. Artificial Light Source
Blue - 440 to 490nm
Green - 490 to 540nm Natural Light Source (Sunlight)
Yellow - 540 to 590nm 1. Bright sunlight a lighting condition where objects
Orange - 600 to 650nm in open space cast a deep and uniform or distinct
Red - 650 to 700nm shadow.
2. Hazy Sunlight objects in open space cast a
transparent shadow.
4 PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS OF MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY
3. Dull Sunlight objects in open space cast no shadow.
X-rays 1 to 30 nm
1. Cloudy bright objects in open space cast
UV rays 30 to 400 nm
no shadow but objects at far distance are
Visible light 400 to 700 nm clearly visible.
Infrared rays 700 to 1,000+ nm. 2. Cloudy dull objects in open space cast not
shadow and visibility of distant objects are
PRIMARY COLORS OF LIGHT already limited.
Red
Green Artificial Light Source
Blue Light sources of this category are man-made and is
divided into the continuous radiation and the short duration.
SECONDARY COLORS OF LIGHT
Yellow Forensic Light Sources
Cyan 1. UV Lamp
Magenta 2. LASER Light Amplification through Simulated
Emission of Radiation.
NOTE: 3. Alternative Light Sources
1. White is the presence of all colors 4. Forensic Light Sources
CHEMICAL PROCESSING
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1. Black & White Processing development, stop-bath, 5. Sodium carbonate - 67.5 gm

and fixation. 6. Potassium bromide - 1 gm
2. Color Processing development, stop-fix, and 7. Water to make - 1 li
stabilizer.
Development STOP-BATH
It is the conversion of latent image in an emulsion Stop-bath can be plain water only with 28% glacial
into visible image. acetic acid.
1. B & W Emulsion reducing exposed silver halide
crystals (black silver) into metallic silver. (Same reaction is FIXING BATH FORMULA
found in photographic papers.) 1. Water
2. Color Emulsion Developed silver is replaced 2. Dissolving agent
with cyan, yellow, and magenta dye. 3. Preservative
4. Neutralizers
Stop-Bath 5. Hardeners
The purpose of the stop bath is to halt the
development of the film, plate, or paper by either washing off Typical Fixing Formula:
the developing chemical or neutralizing it. 1. Water 520C or 125 0F - 600 ml
2. Hypo - 240 gm
Fixation 3. Sodium sulfite - 15 gm
The fixer removes the unexposed silver halide (anhydrous)
remaining on the Photographic film or photographic paper, 4. Acetic Acid (28%) - 480 ml
leaving behind the reduced metallic silver that forms the 5. Boric Acid (crystals) - 7.5 gm
image, making it insensitive to further action by light. Without 6. Potassium alum - 15 gm
fixing, the remaining silver halide would quickly darken and (fine granular)
cause severe fogging of the image. The most common salts 7. Water to make - 1 li
used are sodium thiosulfate - commonly called hypo - and
ammonium thiosulfate, commonly used in modern rapid fixer PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING
formula. 1. Contact Printing
2. Projection Printing or Enlarging
FILM PROCESSING
It can be carried out in trays, tanks, or mechanized Contact Printing
equipment. It is a procedure of exposing photographic print
NOTE: materials while it is pressed in contact with the negative being
Panchromatic materials handled in total darkness. reproduced.
Blue films, orthochromatic films and printing papers
handled under a safelight. Projection Printing or Enlarging
It is a type of printing where the image in a negative
Equipment for Film Processing is optically projected or enlarged onto a print material for
a. Tank or tray exposure to produce a picture image. The main equipment is
b. Developing reel Enlarger, the so-called camera in reverse.
c. Opener for film cartridge (pliers)
d. Scissors to cut the tongue of the film EQUIPMENT FOR PAPER DEVELOPING
e. Thermometer 1. Three plastic trays one each for the developer, stop-
f. Timer bath, and the fixer. (The size of the tray is determined
g. Funnel by the largest prints size).
h. Photographic sponge 2. Metal, plastic, or bamboo tong preferably with rubber
i. Film clips for drying ends to hold the prints.
j. glass or plastic bottles (gallon size) for storing 3. Rubber (surgical) hand gloves.
mixed solutions. 4. Timers
5. Paper cutter
DEVELOPER FORMULATION 6. A bigger tray or tank for washing prints.
Typical component:
1. Solvent (water) GENERAL APPLICATION
2. Developing agent Identification purposes
3. Preservative Recording and preserving of evidences
4. Accelerator or activator Discovering and proving of evidences not readily
5. Restrainer seen by the naked eye.
Recording action of offenders
D-76 Film Developer formula For court exhibits
1. Water 520C or 125 0F - 750 ml For crime prevention
2. Elon - 2 gm
Public information
3. Hydroquinone - 5 gm
Police training
4. Sodium Sulfite - 100 gm
5. Borax (granules) - 2 gm
6. Water to make - 1 li SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS
1. Identification Photographs
DEKTOL Paper Developer 2. Crime-Scene Photography
1. Water 520C or 125 0F - 500 ml
2. Elon - 311 gm References:
3. Hydroquinone - 12 gm
4. Sodium Sulfite - 4.5 gm
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1. Forensic Photography for Criminology Students and

Practitioners by WAYNEFRED H. VILLARBA, Ph.
D. Crim
2. The Complete Idiots Guide to: Photography Like a
Pro
3. The Everything Photography Book by Eliot Khuner
with Sonia Weiss
4. John Hedgecoes 35mm Photography
5. Merriam-Websters Collegiate Dictionary 11th ed.
6. www.en.wikipedia.com
7. www.youtube.com