Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
A White Paper prepared by the International Affairs Committee of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology.
Special thanks to the White Papers Subcommittee of the SIOP International Af-
fairs Committee (IAC): Angelo DeNisi (Chair) and Lynda Zugec. We also wish
to express our appreciation to the IAC White Paper Series Board: John C.
Scott, Stuart C. Carr, and Soo Min Toh.
Table of Contents
Authors ................................................................................................................... 3
Abstract................................................................................................................... 4
Target Characteristics...................................................................................... 6
Cultural Considerations......................................................................................... 11
Practical recommendations................................................................................... 15
References ........................................................................................................... 16
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Authors
M. Sandy Hershcovis
University of Manitoba
(University of Calgary beginning January 1, 2015)
Tara C. Reich
London School of Economics and Political Science
Karen Niven
University of Manchester
karen.niven@mbs.ac.uk
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Over the past 2 decades, researchers have examined extensively the predictors and
consequences of workplace bullying. This body of research has found that predictors
of workplace bullying typically fall into three broad categories: (a) perpetrator charac-
teristics, (b) target characteristics, and (c) situational characteristics. Similarly, the
consequences of workplace bullying have a range of costs including: (a) human
costs, (b) organizational costs, and (c) spillover costs.
The purpose of this white paper is to examine the key predictors and consequences
of workplace bullying within each of the above categories. We will then discuss rec-
ommendations aimed to help organizations and individuals prevent and cope with
workplace bullying.
Although personality
is indeed one factor
that predicts this type
of behavior, workplace
bullying does not occur
in a social vacuum.
This is a simple question with a complex answer. It is tempting to assume that bully-
ing is a function of perpetrator personality. Although personality is indeed one factor
that predicts this type of behavior, workplace bullying does not occur in a social vacu-
um. Rather, it occurs in the context of an organizational environment that may aggra-
vate or mitigate the incidence of workplace bullying. Workplace bullying also occurs
in the context of a relationship, and both members contribute to that relationship.
Therefore, the perpetratortarget relationship is likely to influence the enactment and
experience of workplace bullying (Hershcovis & Reich, 2013; Hershcovis, Reich, Par-
ker, & Bozeman, 2012). In this section, we will consider each of the three broad pre-
dictors of workplace bullying, and then we discuss how they might interact to form a
more complete picture of this social phenomenon.
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Perpetrator Characteristics
A popular media perspective on workplace bullying often assumes that the main rea-
son why someone engages in workplace bullying is because, well, the person is a
bully! There is good evidence to suggest that perpetrators exhibit common, typically
negative, personality traits such as narcissism (Penney & Spector, 2002), trait anger
(Hershcovis et al., 2007), vengefulness (Douglas & Martinko, 2001), and trait anxiety
(Fox & Spector, 1999). Perpetrators are also more likely to have a history of being
targeted with bullying (e.g., Hauge, Skogstad, & Einarsen, 2009). Further, the com-
mon belief that those who pick on others do so because of their own low self-esteem
seems to have at least some support in the literature as researchers have found that
perpetrators of negative workplace behaviors tend to report lower core self-
evaluations (Ferris, Rosen, Johnson, Brown, Risavy, & Heller, 2011) and lower or-
ganization-based self-esteem (Ferris, Spence, Brown, & Heller, 2012).
Target Characteristics
Research on workplace bullying and aggression has not only focused on the traits
and characteristics of perpetrators, it has also examined the traits and characteristics
of targets. Research on victim precipitation (Olweus, 1978) has argued and found
that certain employees, by virtue of their characteristics and traits, may be at higher
risk of workplace bullying than other employees. This body of research has also
found that sometimes such traits lead employees to perceive workplace bullying
where there is none.
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Situational Characteristics
One of the most frequently studied predictors of workplace bullying is the situational or
contextual factors that might influence aggression in an organization. In fact, situational
constraints have been found to be one of the strongest predictors of workplace aggres-
sion (Bowling & Beehr, 2006).
Leadership style has emerged as another important situational factor. For example, per-
petrators of workplace bullying tend to report having leaders who are less charismatic
(Hepworth & Towler, 2004) and more abusive (Mitchell & Ambrose, 2007), and targets
tend to report having leaders who are less fair and supportive (Hauge, Einarsen,et al.,
2011). Noncontingent punishment and tyrannical and laissez-faire leadership styles have
also been found to relate to perceptions of bullying (Hauge, Skogstad, & Einarsen, 2007;
Hoel, Glas, Hetland, Cooper, & Einarsen, 2010; Skogstad, Einarsen, Torsheim, Aasland,
& Hetland, 2007). It seems that leaders who adopt these styles may portray a seemingly
permissive stance on workplace aggression.
Finally, meta-analytic evidence shows that workplace injustice is another key predictor of
aggressive behavior at work (Hershcovis et al., 2007). The organizational justice literature
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focuses on three main types of justice. Interpersonal justice refers to the quality of the in-
terpersonal treatment people receive when supervisors make decisions and implement
procedures (Bies & Moag, 1986). Procedural justice refers to the fairness of the proce-
dures used to determine organizational outcomes (Leventhal, 1980). Finally, distributive
justice refers to the fairness of the actual outcomes and decisions made by supervisors
(Adams, 1965). Hershcovis et al. found that all three forms of injustice were related to em-
ployee aggression; however, interpersonal injustice had the strongest relationship with
employee aggressive behavior, followed by procedural and then distributive justice. In
other words, perhaps contrary to popular belief, employees appear to be more concerned
with the respect and dignity with which supervisors communicate outcomes and decisions
than they are about the fairness of the outcome itself. In sum, bullying behaviors seem to
flourish in workplaces that are characterized by high demands, low resources, and inef-
fectual leaders.
Human Costs
Targets of workplace bullying experience significant detriments to their health and well-
being. These individuals report increased psychological distress including anxiety, de-
pression (e.g., Hauge, Skogstad, & Einarsen, 2010; Hansen et al., 2006), negative emo-
tions (Bowling & Beehr, 2006; Vie, Glas, & Einarsen, 2012), and overt anger (Aquino,
Douglas, & Martinko, 2004). Targets also report higher levels of burnout and emotional
exhaustion (e.g., Wu & Hu, 2009).
Recent research has also linked the experience of bullying to physiological outcomes, in-
cluding sleep problems (Niedhammer et al., 2009), musculoskeletal complaints (Vie et al.,
2012), and lower salivary cortisol (Hansen et al., 2006). In fact, several researchers have
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suggested that targets of workplace bullying experience symptoms similar to those asso-
ciated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Matthiesen & Einarsen, 2004). Mat-
thiesen and Einarsen found that victims of bullying exhibited higher levels of PTSD than a
series of non-bullied high trauma control groups (e.g., recently divorced persons, war
zone personnel). Thus, there is no question that there are serious adverse health conse-
quences for victims of bullying.
Interestingly, targets are not the only ones who suffer from and react to workplace mis-
treatment. Studies have found that witnesses also experience negative reactions to work-
place aggression, such as lower general and mental stress (Vartia, 2001), and emotional
drain (Totterdell, Hershcovis, Niven, Reich, & Stride, 2012). More recently, Reich and
Hershcovis (in press) found that employees who witness mistreatment become angry to-
ward and punish perpetrators. Therefore, it appears that incidents of mistreatment extend
beyond the target to affect others in the work environment and that, consistent with An-
dersson and Pearsons (1999) concept of an incivility spiral, mistreatment may move be-
yond the original perpetrator target dyad to involve others at work.
Organizational Costs
The human costs of workplace bullying discussed above have obvious implications for
organizations, as targets experiencing emotional and physiological impairments are more
likely to be absent due to sickness (e.g., Kivimki, Elovainio, & Vahtera, 2000; Sprigg,
Martin, Niven, & Armitage, 2010). Further, those targets who continue to attend work
demonstrate lower task performance (Harris, Kacmar, & Zivnuska, 2007; Schat & Frone,
2011), lower creativity (Mathisen, Einarsen, & Mykletun, 2008), lower organizational citi-
zenship behaviors (e.g., Harris, Harvey, & Kacmar, 2011; Zellars, Tepper, & Duffy, 2002),
and higher counterproductive work behavior (e.g., Hershcovis et al., 2012).
Organizations incur indirect costs as well, as meta-analytic results suggest that targets of
workplace bullying report lower job satisfaction, life satisfaction, and organizational com-
mitment, and higher intentions to quit (Bowling & Beehr, 2006; Hershcovis & Barling,
2010). These negative job attitudes further relate to performance outcomes (e.g., Schat &
Frone, 2011). As such, it should be unsurprising that workplace bullying in the United
States costs organizations as much as $14,000 USD per employee in lost performance
(Pearson & Porath, 2009).
Spillover/Crossover Costs
In the last 10 years, an interesting body of research has started to examine spillover and
crossover effects arising from workplace bullying and aggression. Crossover refers to how
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Cultural Considerations
The prevalence estimate provided at the outset of this paper is based on a meta-analytic
review summarizing studies conducted across a range of countries (Nielsen et al., 2010);
however, these estimates vary across countries. Nielsen et al. reported that only 9.7% of
Scandinavian employees experience workplace bullying, whereas prevalence rates are
15.7% in other European countries and almost 26% in Non-European countries (primarily
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North America). Relatedly, according to the 2010 European Work Condition Survey
(European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2010), the
percentage of employees who feel that they have been subjected to bullying or harass-
ment at work (within the past year) ranges between 0.6% (Bulgaria) to 9.5% (France).
One reason for these differences may be due to legislation, or lack thereof. For instance,
Sweden and France were the first European countries to enact legislation to address
workplace bullying (in 1993), closely followed by Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands.
In contrast, North America has been comparatively less responsive. In Canada, only 3 of
the 10 provinces (Quebec, Saskatchewan, and Ontario) have anti-bullying legislation, with
Quebec being the first to introduce such legislation in 2004. At this writing, although sev-
eral states have attempted to introduce legislation to address workplace bullying, none of
these laws has been enacted.
A second reason for this variation across countries may be that behaviors operationally
defined as bullying in one cultural context may not be defined as bullying in another
(Bond, 2004). According to Nielsen, Hetland, Matthiesen, and Einarsen (2012), the effect
of workplace bullying on subsequent distress is mainly explained by the subjective feeling
of being victimized by the bullying, and not by mere exposure to bullying behaviors (p.
42). That is, the negative effects of bullying are due to the meaning individuals ascribe to
it, which is constructed by the cultural context (Bond, 2004). Indeed, in a cross-cultural
study, Severance et al. (2013) found only two dimensions of aggression (i.e., damage to
self-worth and direct versus indirect) generalized across their study sites of Israel, Japan,
Pakistan, and the United States.
Cultural variation in perceptions of (and reactions to) workplace bullying are becoming in-
creasingly apparent. For example, a recent study by Giorgi, Leon-Perez, and Arenas
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(2014) of workplace bullying in Italy hypothesized and found a curvilinear relationship be-
tween workplace bullying and job satisfaction; specifically, among Italian workers, job sat-
isfaction was lowest when workplace bullying was moderate. Giorgi et al. argued that, be-
cause bullying is common in Italian workplaces (Giorgi, 2009), it is normalized and may
even signal membership in the in group. Loh, Restubog, and Zagenczyk (2010) also
found cultural differences in employee reactions to workplace bullying; these authors at-
tributed the stronger negative relationship between bullying and job satisfaction among
Australian workers compared to Singaporean workers to the latters relative comfort with
an unequal distribution of power (i.e., low power distance). These differences in employee
perceptions and reactions highlight the complexity of studying workplace bullying, as well
as the need to tailor interventions to their national, industrial, and organizational cultural
context.
Primary Interventions
Primary interventions focus on preventing occurrence of bullying in the workplace. Alt-
hough there have been relatively few rigorous tests of such interventions (presumably be-
cause of the costs involved in designing and implementing programs), at least two large
scale tests have been reported. Hoel and Giga (2006) tested the efficacy of policy com-
munication, stress management training, and negative behavior awareness training, in
comparison to a control group. However, no clear gains were observed across a 6-month
period. In contrast, research into the Civility, Respect, Engagement in the Workforce
(CREW) program has reported much more promising results. CREW began in 2005 in the
US Department of Veteran Affairs and involves a series of participatory exercises (e.g.,
discussions, role plays), which are designed to cultivate awareness of ones interpersonal
impact in the workplace. Studies using a robust randomized control trial design have re-
ported significant improvements in the civility of workplace behavior, sustained across 12-
months (Osatuke, Moore, Ward, & Dyrenforth, & Belton, 2009), and additional gains for
job satisfaction, organizational commitment, trust in management, and job burnout (Leiter,
Day, Gilin-Oore, & Laschinger, 2012).
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styles, and (c) generate policies to ensure fair and just treatment, decisions, and out-
comes may all help to reduce the prevalence of workplace aggression and bullying.
Secondary Interventions
Secondary interventions aim to provide employees with the necessary skills and/or coping
resources to deal with bullying should it occur. Although researchers have yet to test the
efficacy of secondary interventions in reducing the negative effects of bullying, recent
studies have suggested a number of potentially promising routes for such interventions.
For example, Zapf and Grosss (2001) work suggests that people who successfully cope
with bullying differ from unsuccessful copers in how they manage conflict. In particular,
successful copers are better at recognizing and avoiding escalating behavior. Similarly,
Niven and colleagues work on emotion regulation suggests that strategies that employ-
ees use to manage their own emotions in response to being aggressed against appear to
be important factors influencing the severity of consequences for employees health and
well-being. Reappraising the aggression (e.g., by trying not to take peoples actions per-
sonally) is an adaptive response, buffering the negative effects of aggression, whereas
suppressing ones emotional response and engaging in ruminative thinking (where one
continually mulls over what happened in a negative manner) are maladaptive responses,
exacerbating negative consequences (Niven, Sprigg, & Armitage, 2013; Niven, Sprigg,
Armitage, & Satchwell, 2013).
Tertiary Interventions
Tertiary interventions focus on reducing negative consequences after bullying has oc-
curred. It is crucial for organizations to respond appropriately once bullying has been re-
ported; reporting of victimization can lead to negative consequences for targets because
of poor organizational responses, such as minimizing what has happened (Bergman,
Langhout, Palmieri, Cortina, & Fitzgerald, 2002). One way the organization can respond is
to use workplace mediation, in which a third party to the conflict (e.g., an external consult-
ant or a member of HR staff) gets both the alleged perpetrator and victim together to work
through the situation in a facilitated discussion, focusing on the present and future rela-
tionships. Saams (2010) study, in which consultants were interviewed about the strate-
gies they preferred to deal with workplace bullying, identified that mediation can be useful
to prevent escalation, primarily when a situation is viewed as a conflict rather than full-
blown bullying. However, when a behavior pattern has become entrenched, mediation
may be inappropriate due to the power imbalance that develops between perpetrator and
victim. Organizations can also consider administering sanctions to perpetrators (e.g.,
moving them to a different department, demoting or even firing them); however, because
bullying cases are often he said-she said in nature, sanctions can be difficult to justify
legally.
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Practical recommendations
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