INTRODUCTION

Water is essential for life. Without water no life can exist. Even the

Little quantity needed to sub stain life is more than any other commodity ingested by
man. Water is indispensable for agriculture and industry. The quality of life depends upon
the quality of water available for various needs. Safe and adequate water is not only
public health necessity, but also in important infrastructure for economic development.
The 12th world health assembly, which met at Geneva in 1959, declared water as a
community asset, a social benefit and an economic and industrial resource.

Importance of rivers, in maintain a healthy as well as prosperous nation in a

healthy environment is amply understood from the very existence of the civilization on
this globe. Rivers water is primarily used to satisfy the daily needs of the whole living
universe. These water resources are used to meet day-to-day requirements of human
settlements, for production of hide power and most important of all, for agriculture and
industrial needs.

All the aforesaid activities are expected to have a significant impact on the water
quality. Furthermore, these human interferences are bound to affect the living resources
i.e. animals and plants occurring in these waters.
 COMPOSITION OF NATURAL WATER

The composition of water may include salts (mostly in the form of ions, molecules
and molecular complexes) organic substances; gases; disperse impurities; hydrobionts
(plankton, benthos, neuston and pagon); and bacteria and viruses. Natural water may also
contain suspended clay, sand, gypsum and lime particles, various organic substances,
silicic acid, iron (III), hydroxides, fulvic acids, humates etc. in the colloidal state and
truly dissolve substances mainly mineral salts which enrich water with iron.

There is direct relationship between the wedding depth of underground water and the
degree of there mineralization. Underground water often has high hardness and elevated
concentration of iron. The properties of water and its quality of water can be determined
in terms of physical indices (temperature, suspended matter, coloration, odour, flavour
etc.); chemical (harness, alkalinity, reactivity, oxidation susceptibility, dry residue etc);
biological (hydrobionts) and bacteriological (total contration of bacteria, coli index etc).

Temperature
Waters of underground sources are characterized by a rather constant temperature (8-
120c), with seasonal variations of temperature decreasing with an increase in the bedding
depth. The temperature of water of surface sources varies substantially in the year and
depends in the inflow of underground waters and discharges of the waste water used for
cooling.

TURBIDITY -
The presence of suspended particles of sand, clay, silt Plankton, algae which get in to
water due to erosion of rivers banks with rainfall and thawing water on starring up
sediments etc characterize the concentration of suspended matter as will as the indices of
transparency and turbidity.
 Turbidity of water (which is inverse of transparency) is measured in
Turbid meters by comparing, under the identical illumination conditions. Water turbidity
of potable water should not exceed 1.5mg/l.

COLORATION
Color of water nay be due to the presence of humic and tanning substances,
protein and hydrocarbon like compounds, fats, organic acids and other organic acids
which can get into water as product of living activity and decay of various living
organisms inhabiting water. Further, coloration may be caused by iron compounds, waste
waters of certain industrial processes or by bloom of water basing which observed on
mass reproduction of algae. Depending on the species of algae, water may become bright
greenish (protococcus algae), or emerand green (bluegreen algae).

Coloration of surface waters usually diminishes with an increase of hardness and

that of hydro carbonate waters with an increase of alkalinity, whereas soft waters of a low
alkalinity are usually strongly colored. Thus with an increase of carbonate hardness
(alkalinity) the concentration of humic substances which are responsible for coloration
usually decrease.

TASTE & ODOUR

It may be of natural or artificial origin. Water may have a salty, bitter,
sweet, or acid taste. A salty taste of water is mainly due to dissolve sodium chloride a
bitter taste is due to magnesium sulphate; an acid due to carbon dioxide; an alkaline taste
is imparted by presence of potassium carbonate, soda or sodium hydroxide; and
astringent flavour is due to calcium sulfate.

water in the manufacture of certain polymers, synthetic rubber, some grades etc.
 High concentrations of sulfate in water can cause malfunctioning of the alimentary canal
where as magnesium and calcium sulphate and chlorides are responsible for the non-
carbonate hardness of water.

ALKALINITY
It is determined as the sum of hydroxyl ions and anions of weak acids present
in water it is distinguished between bicarbonate carbonate and hydrate alkalinity.

HARDNESS
It is due to the presence of calcium and magnesium. It is distinguished between
carbonate, non-carbonate and total hardness of water. Carbonate hardness is due to the
presence of calcium and magnesium carbonates and bicarbonates. It can be eliminated
easily by boiling. In boiling water, bicarbonate decomposes into gaseous carbon dioxide
and insoluble calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide, which precipitate from the
solution. Non carbonate hardness is caused by sulphuric, hydrochloric, silicic and nitric
salts of calcium and magnesium. The sum of carbonate and non carbonate hardness
defines the total hardness.

REACTIVITY OF WATER (pH)

the reactivity of water is expressed by the pH index which is the negative
logarthum of the concentration of hydrogen ions.

pH= - log (H+)

Therefore, pH is equal to 7 for neutral waters, is less than 7 for acid ones, and
more alkaline waters. Natural water can be classified by the Ph Index in the following
manner-
 Acid - pH = 1-3

Weakly acid - pH = 4-6

Neutral - pH = 7

Weakly alkaline - pH = 8-10

Alkaline - pH = 11-14

BACTERIA AND VIRUSES

Most bacteria are colorless and transparent; it can be made visible by dying with
aniline dyes.
There are three main forms of bacteria -
(a) Spheroidal (cocci) of a size 1-2m.
(b) Rod like (bacilli) of a length of 1-4m.
(c) Spiral form bacteria (Spirilli, spirochaeta, vibrio) of a length of 1-20m.

By the mode of nitration, all bacteria are divided into three groups
(i) Autotrophic Those which acquire the vital energy by photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis.
(ii) Heterotrophic these are saprophytic which feed on organic substances
(yeast, mould fungi etc.)
(iii) Paratrophic - these are parasites which need live proteins or dead organic
substances for nutrition.
 Coagulation of water impurities can reduce the concentration of viruses in water by
40% and that of coli bacillus by 85%. By an experimental data, with an increase of
turbidity of drinking water from 0.15 - 1.0 mg/l, the frequency of virus hepatitis increased
from 2.4 130 per 100,000 of population.
 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS TEST REPORT
Source of sample tube well
STANDARDS FOR DRINKING WATER

Parameters IS: 10500

(1991)
(a) TDS : 500 mg/l or ppm

(b) Hardness : 300 mg/l or ppm

(c) Chlorides : 250mg/l or ppm

(d) Alkalinity : 200 mg/l or ppm

(e) pH : 6.5 to 8.5

(f) Turbidity : 5.0 mg/l or ppm

(g) Colour : 5.0

(h) Fluoride : 0.8-1.2

(i) Magnesium : 30.0

 WATER POLLUTION

Water covers about 75% of our earths surface. Water resources are the oceans,
lakes, streams, rivers, ponds and springs. Water is a universal solvent and contains several
essential minerals and gases on which life depends.

Water pollution is caused by adding substances to natural waters that make the
water less suitable for human use and disrupt aquatic ecosystem thus a water mass may
be polluted for drinking purpose while it is not considered polluted for irrigation or some
industrial. Water is mainly due to the addition of sulphates, nitrates, chlorides etc. which
came from household sewage and laundry detergents.

WATER POLLUTANTS

1. This group of pollutants from suspensions in water these are particles of

sand, clay and organic matter. Which are washed off from the soil by rain
water, throwing snow and ice and other run off.

2. Natural water may contain solution of many gases such as O 2, N2, CO2,
H2S and others soluble salts of Na, K, NH4, Mg, Al, Fe and Mn etc.
industrial sewage pollutes with salts of heavy metals such as Cu, Pb, Mg,
Cd, Hg etc. and with various organic substances such as phenols,
formaldehyde etc. Dissolved impurities are not retained by sand, paper or
any other common filter.
 SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION

There are three main types of water pollution

1. River and lake water pollution.
2. Underground water pollution
3. Marine water pollution

1. River and lake water pollution The major sources of River and lake water
pollution -----

(a) Domestic sewage

The domestic sewage includes household wastes which pass through municipal
sewage system. It includes food wastes modern synthetic detergent used for washing
clothes and cleaning bathroom and human excreta and water base taints. Pollution
strength of sewage polluted water is determined by its biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD). BOD is the amount of oxygen taken up by the micro organism present in water.

(b) Industrial effluents

The industrial wastes are discharge in the nearby rivers or streams through flush
lines of factories. The textile sugar and fertilizer factories oil refineries synthetic plants
for manufacturing of drugs rubber plastic rayon fibers the paper industries and the
chemicals factories all produce chemicals pollution.

(c)Agricultural sources
With the use of high yielding varieties of crop plants, increased use fertilizers
has become essential. Excess of nitrates used as fertilizers seep in to groundwater or
are carried in to lakes and ponds. On the entering the drinking water these create
several health problems.
(d) Pesticides
These include insecticides, fungicides nematicides, herbicides and soil fumigants
these include chlorinated, hydrocarbons, organophosphate, metallic salts, carbonates,
thiocarbonates acetic acid derivatives etc. many pesticide are nondegradable and their
residue have a long life. These mainly include organochlorine compounds. They pass
through the food chain and accumulate in fatty tissues of consumers of different levels of
food chain.

2. Underground water pollution

Underground water is no more pure and safe, particularly in cities and industrial
areas. The sources of underground water pollution are sewage, industrial effluents,
seepage pits, septic tanks, fertilizers and pesticides, garbage dumps etc.

3. Marine water pollution

The main sources of oceanic pollution discharges of oil grease and petroleum
products, detergents, sewage and garbage including radioactive wastes.
 EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTANTS

The main effects of water pollutants are;

(1) Compounds of mercury, arsenic and lead are poisonous. Mercury when dissolved
in water is absorbed by aquatic plants and enters the food chain through
herbivorous fishes. These are eaten large fishes which are eaten by man as food.
On reaching of human body it causes the disease called miniamata.

(2) Lead impairs metabolism and brings about congenital deformities, anemia, loss of
appetite and defective gums. Cadmium damages kidneys and liver.

(3) Fine suspended particles or colloidal substances make water turbid.

(4) Presence of dyes and compounds of chromium and iron in the discharges change
color of water.

(5) Soap, detergents and alkalis result in foam formation.

(6) Industrial effluents containing iron, free chlorine, phenol, manganese, oils and
hydrocarbons impair the taste of water. Chlorine, phenol, hydrogen sulphide
ammonia, algae and micro-organisms give unpleasant odour to water.
 WATER TREAMENT

The treatment of water in order to make it suitable for drinking, domestic or

industrial use includes a complex of physical, chemical and biological methods which
change the initial composition of water. Water treatment involves not only purification
and removal of various unwanted and harmful impurities but also improvement of the
natural properties of water by adding certain deficient ingredients.

A particular method of water treatment is chosen upon preliminary examination

of the composition and properties of water of the water sources to be used and
comparison of these data with the consumers requirement and with health view point.

The technology of the improvement of water quality at water purification on

plants can be characterized by a large diversity of the method and process employed and
by substantial differences in the design of process structure and equipment, as well as in
the kind of reagents used for intensification of various stages of water purification.

PROCESS OF WATER TREATMENT

The process of water treatment is complete in several steps. They are as follows-
1. Collection of raw water
2. Aeration process (increased the dissolve oxygen)
3. Coagulation
4. Flash mixing
5. Clarifying (clariflocculator)
6. Filtration
7. Post-chlorination
8. Super-chlorination
Collection of raw water

The raw water collected from raw water pumping station, which is situated in the
bank of rivers. This water is supplied with the help of big pumps and motors. This
complete the requirement based on water label of river. It is primary process of treatment
Aeration process

After collection of raw water it passes for aerator process. Aerator is a waterfall like
technique in which, the water comes to the underside in aerator and flows on side
resulting in increased rate dissolve oxygen. In polluted water, the level of dissolve
oxygen decrease and some time becomes nil also, so aeration is an important process of
oxygen treatment.
Coagulation
Coagulation of water impurities is the process of aggregation of colloidal and
disperses as they stick together under the action of molecular attraction forces.
Coagulation results in then formation of larger aggregates or flakes which are readily
visible by the naked eye and separate from the liquid phase. Colloidal and fine disperse
impurities in water posses a certain anticoagulation stability which is due to the presence
of hydrate shells of a double electric field around particles. The anticoagulation stability
of impurities can be disturbed by heating, freezing, and addition of electrolytes to water
or by the application of a magnetic field. Coagulating hydrophilic and hydrophobic
impurities most often solves the problem of improving the quality of water.

Hydrophilic impurities in natural water are mostly represented by organic

substances such as OH, -COOH, etc. on their surfaces. When being in thermal Brownian
motion, hydrophilic particles diffuse together with hydrate shells. Particles of sludge,
clay, fine sand and the like are hydrophobic impurities in water. They are almost free
from hydrate shells, but have a double electric layer and carry substantial electric charges.
When these charges are eliminated or diminished, hydrophobic impurities lose their
anticoagulation stability and coagulate readily. Hydrophobic particles usually have a
crystalline structure and appreciable surface area and can adsorb ions present in water.

On being added to water, a coagulant (such as aluminium sulphate, iron vitriol,

etc.) initially dissociates into ions of a metal and strong acid anions. Ions of trivalent
metals are exchanged with monovalent cations of the diffusion layer of hydrophobic
impurity particles, so that the anticoagulation stability of these particles decreases and the
thickness of their diffusion layer becomes smaller. With the use of aluminium sulphate as
a coagulant, the process of hydrolysis can result depending on the conditions, in the
formation colloids of low soluble aluminium salt bases.
Flash Mixing

Pre-chlorinated and alum solution add coagulant water come for the flash mixing in
the flesh mixing chamber. The three chambers consist three flash mixers for mixing;
which mix water very well with the help of rotate motors and after mixing thoroughly the
water to clariflocculator. Every chamber connects with a clariflocculator.

Clarifying (clariflocculator)

It is big rounded chamber, and consist many chambers with a rotate pillar and a
rotating cycle grill. Clariflocculator settle 75% impurities in the process of sedimentation,
which results of flock formation process. The impurities of 25% flow outside in the way
of overflow.
Filtration
Clariflocculator settle 75% but 25% rest in the water. These impurities treated by
the process of filtration. In this technique a unit of filter, filters water but when filter
blocked by impurities its filtration process decrease eventually and stops. In this
condition we can pressed the filter with the help of water pressure in the way of underside
resulting impurities layer disturbed and over flow on filter after this extra stream flow
these impurities with self.
Post-Chlorination

After filtration the turbidity of water is determine standard normal values and all
impurities absent after this process, but most important process Disinfection is
complete in the post chlorination. The river water contains many bacteria, viruses,
protozoan, algae, etc that can produce many types of dreadful disease so disinfection is
very must. After post chlorination the pure water collect in the CW receiver (clear water
receiver) and supply to zonal pumping station (ZPS).
Super-chlorination
It is the last stage and step of water treatment of purification. After post
chlorination the water sully to zonal pumping system but the chlorine demand decreases
by varying amount and the result of pipe line break and leakage of water may produce
infection, so the zonal pumping system is treated with super chlorination and then supply
to public placed .The residual limit of chlorine always required. 228; it is standard value
for purity.
 Hardness

Hardness is caused by the calcium and magnesium ions present in water.

Polyvalent ions of some other metals like strontium, iron, aluminium, zinc and
manganese etc. are also capable of precipitating the soap and thus contributing to
hardness. However, the concentration of these ions is very low in natural water, there for
hardness is generally measured as concentration of only calcium and magnesium
carbonate, which are for hire in quantities over other hardness producing ions.

Calcium and magnesium form a complex of wine red colour with erichrome black
T at pH of 10.0 0.1. The EDTA has got a stronger affinity towards Ca ++, and Mg++ and
therefore, by addition of EDTA, the former complex is broken down and a new complex
of blue colour is formed.

Reagents
Ammonia buffer solution
Erichrome black T indicater (0.5gm)
Standard EDTA solution 0.01M

Procedure
1. take 50ml of the sample in a conical flask. If the sample is turbid, alter and
proceed.
2. add 1ml ammonia buffer and 0.5gm Eriochrome black T of dry powder.
3. titrate with EDTA solution, till the colour changes from wine red to blue. Record
the ml of sample used
calculation-
hardness as mg/ltr (CaCO3) = ml of EDTA used X 1000
ml of sample

= 29X 1000
50

= 580 mg/l
 ALKALINITY

The alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to neutralize acids. the

alkalinity of natural water is due to the salts of carbonate, bicarbonate, borates, silicates
and phosphates; also with the hydroxyl ions in free states.

Principle- alkalinity is the directly determined by titration with 0.02 NH2SO4 using
phenophthlene and methyl orange indicator.

Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + 2H2O

2CaCO3 + H2SO4 Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca CO3
Ca(HCO3)2 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + 2CO2 + 2H2O

Reagents
phenophtalene indicator
Methyl orange
Sulphuric acid (0.02N)

Procedure
Take 50ml of sample in a 250ml conical flask
Add 2-3 drops of phenophthalene indicator (p-alkalinity)
Add 4-5 drops of methyl orange in 50ml sample. If a pink colour appears.(total alkalinity)
Then titrate with 0.02N sulphuric acid and at the end point colour changes from pink to
light pink colour
Calculation

Total alkelinity as (CaCO3) mg/l

= ml 0.02N H2SO4 for alkalinity end point X 1 X 1000
ml sample taken for titration

= 22 X 1000
50

= 440 mg/l
 CHLORIDE

Principle
Silver nitrate react with chloride to form very slightly soluble white precipitate of
AgCl. At end point when all the chloride get precipitated, free silver ions react with
chromate to form silver chromate of radish brown colour.

Reagents
1. potassium chromate - dissolve 5gm of K2CrO4 in 100 ml of distilled water.
2. Silver nitrate 0.02N dissolve 3.400 gm of dried AgNO3 in distilled water to
make a 1 leter of solution and keep in a dark bottle.

Procedure
1. Take 50 ml of sample in a conical flask and add 2 ml of K2CrO4
2. titrate the contents against 0.02N AgNO3 until a persistant red tinge appears.

Calculation
chloride mg/l = (ml X N) of AgNO3 X 1000
ml of the sample
= 16.5 X 1000
50
= 330 mg /l
 DISSOLVED OXYGEN

Principle
Dissolve oxygen varies in waste water in nature to large extent from the state of
no oxygen to saturation level. The saturation values changes with temperature, pressure,
attitude and chloride concentration. The test is very delicate for assessment of pollutional
load.

Reagents
1. Manganous sulphate
2. Alkaline potassium iodine solution
3. Sodium thiosulphate 0.025N
4. Starch indicator
5. Sulphuric acid

Procedure
Collect the sample in a narrow mouth flat Stoppard reagent bottle approximate
300 ml capacity. It is always preferable to collect the sample trough as such to avoid
contact with air (bottle should be completely filled and avoid any kind of bubbling).

Add 1.0 ml manganous sulphate solution by a pipette dipping the end blow the
surface.

Then add 1.0 ml potassium iodide solution. Insert the stopper and mix thoroughly
to let the precipitate settle.

After settling down of the precipitate, add 2.0 con. Sulphuric acid. Dissolve the
precipitate by vigorous shaking and then measure the amount of sample 203, as below
200 X exact capacity of bottle /exact capacity of bottle -4
=200 X 300 / 300-4
= 202.70
=203
Now titrate with sodium thiosulphate 0.025N solution using starch as indicator.
Records the ml of titrate used.
 BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

Principle
The dissolved oxygen content of the sample is determined before and after five
days at 20C. samples devoid of oxygen, or containing less amount of oxygen are dilute
several times with special types of dilution water saturated with oxygen in order to
provide sufficient amount of oxygen for oxidation.

Reagents
1. Calcium chloride solution
2. Magnesium sulphate solution
3. Ferric chloride solution
4. Phosphate buffer solution
5. Alkaline potassium iodide solution
6. Sodium Thio sulphate solution
7. Con. Sulphuric acid
8. Starch indicator

Procedure
Pre-treatment- if the pH of the sample is hot in the range of 6.5 8.5 added
sufficient amount of N.H2SO4 or N.NaOH. determine the amount of acid or alkali needed
on a separate aliquot of the sample.

If the sample contains any chlorine, dichlorinate using freshly prepared

sodium sulphate solution of 0.025N. determine the amount of sodium sulphate required
on a separate aliquot of the sample iodometric method.
 If the sample contains sulfite, sulfide, thiosulphate and polythionate a separate
procedure has to be followed. See the section immediate dissolved oxygen demand in
this chapter. Some sample may be super saturated with dissolved oxygen specially water
containing algae. The excess oxygen above saturation level in those sample has to be
removed by partly filling them in a bottle and then agitating at 20C or by aerating at
20C.
Algae laden samples must be filtered to remove algae and BOD should be done on
the filtered sample only, otherwise during incubation the algae may rot and escalate BOD
value.
To suppress nitrification in some samples, it is necessary to add 1.0 ml of
0.05% solution of alkyl thiourea/ltr of standard dilution water and BOD determination
can be preceded as usual but the result should be reported as BOD, nitrification
suppressed mg/ltr.
Samples that have been stored in refrigerator should be allowed to reach room
temperature before dilution are made. Sample must be thoroughly mixed before dilution.
Coarse suspended matter present in the sample usually causes difficulty.
Those sample should be shaken vigorously just before dilution are made.
Calculation
BOD mg/l = (B1 B2) (D1 D2) X 100
Taken sample of %

= (7.4 6.8) (7.6 7.4) X 100

10

= (0.6 0.2) X 100

10

= 4mg/l
 pH METER

Principle
The electrical resistance of hydrogen quimhydrone and antimony electrode is
low. pH cells consisting of these electrodes can be measured easily by principle
potentiometer. But if the cell contain glass electrode or if electrode is very small size,
very little current can be down from the cell to give the visible deflection of the
galvanometer need to establish the end point of balance.

The pH meter essentially an electronic volt meter of requisite sensitivity and

stability and provides a scale calibrate directly in pH units.

Requirements and reagents

1. Electro chemical cell a combination of two electrodes is called an electro
chemical cell. Such a cell converts chemical energy in to electrical energy.
2. Deniell cell a zinc strip is dipped in the ZnSO4 a solution. Copper strip is dipped
in the CuSO4 solution. Taken in separate beakers. The two metallic strips which
act as electrodes are connected by the connecting wires.
Two solution are joined by an inverted U tube is filtered with the solution
of some electrolyte such as KCl, KNO3 or NH4Cl.
The deflection in volt meter indicates that there is potential difference
between two electrodes. It found that the conventional current flow through the out
circuit from copper to zinc strip.
The electrode at which oxidation occurs is anode and that at which reduction
occurs is cathode Anode a source of electron and negative charge in the cell. Cathode it
acquire positive charge and become a receiver of electron.

Anode constitutes -ve terminal

Cathode constitutes +ve terminal
Buffer solution
Buffer solution usually consists of a mixture of weak acid or weak base the
solution has some reserve power of neutralizing acids or base and thus it maintain a
constant value of pH.
The higher concentration of the components of a buffer mixture than the greater is the
buffer capacity.

Procedure
0.1F standardized NaOH solution is used and pH meter is standardized with
standard buffer. The electrode are mixed with distilled water before planning them in
buffer solution.
An acid is taken in a 250 ml in a beaker. Dissolve the sample in 100 ml
distilled water. The electrode and titrate it against 0.1F NaOH solution. Take the readings
after each 0.5 to 1.0 ml increment. Now take the readings after each 0.1ml increment of
solution. continue the titration until the pH reaches 10 and increases slightly with
increased NaOH solution. Two titration are needed. The PK a the end point and molecular
weight and reaction ratio come them be determined from the graph.
 CHEMAL OXYGEN DEMAND

COD test is widely used for measuring the elution strength of waste water. All
organic compounds with a few exception can be oxidized to CO 2 and water by the action
of strong oxidizing agents regardless of biological associability of the substance.

Reagents --
Sulphiric acid
Ferroin indicator solution
Ferrous ammonium sulphate (0.25 N)
Potassium dichromate 0.25N
Sulfamic acid
Mercuric sulphate crystals

Procedureprecaution
Do not use de-ionized water for dilution as this may lead to high results because
of the organic matter content.
1. Shake the sample well, so that the contents are mixed thoroughly.

2. Place 50 ml or an aliquot in reflux flask. Add mercuric sulphate according to the

chloride concentration of the aliguote (i.e.) a ratio of 1:10 chloride ; mercuric
sulphate has to be added. For example, if the aliquot contains 10 mg chloride, add
100 mg mercuric sulphate mix well.

3. Measure suitable amount of sulphuric acid, silver sulphate reagent in a measuring

cylinder. The amount is equal to the sum of sample volume and dichromate
volume. For example if 50 ml aliquot is taken and 25ml dichromate is added,
then the amount of sulphuric acid , silver sulphate reagent to be added is 75ml.
4. from this amount initially transfer carefully and slowely 1.0mg only to the reflux
flask and mixed thoroughly to dissolve the mercuric sulphate. Cool while mixing
to avoid possible loss of volatile matter in the sample.

5. Pipette predetermined quantity of 0.25N or (0.025N) potassium dichromate

solution in to flask and mix well. Use 0.25N potassium dichromate solution for
samples having a COD of 50 mg/l .

6. Carefully add the remaining sulphuric acid silver sulphate reagent in the
measuring cylinder to the reflux flask, a little quantity at a time, cooling the flask
simultaneously under tap.

7. Add a few antibumping granules (already cleaned with sulphuric acid and rinsed
with distilled rater) and place the flask in position. Attach the condenser and start
the cooling water. Reflux for 2 hours or for a suitable small period as required.

8. Remove the flame, allow the flask to cool and wash the condenser with distilled
water in to the flask.

9. Transfer the contents of the flask to a 500 ml conical flask and dilute
appropriately with distilled water and cool it well. The final volume after dilution
should be about 2.5 times the volume of sample +dichromate +H2SO4.

10. Add 2-3 drops of ferroin indicator and titrate with 0.1N ferrous ammonium
sulphate solution. The end point is the sharp colour change from blue green to
raddish brown.

11. Conduct a blank using distilled water in place of sample. Note the titrate value.
 12. Standardize the ferrous ammonium sulphate solution, on each day of
determination as describe in the section Reagents.

Calculation-
(Blank titre value- sample titre value) X
Mg/l COD =Normality of ferrous ammonium sulphate X 8 X 1000
Ml samples taken for determination
= (A-B ) X C X 8 X1000
Taken sample
= 4 X 0.25 X 8 X 1000
50
160 mg/l ( COD )

A = ml FeSO4 (NH4)2 SO4 Use for blank

B = ml FeSO4 (NH4)2 SO2se for sample
C = Normality of FeSO4 (NH4)2 SO4
 FLUORIDES
SCOTTSANCHIS METHOD

Principle
fluoride decolorizes the zirconium alizarin complex and the decolorization is
proportional to fluoride concentration.
(Zr-alizarin lake ) + 6 F Alizarin + Zr (F6)2-
(Raddish colour) ( yellow)

Reagents
1. fluoride stock solution : See SPANDS METHOD

2. Fluoride standard See SPANDS METHOD

3. Acid zirconium Alizarin solution :-

a. Alizarin solution Dissolve 700 mg alizarin red (sodium alizarin
sulphonate) in 100ml distilled water.
b. Zirconyl chloride solution- dissolve 450mg zirconyl chloride
ZrOCl2.8H2O, in 100ml distilled water.
c. Sulphuric acid solution- add carefully with stirring 70ml concentration
H2SO4 to 700ml water in beaker and cool.
Pour solution (A) slowly into solution (B) and than add solution (c) and dilute to
1000ml. use the reagent only after four hours keep in dark.

4. Sodium arsenite solution dissolve 1.0g sodium arsenite in 100ml distilled water
keep it a tightly stopped bottle.
Procedure

1. Pipette 0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0, 10.0, 12.0, ml standard fluoride solution into 50
ml Nessler tube and make up to the mark with distilled water.

2. Place 50ml of the sample in a 50ml Nassler tube. If necessary suitable aliquots
may be taken and diluted 50ml (if the sample contains any suspended matter filter
through whatman number 42 or equivalent filter paper if the sample contain
residual chlorine add 0.1ml sodium arsenite solution to 50ml of the sample in the
Nessler tube and mix well).

3. Add 1.0ml acid zirconium alizarin solution to the standard and sample. Mix
well immediately and compare the colors after 20 minutes.
Express the result as mg fluoride(as F-) per letre of the sample.
 SURFAC E WATER ANALYSIS

River - Yamuna

Site - Water works

Rambagh, Agra

Date of sampling - 7th, July , 2008

Time of sampling - 10:00 AM

pH - 8.4

Colour - 134.2

Temperature - 35

TDS - 1600

Hardness - 134mg/l

Total Alkalinity - 124mg/l

Chlorides - 250mg/l

River - Yamuna
 Site - Water works
Rambagh, Agra

Date of sampling - 10 July 08

Time of sampling - 11AM

pH - 7.8

colour - 142

temperature - 30.5 C

TDS - 490

Hardness - 168 mg/l

Total Alkalinity - 168 mg/l

Chlorides - 150 mg/l

Comments

The water is highly polluted is clearly shown by low level of dissolve oxygen,
which should not be decreased by 4mg/l; and thus BOD is very high. The water is
harmful for the aquatic life and may it would not survive at all. the water also contains
high percentage of ammonia, suggest higher amount of faecial discharge and other
wastes. However, fluorides , hardness, chlorides, alkalinity, pH etc are within and near to
the normal range.
 GROUND WATER ANALYSIS

Site-Ist

Date - 8th,July, 2008

Source - Sumer Sewell

Place - Raibha, (Agra)

Site - Nagla lal Dass, Raibha

Depth of water label - 120 Feet

pH - 7.8

Hardness - 400mg/l

TDS - 840mg/l

Chloride - 250mg/l

Alkalinity - 350mg/l

Consumers health state No disorders are to be noticed among all family members.
 Site-II

Date - 10th,July, 2008

Source - Sumer Sewell

Place - Agra

Site - Arjun Nagar, Agra

Depth of water label - 110 Feet

pH - 8

Hardness - 640mg/l

TDS - 1520mg/l

Chloride - 290mg/l

Alkalinity - 600mg/l

Consumers health state This water is not for drinking purpose. Symptoms of the
water- toothache and gums swelling are seen in childrens, irritation after contact of water
with the skin. Joint pain and stomach troubles are to be noticed in adult members.
 MINERAL WATER ANALYSIS

Date - 14,July, 2008

Type - R.O. (Reverse of osmosis) system

pH - 7

Hardness - 70mg/l

TDS - 130mg/l

Chloride - 120mg/l

Alkalinity - 120mg/l