Electrical Power Transmission System and Network

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Electrical Power Transmission System

Electrical power is generated at different generating stations. These

generating stations are not necessarily situated at the load center.
During construction of generating station number of factors are to
be considered from economical point of view. These all factors may
not be easily available at load center; hence generating stations are
not normally situated very nearer to load center. Load center is the
place where maximum power is consumed. Hence there must be
some means by which the generated power must be transmitted to
the load center. Electrical transmission system is the means of
transmitting power from generating station to different load centers.

Factor to be Considered for Constructing a Generating Station

During planning of construction of generating station the following

factors to be considered for economical generation of electrical
power.

1. Easy availability of water for thermal power generating station.

2. Easy availability of land for construction of power station
including it's staff township.

3. For hydro power station there must be a dam on river. So proper

place on the river must be chosen in such a way that the
construction of the dam can be done in most optimum way.

4. For thermal power station easy availability of fuel is one of the

most important factors to be considered.

5. Better communication for goods as well as employees of the

power station also to be kept into consideration.

6. For transporting very big spare parts of turbines, alternators etc,

there must be wide road ways, train communication, and deep
and wide river must pass away nearby the power station.

7. For nuclear power plant, it must be situated in such a distance

from common location so that there may be any effect from
nuclear reaction the heath of common people.

Many other factors are also to be considered, but there are beyond
the scope of our discussion. All the factors listed above are very
difficult to be available at load center. The power station or
generating station must be situated where all the facilities are easily
available. This place may not be necessarily at the load center. The
power generated at generating station then transmitted to the load
center by means of electrical power transmission system as we said

earlier. The power generated at

generating station is in low voltage level as low voltage power
generation has some economical values. Low voltage power
generation is more economical than high voltage power generation.
At low voltage level, both weight and insulation is less in the
alternator, this directly reduces the cost and size of alternator. But
this low voltage level power can not be transmitted directly to the
consumer end as because this low voltage power transmission is not
at all economical. Hence although low voltage power generation is
economical but low voltage electrical power transmission is not
economical. Electrical power is directly proportional to the product
of electrical current and voltage of system. So for transmitting
certain electrical power from one place to another, if the voltage of
the power is increased then associated current of this power is
reduced. Reduced current means less I2R loss in the system, less
cross sectional area of the conductor means less capital involvement
and decreased current causes improvement in voltage regulation of
power transmission system and improved voltage regulation
indicates quality power. Because of these three reasons electrical
power mainly transmitted at high voltage level. Again at distribution
end for efficient distribution of the transmitted power, it is stepped
down to its desired low voltage level. So it can be concluded that
first the electrical power is generated at low voltage level then it
stepped up to high voltage for efficient transmission of electrical
energy. Lastly for distribution of electrical energy or power to
different consumers it is stepped down to desired low voltage level.
This brief discussion of electrical transmission system and network,
but now we will discussed little bit more details about transmission
of electrical energy.

Transmission of Electrical Energy

Fundamentally there are two systems by which electrical energy can

be transmitted.

1. High voltage DC electrical transmission system.

 2. High AC electrical transmission system.

There are some advantages in using DC transmission system-

Only two conductor are required for DC transmission system.

It is further possible to use only one conductor of DC
transmission system if earth is utilized as return path of the
system.

The potential stress on the insulator of DC transmission system

is about 70 % of same voltage AC transmission system. Hence,
less insulation cost is involved in DC transmission system.

Inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge

problems can be eliminated in DC system.

Even having these advantages in DC system, generally electrical

energy is transmitted by three(3) phase AC transmission system.

The alternating voltages can easily be stepped up and down,

which is not possible in DC transmission system.

Maintenance of AC substation is quite easy and economical

compared to DC.

The transforming of power in AC electrical sub station is much

easier than motor-generator sets in DC system.
But AC transmission system also has some disadvantages like,

The volume of conductor used in AC system is much higher

than that of DC.

The reactance of the line, affects the voltage regulation of

electrical power transmission system.

Problems of skin effects and proximity effects only found in AC

system.

AC transmission system is more likely to be affected by corona

effect than DC system.

Construction of AC electrical power transmission network is

more completed than DC system.

Proper synchronizing is required before inter connecting two

or more transmission lines together, synchronizing can totally
be omitted in DC transmission system.

Transmission Line in Power System

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What is transmission Line?

Transmission line is the long conductor with special design

(bundled) to carry bulk amount of generated power at very high
voltage from one station to another as per variation of the voltage
level.

Type of transmission Line

In transmission line determination of voltage drop, transmission

efficiency, line loss etc. are important things to design. These values
are affected by line parameter R, L and C of the transmission line.
Length wise transmission lines are three types.

Short Transmission Line

Length is about 50 km.

Voltage level is up to 20 kV

Capacitance effect is negligible

Only resistance and inductance are taken in calculation

capacitance is neglected.
Medium Transmission Line

Length is about 50km to 150km

Operational voltage level is from 20 kV to 100 kV

Capacitance effect is present

Distributed capacitance form is used for calculation purpose.

Long Transmission Line

Length is more than 150 km

Voltage level is above 100 kV

Line constants are considered as distributed over the length of

the line.

What is the Transmission Efficiency?

Transmission efficiency is defined as the ration of receiving end

power PR to the sending end power PS and it is expressed in

percentage value. coss is the

sending end power factor. cosR is the receiving end power factor. Vs
is the sending end voltage per phase. VR is the receiving end voltage
per phase.

What is Transmission Line Voltage Regulation

Voltage regulation of transmission line is defined as the ratio of

difference between sending and receiving end voltage to receiving
end voltage of a transmission line between conditions of no load and

full load. It is also expressed in percentage.

Where Vs is the sending end voltage per phase and VR is the
receiving end voltage per phase.

XL is the reactance per

phase. R is the resistance per phase. cosR is the receiving end power
factor. Effect of load power factor on regulation of transmission line:

1. For lagging load

2. For leading load

Now
 Power factor is lagging or unity, and then VR is increased and
goes to be positive.

Power factor is leading, and then VR is decreased and goes to

be negative.

Effect of Load Power Factor on Efficiency of Transmission Line

We know efficiency of transmission line is

Now, for short transmission

line, IR = IS = I So, considering three phase short transmission line,

So, Now it is clear that to transmit

given amount of power, the load current is inversely proportional to
receiving end power factor. Again in case of medium and long
transmission line,

Here it is clear that transmission efficiency depends on the receiving

end power factor.
What is End Condenser Method in Medium Transmission Line?

In this method capacitance is assumed to be lumped at receiving

end. One phase is shown below.

Here IR is the
receiving end load current per phase, R is the resistance per phase,
XL is the inductive reactance per phase, C is the capacitance per
phase, cosR is the receiving end lagging power factor, VS is the

sending end voltage. Let us assume, as the reference phasor,

Load current at receiving end

 The capacitive current

Now,

Now,

and

What is Nominal T Method in Medium Transmission Line?

Total capacitance of the line is assumed to be concentrated at the

middle point of the line, and at both side half of line resistance and
inductance is lumped.
Here, IR is the receiving end load current per phase, R is the
resistance per phase, XL is the inductive reactance per phase, C is
the capacitance per phase, cosR is the receiving end lagging power
factor, VS is the sending end voltage. V1 is the voltage across the
capacitor. Voltage across Capacitor C,

Capacitive current

Sending end current Sending end

voltage

What is Nominal Method in Medium Transmission Line?

In this method total line capacitance is assumed to be lumped and
divided into two halves to be connected across sending end and
receiving end respectively. Total line resistance and inductance are
assumed to be present in middle of the line.

Here IR is the
receiving end load current per phase, R is the resistance per phase,
XL is the inductive reactance per phase, C is the capacitance per
phase, cosR is the receiving end lagging power factor, VS is the

sending end voltage. Let us assume, as the reference phasor,

Load current at receiving end

The capacitive current at load end Line

current Sending end voltage,

Charging current at the sending

end is Sending End current is

What is Nominal T Method in Medium Transmission Line?

In this method the whole line capacitance is assumed to be

concentrated at the middle point of the line and half the line
resistance and reactance are lumped on its either side. Therefore in
this arrangement full charging current flows over half the line.

Voltage in Power Electric Lines

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In generating station electrical power is generated at medium
voltage level that ranges from 11 kV to 25 kV. This generated power
is sent to the generating step up transformer to make the voltage
level higher. From this point to the user end voltage level varies in
different levels. We can realize this voltage level variation step by
step.

At 11 kV or more than that up to 25 kV voltage level is

maintained at alternator stator terminals to generate electrical
power in the generating station.

This generated power is fed to the generating step up

transformer to make this medium voltage level to higher level,
i.e. up to 33 kV.

Power at 33 kV is sent to the generating substation. There the

transformer increases the voltage level to 66 kV or 132 kV.

From this generating substation power is sent to the nearer

substation to increase the voltage level higher than previous.
This level of voltage is increased at different suitable levels, it
may be at 400 kV or 765 kV or 1000 kV. This high voltage or
extra high voltage level is maintained to transmit the power to
a long distant substation. It is call primary transmission of
power.

At the end point of primary transmission of power, in the

substation, the step down transformers are used to step down
 the voltage level to 132 kV. Secondary transmission of power
starts from this substation.

Power transformer at the end of the secondary transmission,

just makes 132 kV voltage level steps down to 33 kv or 11 kV as
per requirement. From this point, primary distribution of
power starts to distribute power to different distribution
stations.

At the end of primary distribution, the distribution stations

receive this power and step down this voltage level of 11 kV or
33 kV to 415 V (Line Voltage). From these distribution stations
to consumer ends, 415 V is kept to sustain for utilization
purpose.

Type of Power Lines

From the very beginning of power generation to the user end

transmission lines are broadly classified based on different voltage
levels.

Why High Voltage is used for Long Transmission Line?

Generally long distant transmission lines are designed to operate at

high voltage, extra high or ultra high voltage level. It is because of
line power loss reduction purpose. Practically long distant
transmission line resistance is comparatively more than medium and
short transmission line. Due to this higher valued transmission line
resistance considerable amount of power is lost. So we need to
decrease the amount of current through each conductor by making
the operating voltage very high for same amount of power
transmission. We know that the power in AC system to transmit is

Total power loss PLoss = 3IL2R

considering three phases altogether. R is the resistance in ohm per
phase of the transmission line. Now, rearranging Equation (1) we

get, So,

Again in DC system, there is no phase difference between voltage

and current, i.e. cos = 1, and only two conductors (positive and
negative) are used. So, in DC system transmitted power P = VI, and

power loss From equation (2) and (3), it is

clear that power loss in transmission line is inversely proportional to
the square of line voltage. The higher value of line voltage the lesser
amount of power loss occurs. Hence transmission line conductor is
used with less diameter, hence savings of conductor material.

Why HVAC is Used for Long Transmission Line?

Now a days electrical energy is generated, transmitted and

distributed in AC form. Especially for long distant transmission line
High Voltage AC is transmitted for several reasons, they are:
 1. AC voltage can be stepped up or down as per requirement
easily by transformer.

2. Maintenance of AC substation is easy and cheaper.

3. Throughout electrical power system AC voltage is handled. So

no extra hazard of rectification or inversion like DC voltage
transmission.

Why HVDC is Used for Long Transmission Line?

High Voltage DC is used at extra or ultra high voltage level. HVDC

transmission is used at fixed level of voltage in primary transmission
only as it cannot be stepped up or down by transformer. Only in
long distant transmission line it is used only, because

1. Only two conductors (positive and negative) are required as

compared to three of AC transmission..

2. Absence of inductance, capacitance and phase displacement

power loss is very less. Hence better voltage regulation.

3. Surge problem never occurs.

4. No skin effect.

5. Less insulation requires due to less potential stress.

 6. Less corona effect, thus less power loss.

7. Highly stabilized and synchronized.

Why Low and Medium Voltage is Used in Distribution Line?

In primary distribution, power is handled at 11 kV or 33 kV. As

voltage level gets stepped down from 132 kV to 11 kV or 33 kV,
current level gets higher valued. But this high valued current
distributed among various local distribution stations (distribution
transformers) nearby. These distribution transformers again steps
down the voltage to 415 V. It is because; Power at 415 V is used at
the user end. Distance between these distribution transformers and
the primary distribution stations is very short, hence conductor
resistance is not large. Very small amount of power is lost in this
section.

Disadvantages of AC or HVAC Transmission

The main disadvantages of AC transmission are

1. AC lines require more conductor material than DC.

2. AC transmission line construction is more complicated than

DC.
 3. Effective resistance is increased due to skin effect, hence power
loss.

4. Continuous power loss due to charging current because of line

capacitance.

Disadvantages of DC or HVDC Transmission

The main disadvantages of DC transmission are

1. Electric power is not generated in HVDC form due to

commutation problem. Only HVDC is achieved for
transmission from HVAC by rectification. So special
arrangement is required for this conversion.

2. DC voltage cannot be stepped up or down for transmission.

3. DC switches and circuit breakers are expensive and with

certain limitations.

Sag in Overhead Conductor

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What is Sag?
Sag is defined as the different in level between points of supports
and the lowest point on the conductor.

Here
AOB is the transmission line conductor. Two supports are at point A
and at point B. AB is the horizontal line and from this horizontal
line to point O, S is the sag when measured vertically.

Why Sag Provision is Mandatory in Transmission Line Conductors?

Sag is mandatory in transmission line conductor suspension. The

conductors are attached between two supports with perfect value of
sag. It is because of providing safety of the conductor from not to be
subjected to excessive tension. In order to permit safe tension in the
conductor, conductors are not fully stretched; rather they are
allowed to have sag.

If the conductor is stretched fully during installation, wind exerts

pressure on the conductor, hence conductor gets chance to be broken
or detached from its end support. Thus sag is allowed to have during
conductor suspension. Some important points are to be mentioned:

1. When same leveled two supports hold the conductor, bend

shape arises in the conductor. Sag is very small with respect to
the span of the conductor.

2. Sag span curve is like parabolic.

3. The tension in each point of the conductor acts always

tangentially.
 4. Again the horizontal component of the tension of conductor is
constant throughout conductor length.

5. The tension at supports is nearly equal to the tension at any

point of the conductor.

How to Calculate Sag?

Sag calculation is classified on two conditions.

1. When supports are at equal levels

2. When supports are not at equal levels

Now let us start discussion on two conditions.

Sag calculation for supports are at equal levels

Suppose,
AOB is the conductor. A and B are points of supports. Point O is the
lowest point and the midpoint. Let, L = length of the span, i.e. AB w
is the weight per unit length of the conductor T is the tension in the
conductor. We have chosen any point on conductor, say point P. The
distance of point P from Lowest point O is x. y is the height from
point O to point P. Equating two moments of two forces about point
O as per the figure above we get,

Sag
calculation for supports are at unequal levels

Suppose AOB is the conductor that has point O as the lowest point.
L is the Span of the conductor. h is the difference in height level
between two supports. x1 is the distance of support at the lower level
point A from O. x2is the distance of support at the upper level point
B from O. T is the tension of the conductor. w is the weight per unit
length of the conductor. Now,
 So, having calculated the
value of x1 and x2, we can easily find out the value of sag S1 and
sagS2. The above formulae are used to calculate sag when the
conductor is in still air and ambient temperature is normal. Hence
the weight of the conductor is its own weight.

What is the Effect of Ice and Wind on Sag?

The weight per unit length of the conductor is changed when

wind blows at a certain force on the conductor and ice
accumulate around the conductor.
 Wind force acts on the conductor to change the conductor self
weight per unit length horizontally in the direction of the air
flow.

Ice loading acts on the conductor to change the conductor self

weight per unit length vertically downward.

Considering wind force and ice loading both at a time, the

conductor will have a resultant weight per unit length.

The resultant weight will create an angle with the ice loading
down ward direction.

Let us assume, w is the weight of the conductor per unit length. w i is

the weight of ice per unit length wi= density of ice volume of ice

per unit length

 ww is the force of wind per
unit length ww = wind pressure per unit area projected area per
unit length

So, the total weight of the conductor per

unit length is

The sag in the conductor is

given by So the vertical sag

Types of Overhead Conductor

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Conductor is a physical medium to carry electrical energy form one
place to other. It is an important component of overhead and
underground electrical transmission and distribution systems. The
choice of conductor depends on the cost and efficiency. An ideal
conductor has following features.

1. It has maximum conductivity

2. It has high tensile strength

3. It has least specific gravity i.e. weight / unit volume

4. It has least cost without sacrificing other factors

Types of Overhead Conductor

In early days copper Cu was used for transmitting energy in

stranded hard drawn form to increase tensile strength. But now it
has been replaced by aluminum Al due to following reasons:

1. It has lesser cost than copper.

2. It offers larger diameter for same amount of current which

reduces corona.

Corona: is ionization of air due to higher voltage (usually voltage

above critical voltage) which causes violating light around the
conductor and hissing sound. It also produce ozone gas therefor it is
undesirable condition

Aluminium also has some disadvantages over copper i.e.

1. It has lesser conductivity

2. It has larger diameter which increase surface area to air

pressure thus it swings more in air than copper so larger cross
arms required which increases the cost.

3. It has lesser tensile strength ultimately larger sag

4. It has lesser specific gravity (2.71gm/cc) than copper (8.9

gm/cc) cc = cubic centimeter

Due to lower tensile strength aluminium is used with some other

materials or its alloys

AAC (All Aluminium Conductor)

It has lesser strength and more sag per span length than any
other category

Therefore, it is used for lesser span i.e. it is applicable at

distribution level
 It has slightly better conductivity at lower voltages than ACSR
i.e. at distribution level

Cost of ACSR is equal to AAC.

ACAR (Aluminium Conductor, Aluminium Reinforce)

It is cheaper than AAAC but pro to corrosion.

It is most expansive.

AAAC (All Aluminium Alloy Conductor)

It has same construction as AAC except the alloy.

Its strength is equal to ACSR but due to absence of steel it is

light in weight.

The presence of formation of alloy makes it expensive.

Due to stronger tensile strength than AAC, it is used for longer

spans.
 It can be used in distribution level i.e. river crossing.

It has lesser sag than AAC.

The difference between ACSR and AAAC is the weight. Being

lighter in weight, it is used in transmission and sub-
transmission where lighter support structure is required such
as mountains, swamps etc.

ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced)

It is used for longer spans keeping sag minimum.

It may consists of 7 or 19 strands of steel surrounding by

aluminium strands concentrically. The number of strands are
shown by x/y/z, where x is number of aluminium strands, y
is number of steel strands and z is diameter of each strand.
 Strands provide flexibility, prevent breakage and minimize
skin effect.

The number of strands depends on the application, they may

be 7, 19, 37, 61, 91 or more.

If the Al and St strands are separated by a filler such as paper

then this kind of ACSR is used in EHV lines and called
expanded ACSR.

Expanded ACSR has larger diameter and hence lower corona

losses.

IACS (International Annealed Copper Stand)

It is 100 % pure conductor and it is standard for reference.

Types of Electrical Insulator | Overhead Insulator

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There are mainly three types of insulator used as overhead insulator
likewise

1. Pin Insulator
 2. Suspension Insulator

3. Strain Insulator

In addition to that there are other two types of electrical insulator

available mainly for low voltage application, e.i. Stay Insulator and
Shackle Insulator.

Pin Insulator

Pin Insulator is earliest developed overhead insulator, but still

popularly used in power network up to 33 KV system. Pin type
insulator can be one part, two parts or three parts type, depending
upon application voltage. In 11 KV system we generally use one part
type insulator where whole pin insulator is one piece of properly
shaped porcelain or glass. As the leakage path of insulator is
through its surface, it is desirable to increase the vertical length of
the insulator surface area for lengthening leakage path.

In order to obtain lengthy leakage path, one, tow or more rain sheds or
petticoats are provided on the insulator body. In addition to that rain
shed or petticoats on an insulator serve another purpose. These rain
sheds or petticoats are so designed, that during raining the outer surface
of the rain shed becomes wet but the inner surface remains dry and non-
conductive. So there will be discontinuations of conducting path through
the wet pin insulator surface. In higher voltage like 33KV and 66KV
manufacturing of one part porcelain pin insulator becomes difficult.
Because in higher voltage, the thickness of the insulator become more
and a quite thick single piece porcelain insulator can not manufactured
practically. In this case we use multiple part pin insulator, where a
number of properly designed porcelain shells are fixed together by
Portland cement to form one complete insulator unit. For 33KV tow
parts and for 66KV three parts pin insulator are generally used.

Designing Consideration of Electrical Insulator

The live conductor attached to the top of the pin insulator is at a
potential and bottom of the insulator fixed to supporting structure
of earth potential. The insulator has to withstand the potential
stresses between conductor and earth. The shortest distance between
conductor and earth, surrounding the insulator body, along which
electrical discharge may take place through air, is known as flash
over distance.

1. When insulator is wet, its outer surface becomes almost

conducting. Hence the flash over distance of insulator is
decreased. The design of an electrical insulator should be such
that the decrease of flash over distance is minimum when the
insulator is wet. That is why the upper most petticoat of a pin
insulator has umbrella type designed so that it can protect, the
rest lower part of the insulator from rain. The upper surface of
top most petticoat is inclined as less as possible to maintain
maximum flash over voltage during raining.

2. To keep the inner side of the insulator dry, the rain sheds are
made in order that these rain sheds should not disturb the
voltage distribution they are so designed that their subsurface
at right angle to the electromagnetic lines of force.

Post Insulator
 Post insulator is more or less similar to
Pin insulator but former is suitable for higher voltage application.
Post insulator has higher numbers of petticoats and has greater
height. This type of insulator can be mounted on supporting
structure horizontally as well as vertically. The insulator is made of
one piece of porcelain but has fixing clamp arrangement are in both
top and bottom end. The main differences between pin insulator and
post insulator are,
SL Pin Insulator Post Insulator
It is generally used up to It is suitable for lower voltage and
1
33KV system also for higher voltage
It can be single stag as well as
2 It is single stag
multiple stags
Conductor is fixed on the top of
Conductor is fixed on the top
3 the insulator with help of
of the insulator by binding
connector clamp
4 Two insulators cannot be Two or more insulators can be
 fixed together for higher fixed together one above other for
voltage application higher voltage application
Metallic fixing arrangement Metallic fixing arrangement
4 provided only on bottom end provided on both top and bottom
of the insulator ends of the insulator

Suspension Insulator

In higher voltage, beyond

33KV, it becomes uneconomical to use pin insulator because size,
weight of the insulator become more. Handling and replacing bigger size
single unit insulator are quite difficult task. For overcoming these
difficulties, suspension insulator was developed. In suspension insulator
numbers of insulators are connected in series to form a string and the
line conductor is carried by the bottom most insulator. Each insulator of
a suspension string is called disc insulator because of their disc like
shape.

Advantages of Suspension Insulator

1. Each suspension disc is designed for normal voltage rating 11KV

(Higher voltage rating 15KV), so by using different numbers of
discs, a suspension string can be made suitable for any voltage
level.

2. If any one of the disc insulators in a suspension string is damaged,

it can be replaced much easily.
3. Mechanical stresses on the suspension insulator is less since the
line hanged on a flexible suspension string.

4. As the current carrying conductors are suspended from supporting

structure by suspension string, the height of the conductor position
 is always less than the total height of the supporting structure.
Therefore, the conductors may be safe from lightening.

Disadvantages of Suspension Insulator

1. Suspension insulator string costlier than pin and post type

insulator.

2. Suspension string requires more height of supporting structure

than that for pin or post insulator to maintain same ground
clearance of current conductor.

3. The amplitude of free swing of conductors is larger in

suspension insulator system, hence, more spacing between
conductors should be provided.

Strain Insulator

When suspension string is used to sustain extraordinary tensile load

of conductor it is referred as string insulator. When there is a dead
end or there is a sharp corner in transmission line, the line has to
sustain a great tensile load of conductor or strain. A strain insulator
must have considerable mechanical strength as well as the necessary
electrical insulating properties.

Rated Number of disc insulator Number of disc insulator

System used in strain type tension used in suspension
Voltage insulator string insulator string
33KV 3 3
66KV 5 4
132KV 9 8
220KV 15 14

Stay Insulator
 For low voltage lines, the
stays are to be insulated from ground at a height. The insulator used
in the stay wire is called as the stay insulator and is usually of
porcelain and is so designed that in case of breakage of the insulator
the guy-wire will not fall to the ground.

Shackle Insulator or Spool Insulator

The shackle insulator or spool insulator is usually used in low

voltage distribution network. It can be used both in horizontal and
vertical position. The use of such insulator has decreased recently
after increasing the using of underground cable for distribution
purpose. The tapered hole of the spool insulator distributes the load
more evenly and minimizes the possibility of breakage when heavily
loaded. The conductor in the groove of shackle insulator is fixed
with the help of soft binding wire.

Long Transmission Line

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A power transmission line with its effective length of around 250
Kms or above is referred to as a long transmission line. Calculations
related to circuit parameters (ABCD parameters) of such a power
transmission is not that simple, as was the case for a short
transmission line or medium transmission line.The reason being
that, the effective circuit length in this case is much higher than
what it was for the former models (long and medium line) and, thus
ruling out the approximations considered there like.

1. Ignoring the shunt admittance of the network, like in a small

transmission line model.

2. Considering the circuit impedance and admittance to be

lumped and concentrated at a point as was the case for the
medium line model.

Rather, for all practical reasons we should consider the circuit

impedance and admittance to be distributed over the entire circuit
length as shown in the figure below. The calculations of circuit
parameters for this reason is going to be slightly more rigorous as
we will see here. For accurate modeling to determine circuit
parameters let us consider the circuit of the long transmission line as
shown in the diagram below.

Here a
line of length l > 250km is supplied with a sending end voltage and
current of VS and IS respectively, where as the VR and IR are the
values of voltage and current obtained from the receiving end. Lets
us now consider an element of infinitely small length x at a distance
x from the receiving end as shown in the figure where.

V = value of voltage just before entering the element x. I = value of

current just before entering the element x. V+V = voltage leaving
the element x. I+I = current leaving the element x. V = voltage
drop across element x. zx = series impedence of element x yx =
shunt admittance of element x Where, Z = z l and Y = y l are the
values of total impedance and admittance of the long transmission
line. Therefore, the voltage drop across the infinitely small element

x is given by Now to determine the current

I, we apply KCL to node A. I = (V+V)yx = V yx + V yx
Since the term V yx is the product of 2 infinitely small values, we
can ignore it for the sake of easier calculation. Therefore, we can
write dI dx = V y -----------------(2) Now derivating both sides of eq
(1) w.r.t x, d2 V d x2 = z dI dx Now substituting dI dx = V y from
equation (2) d2 V d x2 = zyV or d2 V d x2 zyV = 0 ------------(3) The
solution of the above second order differential equation is given by.
V = A1 exyz + A2 exyz --------------(4) Derivating equation (4) w.r.to x.
dV/dx = (yz) A1 exyz (yz)A2 exyz ------------(5) Now comparing

equation (1) with equation (5)

Now to go further let us define the characteristic impedance Z c and
propagation constant of a long transmission line as Zc = (z/y)
= (yz) Then the voltage and current equation can be expressed in
terms of characteristic impedance and propagation constant as V =
A1 ex + A2 ex -----------(7) I = A1/ Zc ex + A2 / Zc ex ---------------(8)
Now at x=0, V= VR and I= Ir. Substituting these conditions to
equation (7) and (8) respectively. VR = A1 + A2 ---------------(9) IR = A1/
Zc + A2 / Zc ---------------(10) Solving equation (9) and (10), We get
values of A1 and A2 as, A1 = (VR + ZCIR) 2 And A1 = (VR ZCIR) 2
Now applying another extreme condition at x=l, we have V = V S and
I = IS. Now to determine VS and IS we substitute x by l and put the
values of A1 and A2 in equation (7) and (8) we get VS = (VR + ZC
IR)el 2 + (VR ZC IR)el/2 --------------(11) IS = (VR ZC + IR)el/2 (VR /
ZC IR)el/2--------------- (12) By trigonometric and exponential
operators we know sinh l = (el el) 2 And cosh l = (e l + el) 2
Therefore, equation(11) and (12) can be re-written as VS = VRcosh l
+ ZC IR sinh l IS = (VR sinh l)/ZC + IRcosh l Thus comparing with
the general circuit parameters equation, we get the ABCD
parameters of a long transmission line as, A = cosh l B = ZC sinh l
C = sinh l ZC D = cosh l

Types of Capacitor Bank

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Unit of a capacitor bank is normally called capacitor unit. The
capacitor units are manufactured as single phase unit. These single
phase units are connected in star or delta to farm a complete 3 phase
capacitor bank. Although some rare manufacturers manufacture 3
phase capacitor unit but normally available capacitor units are
single phase type. The

1. Externally fused capacitor bank.

2. Internally fused capacitor bank.

3. Fuse less capacitor bank.

Let us discuss these types of capacitor bank one by one.

Externally Fused Capacitor Bank

In this type of capacitor bank, the fuse unit is provided to each

capacitor unit externally. On fault in any unit the externally
provided fuse of that unit will be blown out. As the fusing system
disconnects the faulty capacitor unit, the bank will continue its
service without any interruption. In this type of capacitor units are
connected in parallel. As there are several capacitor units connected
parallelly per phase of the capacitor bank, on failure of one unit,
there will be not much affect on performance of entire bank. As one
capacitor unit is missing in one phase the capacitance of that phase
will be lower than that of other two phases. This will result higher
voltage in other two phases of the bank. If the capacity of one
capacitor unit in a bank is low enough then in absence of any unit in
the bank there will not be much voltage unbalance. This is why the
VAR rating per capacitor unit in a bank is restricted up to a
specified limit. In the externally fused capacitor bank, the faulty
unit can easily be identified by identifying blown out fuse unit
through visual inspection. The rating of capacitor unit is typically
from 50 KVAR to 40 KVAR. The main drawback of this type of
capacitor bank is that, on failure of any fuse unit, there will be
unbalance sensed, even all capacitor units of the bank are healthy.

Interally Fused Capacitor Bank

The entire capacitor bank is constructed in a single arrangement. As

per rating of entire bank, several capacitor elements are connected
parallel and series. Each of the capacitor elements is individually
protected with fuse unit. As the fuses and capacitor elements are
placed inside same casing, the bank is called internally fused
capacitor bank. In this type of capacitor bank, each capacitor
element is very small in ratings, so that if any of the elements are out
of service, there will be no remarkable affect in the performance of
the bank. Internally fused capacitor bank can run satisfactorily even
more than one capacitor elements are out of service. The main
drawback of this bank is that, on failure of many number of
capacitor elements, the entire bank is to be replaced. There is no
scope of single unit replacement. The main advantages is that, it is
quite easy to install and also easy to maintain.

Fuse Less Capacitor Bank

In this type of capacitor bank required number of fuse units is

connected in series to farm a capacitor string. Then required
number of required number of these strings is connected in parallel
to farm capacitor bank per phase. Then three similar per phase
bank are connected in star or delta to farm entire 3 phase capacitor
bank. The units of the capacitor strings are not at all protected by
any internal or external fusing arrangement. In this system, if one of
the unit of a string fails due to short circuit, there will be no
remarkable change in current through this string as there are many
other capacitor connected in series along this path. As the effect of
short circuited unit in the string is small enough, the bank can be
run up to prolong time before replacement of faulty unit. This is the
reason, why fuse is not required to isolate the faulty unit from the
system in this type of capacitor bank immediately after unit becomes
faulty.

Advantages of Fuse Less Capacitor Bank

The main advantages of fuse less capacitor bank are,

1. They are less expensive then fused capacitor banks.

2. They require less space compared to fused capacitor bank.

3. Less chance of bird fault, snake fault or rat fault as the inter
connecting wire can be insulated properly in fuse less capacitor
bank.

Disadvantages of Fuse Less Capacitor Bank

There are also some disadvantages of fuse less capacitor bank.

1. Any earth fault in the bank, unit, such as bushing fault,

insulation failure between tank and live part of the capacitor,
should be cleared immediately by tripping of circuit brake
associated with this bank as there is no provision of any fuse.

2. For replacement of any capacitor unit, only identical spare is

required. It cannot be managed by available standard
capacitor unit. So, there must be sufficient stock of identical
capacitor units available at site which is an extra investment.

3. Some time it becomes difficult to locate actual faulty unit of the

bank only by visual inspections. Then the time required to
replace actual faulty unit will be higher.
 4. Sophisticated relay and control system are essential for fuse
less capacitor bank. The relay system of the bank should also
be capable of tripping the circuit breaks associated with it in
the event of input power failure to the relay.

5. External reactor is required to limit transient current in the

capacitor.

Testing of Electrical Power Cable | Type Test | Acceptance Test |

Routine Test

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1. The following tests are type test of electrical power cable.

1. Persulphate test (for copper )

2. Annealing test (for copper)

3. Tensile test (for Aluminium)

4. Wrapping test (for Aluminium)

5. Conductor resistance test (for all)

6. Test for thickness of insulation (for all)

 7. Measurement of overall diameter (where specified)(for
all)

Physical tests for for insulation and sheath

1. Tensile strength and elongation at break

2. Ageing in air oven

3. Ageing in air bomb

4. Ageing in oxygen bomb

5. Hot set

6. Oil resistance

7. Tear resistance

8. Insulation resistance

9. High voltage (water immersion) test

10. Flammability test (only for SE-3, SE-4)

11. Water abortion test (for insulation)

2. Acceptance test: The following shall constitute acceptance test:

1. Annealing test (for copper)

 2. Tensile test (for Aluminium )

3. Wrapping test (for Aluminium )

4. Conductor resistance test

5. Test for thickness of insulation and sheath and overall

diameter

6. Tensile strength and Elongation at break of insulation

and heath

7. Hot set test for insulation and sheath

8. High voltage test

9. Insulation resistance test

3. Routine test: The following shall constitute the routine test.

1. Conductor resistance test

2. High voltage test

3. Insulation resistance test

High Voltage Test (Water Immersion Test) : Approximate 3 meters

long core is removed as sample from the finished cable or cord. The
sample then is so immersed in a water bath at room temperature
that its ends protrude at least 200 mm above the water level. After
24 hours , an alternating voltage of required level is applied between
conductor and water . This voltage is raised as per requirement
within 10 sec and hold constant at this value for 5 min. If the sample
fails in this test, one more sample can be subjected to this test. Test
on completed cables (Acceptance and routine test) : This test shall
be carried out between conductors or between conductor and screen
/ armour. The test shall be carried out on required voltage .the test
shall be carried out at room temperature and the time of application
shall be 5 min .no failure of Insulation shall be occur.

Flammability test : Period of burning after removal of the flame

shall not exceed 60 sec. And the unaffected portion from the lower
edge of the top clamp shall be at least 50 mm.

Electrical Power Cable

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Cables are mainly designed as per requirement. Power cables are
mainly used for power transmission and distribution purpose. It is
an assembly of one or more individually insulated electrical
conductors, usually held together with an overall sheath. The
assembly is used for transmission and distribution of electrical
power. Electrical power cables may be installed as permanent
wiring within buildings, buried in the ground and run overhead or
exposed. Flexible power cables are used for portable devices, mobile
tools and machinery. These are designed and manufactured as per
voltage, current to be carried, operating maximum temperature and
purpose of applications desired by customer. For mining, we give
extra mechanical strength to cable with double armouring. For wind
power plant customers generally require flexible and UV protected
cable with mechanical tough sheath so we design as per their
requirement.

Rating of Power Cable

Short Circuit Rating

It happens frequently that the conductor size necessary for an

installation is dictated by its ability to carry short-circuit current
rather than sustained current. During a short circuit, there is a
sudden inrush of current for a few cycles followed by a steadier flow
of current for a short period until the protection switchgear
operators, normally between 0.1-0.3 seconds
Operating Short
Conductor Size Insulation
Maximum Circuit
and Material Material
Temperature Rating
120 sq-mm Copper PVC 13.80
70 C
conductor Insulation KA/SEC
120 sq-mmPVC 70 C 9.12
Aluminium
Insulation KA/SEC
conductor
120 sq-mm Copper PVC 12.48
85 C
conductor Insulation KA/SEC
120 sq-mm
PVC 8.28
Aluminium 85 C
Insulation KA/SEC
conductor

Current Carrying Capacity

Current carrying capacity is an important aspect is the selection of

the optimum size of conductor. Voltage drop and short rating is also
very important aspect to select the economical and optimum size of
conductor.
Continous Current Rating of (Cables 2 Core 16 2 Core 25
laid singly) mm2 mm2
(i) In Ground (Ground Temp 30C) 103 A 131 A
(ii) In Duct (Ground Temp 30C) 86 A 111 A
(iii) In Air (Ambient AirTemp 40C) 94 A 125 A

Voltage Drop

The allowable maximum voltage drops from source to load is

another aspect of power cable conductor design. As per Ohm's law,
V = IR. The first is the choice of material used for the wire. Copper
is a better conductor than aluminium and will have less voltage drop
than aluminium for a given length and wire size. Wire size is
another important factor in determining voltage drop. Larger wire
sizes (those with a greater diameter) will have less voltage drop than
smaller wire sizes of the same length. In American wire gauge, every
6 gauge decrease gives a doubling of the wire diameter, and every 3
gauge decrease doubles the wire cross sectional area. In the Metric
Gauge scale, the gauge is 10 times the diameter in millimetres, so a
50 gauge metric wire would be 5 mm in diameter.

Construction of Power Cable

There are various parts of a cable to be taken care of during

construction. The power cable mainly consists of

1. Conductor

2. Insulation

3. LAY for Multicore cables only

4. Bedding

5. Beading/Armouring (if required)

6. Outer Sheath
Conductor

Conductors are the only power carrying path in a power cable.

Conductors are of different materials. Mainly in cable industry we
use copper (ATC, ABC) and aluminium conductors for power
cables. There are different types of conductor as Class 1: solid, Class
2 stranded, Class 5 flexible, Class 6 Extra flexible (Mostly used for
cords and welding) etc. Conductor sizes are identified with
conductor resistance.

Insulation

The insulation provided on each conductor of a cable by mainly

PVC (Poly Vinyl Cloride), XLPE (Crosslinked Polyethyelene),
RUBBER (Various Types of Rubber). Insulating material is based
on operating temperature.
 Maximum Operating
Insulation Material
Temperature
PVC TYPE A 75C
PVC TYPE B 85C
PVC TYPE C 85C
XLPE 90C
RUBBER EPR IE-1 90C
RUBBER EPR IE-2, EPR IE-3, EPR
150C
IE-4, SILICON IE-5
Cores are identified by colour coding by using different colours on
insulation or by number printing on cores

Beading (Inner Sheath)

This portion of the cable is also known as inner sheath. Mostly it is

used in Multi core cables. It works as binder for insulated
conductors together in multi-core power cables and provides
bedding to armour/braid. This portion of the cable is mainly made
of PVC( PVC ST-1, PVC ST-2 ), RUBBER (CSP SE-3, CSP SE-4 and
PCP SE-3, PCP SE-4, HOFR SE-3 HOFR SE-4, HD HOFR SE-3
ETC)

Armouring

There are mainly G.I. WIRE ARMOURING, G.I. STEEL STRIP

armouring. It is done by placing G.I. WIREs, GI or STEEL STRIPs
one by one on inner sheath. Armouring is a process which is done
mainly for providing earthing shield to the current carrying
conductors as well as it is also used for earthing purpose of the cable
for safety. When there is any insulation failure in the conductor, the
fault current gets enough paths to flow through the armour if it is
properly earthed. Providing extra mechanical protection and
strength to cable an important added advantage of armouring. In
MINING CABLES it is done for conductance

Beading

ANNEALED TINNED COPPER WIRE, NYLON BRAID,

COTTON BRAID are mainly used for this purpose. Braiding is the
process which gives high mechanical protection to cable and also
used for earthing purpose. Significance of braiding is it is more
flexible in comparison to armouring.

Outer Sheath

This is outermost cover of the cable normally made of PVC (Poly

Vinyl Cloride), RUBBER (Various Types of Rubber) and often the
same material as the bedding. It is provided over the armour for
overall mechanical, weather, chemical and electrical protection.
Outer sheath is protection offered to cable not much electrically but
more mechanically.
Material Advantages Disadvantages Max Operating
 Temperature
70C for
Highest dielectric
general purpose
Cheap, Durable, losses, Melts at high
PVC 85 C for heat
Widely available temperatures,
resisting
Contains halogens
purpose
Highly sensitive to
Lowest dielectric
water treeing,
PE losses, High initial
Material breaks down
dielectric strength
at high temperatures
Does not melt but
thermal expansion
Low dielectric
occurs, Medium
losses, Improved
sensitivity to water
XLPE material properties 90 C
treeing (although
at high
some XLPE polymers
temperatures
are water-tree
resistant)
Increased
flexibility, Reduced Medium-High
thermal expansion dielectric losses,
EPR 90 C
(relative to XLPE), Requires inorganic
Low sensitivity to filler / additive
water treeing
Paper /Low-Medium High weight, High 70 C
 cost, Requires
dielectric losses,
hydraulic pressure /
Not harmed by DC
pumps for insulating
Oil testing, Known
fluid, Difficult to
history of
repair, Degrades with
reliability
moisture
Mainly above 6 sq mm cables are called power cables but it depends
upon the use of cable. For PVC power cables we use IS:1554 and for
XLPE power cables we use IS:7098 and for Rubber based power
cables we use IS:9968 and other relevant specifications. Power
cables are defined by voltage grade and nominal cross sectional
area.

Power System Stability

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Power system engineering forms a vast and major portion of electrical
engineering studies. It is mainly concerned with the production of
electrical power and its transmission from the sending end to the
receiving end as per consumer requirements, incurring minimum amount
of losses. The power at the consumer end is often subjected to changes
due to the variation of load or due to disturbances induced within the
length of transmission line. For this reason the term power system
stability is of utmost importance in this field, and is used to define the
ability of the of the system to bring back its operation to steady state
condition within minimum possible time after having undergone some
sort of transience or disturbance in the line. Ever since the 20th century,
till the recent times all major power generating stations over the globe
has mainly relied on AC distribution system as the most effective and
economical option for the transmission of electrical power.

Even the most effective way to produce bulk amount of power has been
with the evolution of AC machine (i.e. alternator or synchronous
generator). In the power plants, several synchronous generators with
different voltage ratings are connected to the bus terminals having the
same frequency and phase sequence as the generators, while the
consumer ends are feeded directly from those bus terminals. And
therefore for stable operation it is important for the bus to be well
synchronized with the generators over the entire duration of
transmission, and for this reason the power system stability is also
referred to as synchronous stability and is defined as the ability of the
system to return to synchronism after having undergone some
disturbance due to switching on and off of load or due to line transience.

To understand stability well another factor that is to be taken into

consideration is the stability limit of the system. The stability limit
defines the maximum power permissible to flow through a particular
point or a part of the system during which it is subjected to line
disturbances or faulty flow of power. Having understood these
terminologies related to power system stability let us now look into the
different types of stability.The synchronous stability of a power system
can be of several types depending upon the nature of disturbance, and
for the purpose of successful analysis it can be classified into the
following 3 types as shown below:

1. Steady state stability.

2. Transient stability.

3. Dynamic stability.

Steady State Stability of a Power System

The steady state stability of a power system is defined as the ability of

the system to bring itself back to its stable configuration following a
small disturbance in the network (like normal load fluctuation or action
of automatic voltage regulator). It can only be considered only during a
very gradual and infinitesimally small power change. In case the power
flow through the circuit exceeds the maximum power permissible, then
there are chances that a particular machine or a group of machines will
cease to operate in synchronism, and result in yet more disturbances. In
such a situation, the steady state limit of the system is said to have
reached. Or in other words the steady state stability limit of a system
refers to the maximum amount of power that is permissible through the
system without loss of its steady state stability.

Transient Stability of a Power System

Transient stability of a power systemrefers to the ability of the system to

reach a stable condition following a large disturbance in the network
condition. In all cases related to large changes in the system like sudden
application or removal of load, switching operations, line faults or loss
due to excitation the transient stability of the system comes into play. It
infact deals in the ability of the system to retain synchronism following a
disturbance sustaining for a reasonably long period of time.

And the maximum power that is permissible to flow through the network
without loss of stability following a sustained period of disturbance is
referred to as the transient stability of the system. Going beyond that
maximum permissible value for power flow, the system would
temporarily be rendered as unstable.
Dynamic Stability of a Power System

Dynamic stability of a system denotes the artificial stability given to an

inherently unstable system by automatic controlled means. It is generally
concerned to small disturbances lasting for about 10 to 30 seconds.

Corona Effect in Power System

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Corona Effect in Power System

Electric power transmission practically deals in the bulk transfer of

electrical energy, from generating stations situated many kilometers
away from the main consumption centers or the cities. For this
reason the long distance transmission cables are of utmost necessity
for effective power transfer, which in-evidently results in huge losses
across the system. Minimizing those has been a major challenge for
power engineers of late and to do that one should have a clear
understanding of the type and nature of losses. One of them being
the corona effect in power system, which has a predominant role in
reducing the efficiency of EHV (extra high voltage lines) which we
are going to concentrate on, in this article.

What is Corona Effect in Power System and Why it Occurs?

For corona effect to occur effectively, two factors here are of prime
importance as mentioned below:-

1. Alternating electrical potential difference must be supplied

across the line.

2. The spacing of the conductors, must be large enough compared

to the line diameter.

When an alternating current is made to

flow across two conductors of the transmission line whose spacing is
large compared to their diameters, then air surrounding the
conductors (composed of ions) is subjected to di-electric stress. At
low values of supply end voltage, nothing really occurs as the stress
is too less to ionize the air outside. But when the potential difference
is made to increase beyond some threshold value of around 30 kV
known as the critical disruptive voltage, then the field strength
increases and then the air surrounding it experiences stress high
enough to be dissociated into ions making the atmosphere
conducting. This results in electric discharge around the conductors
due to the flow of these ions, giving rise to a faint luminescent glow,
along with the hissing sound accompanied by the liberation of
ozone, which is readily identified due to its characteristic odor. This
phenomena of electrical discharge occurring in transmission line for
high values of voltage is known as the corona effect in power system.
If the voltage across the lines is still increased the glow becomes
more and more intense along with hissing noise, inducing very high
power loss into the system which must be accounted for.

Factors Affecting Corona Effect in Power System.

As mentioned earlier, the line voltage of the conductor is the main

determining factor for corona in transmission lines, at low values of
voltage (lesser than critical disruptive voltage) the stress on the air is
too less to dissociate them, and hence no electrical discharge occurs.
Since with increasing voltage corona effect in a transmission line
occurs due to the ionization of atmospheric air surrounding the
cables, it is mainly affected by the conditions of the cable as well as
the physical state of the atmosphere. Let us look into these criterion
now with greater details :

Atmospheric Conditions for Corona in Transmission Lines

It has been physically proven that the voltage gradient for di-electric
breakdown of air is directly proportional to the density of air. Hence
in a stormy day, due to continuous air flow the number of ions
present surrounding the conductor is far more than normal, and
hence its more likely to have electrical discharge in transmission
lines on such a day, compared to a day with fairly clear weather. The
system has to designed taking those extreme situations into
consideration.

Condition of Cables for Corona in Transmission Line.

This particular phenomena depends highly on the conductors and

its physical condition. It has an inverse proportionality relationship
with the diameter of the conductors. i.e. with the increase in
diameter, the effect of corona in power system reduces considerably.
Also the presence of dirt or roughness of the conductor reduces the
critical breakdown voltage, making the conductors more prone to
corona losses. Hence in most cities and industrial areas having high
pollution, this factor is of reasonable importance to counter the ill
effects it has on the system.

Spacing between Conductors

As already mentioned, for corona to occur effectively the spacing

between the lines should be much higher compared to its diameter,
but if the length is increased beyond a certain limit, the di-electric
stress on the air reduces and consequently the effect of corona
reduces as well. If the spacing is made too large then corona for that
region of the transmission line might not occur at all.

Advantages of Three Phase System over

Single Phase System
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Presently 3- AC system is very popular and being used worldwide for
power generation, power transmission, distribution and for electric
motors.
 T
hree phase system has the following advantages as compare to single
phase system:

1. Power to weight ratio of 3- alternator is high as compare to 1-

alternator. Means for generation for same amount of Electric
Power, the size of 3- alternator is small as compare to 1-
Alternator. Hence, the overall cost of alternator is reduced for
generation of same amount of power. Moreover, of due to
reduction in weight, transportation and installation alternator
become convenient and less space is required to accommodate the
alternator in power house.

2. For electric power transmission and distribution of same amount of

power, the requirement of conductor material is less in 3- system
as compare to 1- system. Hence, the 3- transmission and
distribution system is economical as compare 1- system.

3. Let us consider the power produced by single phase supply and 3-

phase supply at unity power factor. Wave form of power produce
due 1-phase supply at unity power factor is shown in figure (C)
and Wave form of power produced due to 3-phase supply is shown
in figure (D) below.
4. From power wave forms shown in figure (C) and (D) above it is
clear that in 3-phase system, the instantaneous power is always
constant over the cycle results in smooth and vibration free
operation of machine. Whereas in 1- system the instantaneous
power is pulsating hence change over the cycle, which leads to
vibrations in machines.

5. Power to weight ratio of three phase induction motor is high as

compare to single phase induction motor. Means for same amount
of Mechanical Power, the size of three phase induction motor is
small as compare to single phase induction motor. Hence, the
overall cost of induction motor is reduced. Moreover, due to
reduction in weight, transportation and installation of nduction
motor become convenient and less space is required to
accommodate the Induction motor.

6. 3-phase induction motor is self-started as the magnetic flux

produced by 3-phase supply is rotating in nature with constant
magnitude. Whereas 1- induction motor is not self-started as the
magnetic flux produced by 1- supply is pulsating in nature.
Hence, we have to make some arrangement to make the 1-
induction motor self-started. Which further increase the cost of 1-
induction motor.

7. 3-phase motor is having better power factor and efficiency as

compare to 1- motor.

8. Power to weight ratio of 3-phase transformer is high as compare to

1- transformer. Means for same amount of Electric Power, the
size of 3-phase transformer is small as compare to 1- transformer.
Hence, the overall cost of transformer is reduced. Moreover, due to
reduction in weight, transportation and installation of transformer
become convenient and less space is required to accommodate the
transformer.
 9. If fault occurs in any winding of 3-phase transformer, the rest of
two winding can be used in open delta to serve the 3-phase load
which is not possible in 1- transformer. This ability of 3-phase
transformer further increase the reliability of 3-phase transformer.

Why Supply Frequency 50 or 60 Hz not

Other Values than these?
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In olden days people dont have integrated power system as we have
now. They had their own standard and load items which are suitable for
their power system. That time they had operating frequency range
between (16.75 to 133.33 Hz).When people think about large power
generation, they puzzled with standards which one abets for them.
Finally it reveals about single standard for all. They were brought
conclusion regarding to their issue, from the analysis and performance
evaluation conducted on different standards of power system by them.
Then they felt single standard is essential! because production of electric
devices were limited by realm of power system boundary i.e., suppose a
country consist of 10 different standards then 10 different manufacturing
measures and process are required for same device. This factor puts
hurdles in batch production of device.

It leads electric devices cost will be more. There is no strong technical

reason is behind 50 or 60 Hz. These values giving better performance
among all other available standard values of supply frequencies. Since
superior performance has been found. Finally these values (50 and 60)
picked by most of power system.

Technical Reason for not Using Higher Frequencies

It increases series impedance in transmission system. This reduces

power transfer capability so we cannot access full fruit of
transmission system.

Constant losses are directly proportional to frequency and its

square, so they may increases system losses.

Harmonics with higher frequency can carry more power it

introduce excess heat losses.

As frequency directly proportional to speed of alternator some high

speed on gigantic alternator. it is practically difficult to achieve
Higher frequency.

Problems with Lower Frequencies

Olden days they observed some issues with frequencies which are less
than 40 Hz.
 Perceptible flickering in filament lamp, starting problem in arc
lamp and arcing devices so they need additional devices to start
purpose and maintaining better operation.

Frequency is directly proportional to power lower frequency

devices sizes are very larger than higher frequency so material
involved cost involved transmission everything great larger than
higher frequency devices.

These is the reason for using higher frequency in aircraft, ships and
isolated load what are all doesnt have larger transmission network.
Power VI cos , V = 4.44 N FKw volt, power frequency,
volt/frequency area of core From these relations we can
conclude without confusion, larger frequency reduces area of core in
transformer and magnetic circuits (devices which are having bigger
magnetic circuit) weight of net system is in great concern in ship and
aircraft so there we have higher frequency, sake of weight reduction of
magnetic circuits.

First Aid for Electrical Burns

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When we touch any live part of an electrical system, that system gets path to the earth
through our body. If the voltage level not very low, there will be a current depending on
 body resistance flowing through our body to earth. It may make a deep third degree burn
of the tissues through that the current flows. This is direct electrical shock.

There is another type of electrical accident which is called flash burn. This is due to huge
electrical flashing in close vicinity of our body. This causes normally burning of our
skins. This is usually not a deep burn and categorized as first or second degree burns. The
flash burns, may also affect our eyes and in that case, initially our eye loses its normal
vision but later gets its normal vision.

If due to flashing the eyes are burnt, the patients must be brought to the doctor as early as
possible. After any electrical burn, first aids are immediately applied to relieve pain,
prevent infection and treat the shock.

In case of limited burning, apply Vaseline or burn ointment over the burnt area. Cover
ointment with a layer or two of five mesh gauze and secure with a roller bandage. Then
take patient to a doctor for further treatment.

In the case of major electrical burning, we should keep the victim case lying down with
his head low. In that case we should cover him with blankets. Then immediately take him
to the nearby hospital for further treatment. This is the practice. We should do when
medical treatment facilities are available nearby.

But if the hospital is not nearby from the place of the accident, then we first have to
remove the clothing of the burnt person mainly from the burnt area of his body. If the
portions of the clothing are sticked with the burnt skin, cut the adhering cloths around the
burnt skin and leave the rest for medical experts to do so; at hospital.

Do not break blisters. Dip strips of clean freshly laundered sheeting into a solution of
leaking soda or Epson salt in warm water and apply to the burnt area.
Electric power system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A steam turbine used to provide electric power.

An electric power system is a network of electrical components used to supply, transfer and use
electric power. An example of an electric power system is the network that supplies a region's
homes and industry with powerfor sizeable regions, this power system is known as the grid
and can be broadly divided into the generators that supply the power, the transmission system
that carries the power from the generating centres to the load centres and the distribution system
that feeds the power to nearby homes and industries. Smaller power systems are also found in
industry, hospitals, commercial buildings and homes. The majority of these systems rely upon
three-phase AC powerthe standard for large-scale power transmission and distribution across
the modern world. Specialised power systems that do not always rely upon three-phase AC
power are found in aircraft, electric rail systems, ocean liners and automobiles.

Contents
1 History

2 Basics of electric power

3 Balancing the grid

4 Components of power systems

 o 4.1 Supplies

o 4.2 Loads

o 4.3 Conductors

o 4.4 Capacitors and reactors

o 4.5 Power electronics

o 4.6 Protective devices

o 4.7 SCADA systems

5 Power systems in practice

o 5.1 Residential power systems

o 5.2 Commercial power systems

6 References

7 External links

History

A sketch of the Pearl Street Station

In 1881 two electricians built the world's first power system at Godalming in England. It was
powered by a power station consisting of two waterwheels that produced an alternating current
that in turn supplied seven Siemens arc lamps at 250 volts and 34 incandescent lamps at 40 volts.
[1]
However supply to the lamps was intermittent and in 1882 Thomas Edison and his company,
The Edison Electric Light Company, developed the first steam powered electric power station on
Pearl Street in New York City. The Pearl Street Station initially powered around 3,000 lamps for
59 customers.[2][3] The power station used direct current and operated at a single voltage. Direct
current power could not be easily transformed to the higher voltages necessary to minimise
power loss during long-distance transmission, so the maximum economic distance between the
generators and load was limited to around half-a-mile (800 m).[4]

That same year in London Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs demonstrated the first
transformer suitable for use in a real power system. The practical value of Gaulard and Gibbs'
transformer was demonstrated in 1884 at Turin where the transformer was used to light up forty
kilometres (25 miles) of railway from a single alternating current generator.[5] Despite the success
of the system, the pair made some fundamental mistakes. Perhaps the most serious was
connecting the primaries of the transformers in series so that active lamps would affect the
brightness of other lamps further down the line.

In 1885 George Westinghouse, an American entrepreneur, obtained the patent rights to the
Gaulard Gibbs transformer and imported a number of them along with a Siemens generator and
set his engineers to experimenting with them in the hopes of improving them for use in a
commercial power system. One of Westinghouse's engineers, William Stanley, recognised the
problem with connecting transformers in series as opposed to parallel and also realised that
making the iron core of a transformer a fully enclosed loop would improve the voltage regulation
of the secondary winding. Using this knowledge he built the first practical transformer based
alternating current power system at Great Barrington, Massachusetts in 1886.[6] Westinghouse
would begin installing multi-voltage AC transformer systems in competition with the Edison
company later that year. In 1888 Westinghouse would also licensed Nikola Tesla's US patents for
a polyphase AC induction motor and transformer designs and hired Tesla for one year to be a
consultant at the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company's Pittsburgh labs.[7]

By 1888 the electric power industry was flourishing, and power companies had built thousands
of power systems (both direct and alternating current) in the United States and Europe. These
networks were effectively dedicated to providing electric lighting. During this time the rivalry
between Thomas Edison and George Westinghouse's companies had grown into propaganda
campaign over which form of transmission (direct or alternating current) was superior, a searies
of events known as the "War of Currents".[8] In 1891, Westinghouse installed the first major
power system that was designed to drive a 100 horsepower (75 kW) synchronous electric motor,
not just provide electric lighting, at Telluride, Colorado.[9] On the other side of the Atlantic,
Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky built a 20 kV 176 km three-phase transmission line from Lauffen
am Neckar to Frankfurt am Main for the Electrical Engineering Exhibition in Frankfurt.[10] In the
US the AC/DC competition came to the end when Edison General Electric was taken over by
their chief AC rival, the Thomson-Houston Electric Company, forming General Electric. In
1895, after a protracted decision-making process, alternating current was chosen as the
transmission standard with Westinghouse building the Adams No. 1 generating station at Niagara
Falls and General Electric building the three-phase alternating current power system to supply
Buffalo at 11 kV.

Developments in power systems continued beyond the nineteenth century. In 1936 the first
experimental HVDC (high voltage direct current) line using mercury arc valves was built
between Schenectady and Mechanicville, New York. HVDC had previously been achieved by
series-connected direct current generators and motors (the Thury system) although this suffered
from serious reliability issues.[11] In 1957 Siemens demonstrated the first solid-state rectifier, but
it was not until the early 1970s that solid-state devices became the standard in HVDC.[12] In
recent times, many important developments have come from extending innovations in the ICT
field to the power engineering field. For example, the development of computers meant load
flow studies could be run more efficiently allowing for much better planning of power systems.
Advances in information technology and telecommunication also allowed for remote control of a
power system's switchgear and generators.

Basics of electric power

An external AC to DC power adapter used for household appliances

Electric power is the product of two quantities: current and voltage. These two quantities can
vary with respect to time (AC power) or can be kept at constant levels (DC power).

Most refrigerators, air conditioners, pumps and industrial machinery use AC power whereas most
computers and digital equipment use DC power (the digital devices you plug into the mains
typically have an internal or external power adapter to convert from AC to DC power). AC
power has the advantage of being easy to transform between voltages and is able to be generated
and utilised by brushless machinery. DC power remains the only practical choice in digital
systems and can be more economical to transmit over long distances at very high voltages (see
HVDC).[13][14]

The ability to easily transform the voltage of AC power is important for two reasons: Firstly,
power can be transmitted over long distances with less loss at higher voltages. So in power
systems where generation is distant from the load, it is desirable to step-up (increase) the voltage
of power at the generation point and then step-down (decrease) the voltage near the load.
Secondly, it is often more economical to install turbines that produce higher voltages than would
be used by most appliances, so the ability to easily transform voltages means this mismatch
between voltages can be easily managed.[13]
Solid state devices, which are products of the semiconductor revolution, make it possible to
transform DC power to different voltages, build brushless DC machines and convert between AC
and DC power. Nevertheless, devices utilising solid state technology are often more expensive
than their traditional counterparts, so AC power remains in widespread use.[15]

Balancing the grid

One of the main difficulties in power systems is that the amount of active power consumed plus
losses should always equal the active power produced. If more power would be produced than
consumed the frequency would rise and vice versa. Even small deviations from the nominal
frequency value would damage synchronous machines and other appliances. Making sure the
frequency is constant is usually the task of a transmission system operator. In some countries (for
example in the European Union) this is achieved through a balancing market using ancillary
services.[16]

Components of power systems

Supplies

The majority of the world's power still comes from coal-fired power stations like this.

All power systems have one or more sources of power. For some power systems, the source of
power is external to the system but for others it is part of the system itselfit is these internal
power sources that are discussed in the remainder of this section. Direct current power can be
supplied by batteries, fuel cells or photovoltaic cells. Alternating current power is typically
supplied by a rotor that spins in a magnetic field in a device known as a turbo generator. There
have been a wide range of techniques used to spin a turbine's rotor, from steam heated using
fossil fuel (including coal, gas and oil) or nuclear energy, falling water (hydroelectric power) and
wind (wind power).

The speed at which the rotor spins in combination with the number of generator poles determines
the frequency of the alternating current produced by the generator. All generators on a single
synchronous system, for example the national grid, rotate at sub-multiples of the same speed and
so generate electric current at the same frequency. If the load on the system increases, the
generators will require more torque to spin at that speed and, in a typical power station, more
steam must be supplied to the turbines driving them. Thus the steam used and the fuel expended
are directly dependent on the quantity of electrical energy supplied. An exception exists for
generators incorporating power electronics such as gearless wind turbines or linked to a grid
through an asynchronous tie such as a HVDC link these can operate at frequencies
independent of the power system frequency.

Depending on how the poles are fed, alternating current generators can produce a variable
number of phases of power. A higher number of phases leads to more efficient power system
operation but also increases the infrastructure requirements of the system.[17]

Electricity grid systems connect multiple generators and loads operating at the same frequency
and number of phases, the commonest being three-phase at 50 or 60 Hz. However, there are
other considerations. These range from the obvious: How much power should the generator be
able to supply? What is an acceptable length of time for starting the generator (some generators
can take hours to start)? Is the availability of the power source acceptable (some renewables are
only available when the sun is shining or the wind is blowing)? To the more technical: How
should the generator start (some turbines act like a motor to bring themselves up to speed in
which case they need an appropriate starting circuit)? What is the mechanical speed of operation
for the turbine and consequently what are the number of poles required? What type of generator
is suitable (synchronous or asynchronous) and what type of rotor (squirrel-cage rotor, wound
rotor, salient pole rotor or cylindrical rotor)?[18]

Loads

A toaster is great example of a single-phase load that might appear in a residence. Toasters
typically draw 2 to 10 amps at 110 to 260 volts consuming around 600 to 1200 watts of power

Power systems deliver energy to loads that perform a function. These loads range from
household appliances to industrial machinery. Most loads expect a certain voltage and, for
alternating current devices, a certain frequency and number of phases. The appliances found in
your home, for example, will typically be single-phase operating at 50 or 60 Hz with a voltage
between 110 and 260 volts (depending on national standards). An exception exists for centralized
air conditioning systems as these are now typically three-phase because this allows them to
operate more efficiently. All devices in your house will also have a wattage, this specifies the
amount of power the device consumes. At any one time, the net amount of power consumed by
the loads on a power system must equal the net amount of power produced by the supplies less
the power lost in transmission.[19][20]
Making sure that the voltage, frequency and amount of power supplied to the loads is in line with
expectations is one of the great challenges of power system engineering. However it is not the
only challenge, in addition to the power used by a load to do useful work (termed real power)
many alternating current devices also use an additional amount of power because they cause the
alternating voltage and alternating current to become slightly out-of-sync (termed reactive
power). The reactive power like the real power must balance (that is the reactive power produced
on a system must equal the reactive power consumed) and can be supplied from the generators,
however it is often more economical to supply such power from capacitors (see "Capacitors and
reactors" below for more details).[21]

A final consideration with loads is to do with power quality. In addition to sustained overvoltages
and undervoltages (voltage regulation issues) as well as sustained deviations from the system
frequency (frequency regulation issues), power system loads can be adversely affected by a
range of temporal issues. These include voltage sags, dips and swells, transient overvoltages,
flicker, high frequency noise, phase imbalance and poor power factor.[22] Power quality issues
occur when the power supply to a load deviates from the ideal: For an AC supply, the ideal is the
current and voltage in-sync fluctuating as a perfect sine wave at a prescribed frequency with the
voltage at a prescribed amplitude. For DC supply, the ideal is the voltage not varying from a
prescribed level. Power quality issues can be especially important when it comes to specialist
industrial machinery or hospital equipment.

Conductors

Conductors carry power from the generators to the load. In a grid, conductors may be classified
as belonging to the transmission system, which carries large amounts of power at high voltages
(typically more than 69 kV) from the generating centres to the load centres, or the distribution
system, which feeds smaller amounts of power at lower voltages (typically less than 69 kV) from
the load centres to nearby homes and industry.[23]

Choice of conductors is based upon considerations such as cost, transmission losses and other
desirable characteristics of the metal like tensile strength. Copper, with lower resistivity than
Aluminum, was the conductor of choice for most power systems. However, Aluminum has lower
cost for the same current carrying capacity and is the primary metal used for transmission line
conductors. Overhead line conductors may be reinforced with steel or aluminum alloys.[24]

Conductors in exterior power systems may be placed overhead or underground. Overhead

conductors are usually air insulated and supported on porcelain, glass or polymer insulators.
Cables used for underground transmission or building wiring are insulated with cross-linked
polyethylene or other flexible insulation. Large conductors are stranded for ease of handling;
small conductors used for building wiring are often solid, especially in light commercial or
residential construction.[25]

Conductors are typically rated for the maximum current that they can carry at a given
temperature rise over ambient conditions. As current flow increases through a conductor it heats
up. For insulated conductors, the rating is determined by the insulation.[26] For overhead
conductors, the rating is determined by the point at which the sag of the conductors would
become unacceptable.[27]

Capacitors and reactors

The majority of the load in a typical AC power system is inductive; the current lags behind the
voltage. Since the voltage and current are out-of-phase, this leads to the emergence of an
"imaginary" form of power known as reactive power. Reactive power does no measurable work
but is transmitted back and forth between the reactive power source and load every cycle. This
reactive power can be provided by the generators themselves, through the adjustment of
generator excitation, but it is often cheaper to provide it through capacitors, hence capacitors are
often placed near inductive loads to reduce current demand on the power system (i.e., increase
the power factor), which may never exceed 1.0, and which represents a purely resistive load.
Power factor correction may be applied at a central substation, through the use of so-called
"synchronous condensers" (synchronous machines which act as condensers which are variable in
VAR value, through the adjustment of machine excitation) or adjacent to large loads, through the
use of so-called "static condensers" (condensers which are fixed in VAR value).

Reactors consume reactive power and are used to regulate voltage on long transmission lines. In
light load conditions, where the loading on transmission lines is well below the surge impedance
loading, the efficiency of the power system may actually be improved by switching in reactors.
Reactors installed in series in a power system also limit rushes of current flow, small reactors are
therefore almost always installed in series with capacitors to limit the current rush associated
with switching in a capacitor. Series reactors can also be used to limit fault currents.

Capacitors and reactors are switched by circuit breakers, which results in moderately large steps
in reactive power. A solution comes in the form of static VAR compensators and static
synchronous compensators. Briefly, static VAR compensators work by switching in capacitors
using thyristors as opposed to circuit breakers allowing capacitors to be switched-in and
switched-out within a single cycle. This provides a far more refined response than circuit breaker
switched capacitors. Static synchronous compensators take a step further by achieving reactive
power adjustments using only power electronics.

Power electronics

Power electronics are semi-conductor based devices that are able to switch quantities of power
ranging from a few hundred watts to several hundred megawatts. Despite their relatively simple
function, their speed of operation (typically in the order of nanoseconds[28]) means they are
capable of a wide range of tasks that would be difficult or impossible with conventional
technology. The classic function of power electronics is rectification, or the conversion of AC-to-
DC power, power electronics are therefore found in almost every digital device that is supplied
from an AC source either as an adapter that plugs into the wall (see photo in Basics of Electric
Power section) or as component internal to the device. High-powered power electronics can also
be used to convert AC power to DC power for long distance transmission in a system known as
HVDC. HVDC is used because it proves to be more economical than similar high voltage AC
systems for very long distances (hundreds to thousands of kilometres). HVDC is also desirable
for interconnects because it allows frequency independence thus improving system stability.
Power electronics are also essential for any power source that is required to produce an AC
output but that by its nature produces a DC output. They are therefore used by many photovoltaic
installations both industrial and residential.

Power electronics also feature in a wide range of more exotic uses. They are at the heart of all
modern electric and hybrid vehicleswhere they are used for both motor control and as part of
the brushless DC motor. Power electronics are also found in practically all modern petrol-
powered vehicles, this is because the power provided by the car's batteries alone is insufficient to
provide ignition, air-conditioning, internal lighting, radio and dashboard displays for the life of
the car. So the batteries must be recharged while driving using DC power from the enginea
feat that is typically accomplished using power electronics. Whereas conventional technology
would be unsuitable for a modern electric car, commutators can and have been used in petrol-
powered cars, the switch to alternators in combination with power electronics has occurred
because of the improved durability of brushless machinery.[29]

Some electric railway systems also use DC power and thus make use of power electronics to feed
grid power to the locomotives and often for speed control of the locomotive's motor. In the
middle twentieth century, rectifier locomotives were popular, these used power electronics to
convert AC power from the railway network for use by a DC motor.[30] Today most electric
locomotives are supplied with AC power and run using AC motors, but still use power
electronics to provide suitable motor control. The use of power electronics to assist with motor
control and with starter circuits cannot be underestimated and, in addition to rectification, is
responsible for power electronics appearing in a wide range of industrial machinery. Power
electronics even appear in modern residential air conditioners.

Power electronics are also at the heart of the variable speed wind turbine. Conventional wind
turbines require significant engineering to ensure they operate at some ratio of the system
frequency, however by using power electronics this requirement can be eliminated leading to
quieter, more flexible and (at the moment) more costly wind turbines. A final example of one of
the more exotic uses of power electronics comes from the previous section where the fast-
switching times of power electronics were used to provide more refined reactive compensation to
the power system.

Protective devices

Main article: power system protection

Power systems contain protective devices to prevent injury or damage during failures. The
quintessential protective device is the fuse. When the current through a fuse exceeds a certain
threshold, the fuse element melts, producing an arc across the resulting gap that is then
extinguished, interrupting the circuit. Given that fuses can be built as the weak point of a system,
fuses are ideal for protecting circuitry from damage. Fuses however have two problems: First,
after they have functioned, fuses must be replaced as they cannot be reset. This can prove
inconvenient if the fuse is at a remote site or a spare fuse is not on hand. And second, fuses are
typically inadequate as the sole safety device in most power systems as they allow current flows
well in excess of that that would prove lethal to a human or animal.

The first problem is resolved by the use of circuit breakersdevices that can be reset after they
have broken current flow. In modern systems that use less than about 10 kW, miniature circuit
breakers are typically used. These devices combine the mechanism that initiates the trip (by
sensing excess current) as well as the mechanism that breaks the current flow in a single unit.
Some miniature circuit breakers operate solely on the basis of electromagnetism. In these
miniature circuit breakers, the current is run through a solenoid, and, in the event of excess
current flow, the magnetic pull of the solenoid is sufficient to force open the circuit breaker's
contacts (often indirectly through a tripping mechanism). A better design however arises by
inserting a bimetallic strip before the solenoidthis means that instead of always producing a
magnetic force, the solenoid only produces a magnetic force when the current is strong enough to
deform the bimetallic strip and complete the solenoid's circuit.

In higher powered applications, the protective relays that detect a fault and initiate a trip are
separate from the circuit breaker. Early relays worked based upon electromagnetic principles
similar to those mentioned in the previous paragraph, modern relays are application-specific
computers that determine whether to trip based upon readings from the power system. Different
relays will initiate trips depending upon different protection schemes. For example, an
overcurrent relay might initiate a trip if the current on any phase exceeds a certain threshold
whereas a set of differential relays might initiate a trip if the sum of currents between them
indicates there may be current leaking to earth. The circuit breakers in higher powered
applications are different too. Air is typically no longer sufficient to quench the arc that forms
when the contacts are forced open so a variety of techniques are used. One of the most popular
techniques is to keep the chamber enclosing the contacts flooded with sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)
a non-toxic gas that has sound arc-quenching properties. Other techniques are discussed in the
reference.[31]

The second problem, the inadequacy of fuses to act as the sole safety device in most power
systems, is probably best resolved by the use of residual current devices (RCDs). In any properly
functioning electrical appliance the current flowing into the appliance on the active line should
equal the current flowing out of the appliance on the neutral line. A residual current device works
by monitoring the active and neutral lines and tripping the active line if it notices a difference.[32]
Residual current devices require a separate neutral line for each phase and to be able to trip
within a time frame before harm occurs. This is typically not a problem in most residential
applications where standard wiring provides an active and neutral line for each appliance (that's
why your power plugs always have at least two tongs) and the voltages are relatively low
however these issues do limit the effectiveness of RCDs in other applications such as industry.
Even with the installation of an RCD, exposure to electricity can still prove lethal.

SCADA systems

In large electric power systems, Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) is used for
tasks such as switching on generators, controlling generator output and switching in or out
system elements for maintenance. The first supervisory control systems implemented consisted
of a panel of lamps and switches at a central console near the controlled plant. The lamps
provided feedback on the state of plant (the data acquisition function) and the switches allowed
adjustments to the plant to be made (the supervisory control function). Today, SCADA systems
are much more sophisticated and, due to advances in communication systems, the consoles
controlling the plant no longer need to be near the plant itself. Instead it is now common for
plants to be controlled with equipment similar (if not identical) to a desktop computer. The
ability to control such plants through computers has increased the need for securitythere have
already been reports of cyber-attacks on such systems causing significant disruptions to power
systems.[33]

lectric generator
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about electromagnetic power generation. For electrostatic generators like the Van
de Graaff machine, see Electrostatic generator.

U.S. NRC image of a modern steam turbine generator (STG).

In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical

energy for use in an external circuit. The source of mechanical energy may vary widely from a
hand crank to an internal combustion engine. Generators provide nearly all of the power for
electric power grids.

The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor,
and motors and generators have many similarities. Many motors can be mechanically driven to
generate electricity and frequently make acceptable generators.

Contents
1 Terminology
 2 History

o 2.1 Theoretical development

o 2.2 Direct current generators

o 2.3 Alternating current generators

o 2.4 Self-excitation

3 Specialized types of generator

o 3.1 Direct current

3.1.1 Homopolar generator

3.1.2 MHD generator

o 3.2 Alternating current

3.2.1 Induction generator

3.2.2 Linear electric generator

3.2.3 Variable speed constant frequency generators

4 Common use cases

o 4.1 Vehicular generators

4.1.1 Roadway vehicles

4.1.2 Bicycles

4.1.3 Sailboats

o 4.2 Genset

o 4.3 Human powered electrical generators

o 4.4 Mechanical measurement

5 Equivalent circuit
 6 See also

7 References

8 External links

Terminology

Early Ganz Generator in Zwevegem, West Flanders, Belgium

Electromagnetic generators fall into one of two broad categories, dynamos and alternators.

Dynamos generate direct current, usually with voltage or current fluctuations, usually
through the use of a commutator

Alternators generate alternating current, which may be rectified by another (external or

directly incorporated) system.

Mechanically a generator consists of a rotating part and a stationary part

Rotor: The rotating part of an electrical machine

Stator: The stationary part of an electrical machine, which surrounds the rotor

Electrically, generators contain two sets of wire windings

Armature: The power-producing component of an electrical machine. In a generator,

alternator, or dynamo the armature windings generate the electric current. The armature
can be on either the rotor or the stator.

Field: The magnetic field producing component of an electrical machine. The magnetic
field of the dynamo or alternator can be provided by either wire windings called field
coils or permanent magnets, mounted on either the rotor or the stator.

History
Before the connection between magnetism and electricity was discovered, electrostatic
generators were used. They operated on electrostatic principles. Such generators generated very
high voltage and low current. They operated by using moving electrically charged belts, plates,
and disks that carried charge to a high potential electrode. The charge was generated using either
of two mechanisms: electrostatic induction or the triboelectric effect. Because of their
inefficiency and the difficulty of insulating machines that produced very high voltages,
electrostatic generators had low power ratings, and were never used for generation of
commercially significant quantities of electric power.

Theoretical development

The Faraday disk was the first electric generator. The horseshoe-shaped magnet (A) created a
magnetic field through the disk (D). When the disk was turned, this induced an electric current
radially outward from the center toward the rim. The current flowed out through the sliding
spring contact m, through the external circuit, and back into the center of the disk through the
axle.
Main article: Electromagnetism

The operating principle of electromagnetic generators was discovered in the years of 18311832
by Michael Faraday. The principle, later called Faraday's law, is that an electromotive force is
generated in an electrical conductor which encircles a varying magnetic flux.

He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk, a type of homopolar
generator, using a copper disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. It produced a
small DC voltage.

This design was inefficient, due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions that were
not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced directly underneath the
magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions that were outside the influence of the
magnetic field. This counterflow limited the power output to the pickup wires, and induced waste
heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would solve this problem by using an
array of magnets arranged around the disc perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one
current-flow direction.

Another disadvantage was that the output voltage was very low, due to the single current path
through the magnetic flux. Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil could
produce higher, more useful voltages. Since the output voltage is proportional to the number of
turns, generators could be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying the number
of turns. Wire windings became a basic feature of all subsequent generator designs.

Independently of Faraday, the Hungarian Anyos Jedlik started experimenting in 1827 with the
electromagnetic rotating devices which he called electromagnetic self-rotors. In the prototype of
the single-pole electric starter (finished between 1852 and 1854) both the stationary and the
revolving parts were electromagnetic. He also may have formulated the concept of the dynamo
in 1861 (before Siemens and Wheatstone) but didn't patent it as he thought he wasn't the first to
realize this.[1]

Direct current generators

Main article: Dynamo

This large belt-driven high-current dynamo produced 310 amperes at 7 volts. Dynamos are no
longer used due to the size and complexity of the commutator needed for high power
applications.

The dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for industry. The
dynamo uses electromagnetic induction to convert mechanical rotation into direct current
through the use of a commutator. An early dynamo was built by Hippolyte Pixii in 1832.
Woolrich Electrical Generator in Thinktank, Birmingham

The Woolrich Electrical Generator of 1844, now in Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum, is
the earliest electrical generator used in an industrial process.[2] It was used by the firm of
Elkingtons for commercial electroplating.[3][4][5]

The modern dynamo, fit for use in industrial applications, was invented independently by Sir
Charles Wheatstone, Werner von Siemens and Samuel Alfred Varley. Varley took out a patent on
24 December 1866, while Siemens and Wheatstone both announced their discoveries on 17
January 1867, the latter delivering a paper on his discovery to the Royal Society.

The "dynamo-electric machine" employed self-powering electromagnetic field coils rather than
permanent magnets to create the stator field.[6] Wheatstone's design was similar to Siemens', with
the difference that in the Siemens design the stator electromagnets were in series with the rotor,
but in Wheatstone's design they were in parallel.[7] The use of electromagnets rather than
permanent magnets greatly increased the power output of a dynamo and enabled high power
generation for the first time. This invention led directly to the first major industrial uses of
electricity. For example, in the 1870s Siemens used electromagnetic dynamos to power electric
arc furnaces for the production of metals and other materials.

The dynamo machine that was developed consisted of a stationary structure, which provides the
magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings which turn within that field. On larger machines
the constant magnetic field is provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called
field coils.

Large power generation dynamos are now rarely seen due to the now nearly universal use of
alternating current for power distribution. Before the adoption of AC, very large direct-current
dynamos were the only means of power generation and distribution. AC has come to dominate
due to the ability of AC to be easily transformed to and from very high voltages to permit low
losses over large distances.
Alternating current generators

Main article: Alternator

Ferranti alternating current generator, c. 1900.

Through a series of discoveries, the dynamo was succeeded by many later inventions, especially
the AC alternator, which was capable of generating alternating current.

Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from Michael Faraday's
original discovery of the magnetic induction of electric current. Faraday himself built an early
alternator. His machine was a "rotating rectangle", whose operation was heteropolar - each
active conductor passed successively through regions where the magnetic field was in opposite
directions.[8]

Large two-phase alternating current generators were built by a British electrician, J.E.H. Gordon,
in 1882. The first public demonstration of an "alternator system" was given by William Stanley,
Jr., an employee of Westinghouse Electric in 1886.[9]

Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti established Ferranti, Thompson and Ince in 1882, to market his
Ferranti-Thompson Alternator, invented with the help of renowned physicist Lord Kelvin.[10] His
early alternators produced frequencies between 100 and 300 Hz. Ferranti went on to design the
Deptford Power Station for the London Electric Supply Corporation in 1887 using an alternating
current system. On its completion in 1891, it was the first truly modern power station, supplying
high-voltage AC power that was then "stepped down" for consumer use on each street. This basic
system remains in use today around the world.

A small early 1900s 75 kVA direct-driven power station AC alternator, with a separate belt-
driven exciter generator.

After 1891, polyphase alternators were introduced to supply currents of multiple differing
phases.[11] Later alternators were designed for varying alternating-current frequencies between
sixteen and about one hundred hertz, for use with arc lighting, incandescent lighting and electric
motors.[12]

Self-excitation

Main article: Excitation (magnetic)

As the requirements for larger scale power generation increased, a new limitation rose: the
magnetic fields available from permanent magnets. Diverting a small amount of the power
generated by the generator to an electromagnetic field coil allowed the generator to produce
substantially more power. This concept was dubbed self-excitation.

The field coils are connected in series or parallel with the armature winding. When the generator
first starts to turn, the small amount of remanent magnetism present in the iron core provides a
magnetic field to get it started, generating a small current in the armature. This flows through the
field coils, creating a larger magnetic field which generates a larger armature current. This
"bootstrap" process continues until the magnetic field in the core levels off due to saturation and
the generator reaches a steady state power output.

Very large power station generators often utilize a separate smaller generator to excite the field
coils of the larger. In the event of a severe widespread power outage where islanding of power
stations has occurred, the stations may need to perform a black start to excite the fields of their
largest generators, in order to restore customer power service.[13]

Specialized types of generator

Direct current

Homopolar generator

Main article: Homopolar generator

A homopolar generator is a DC electrical generator comprising an electrically conductive disc or

cylinder rotating in a plane perpendicular to a uniform static magnetic field. A potential
difference is created between the center of the disc and the rim (or ends of the cylinder), the
electrical polarity depending on the direction of rotation and the orientation of the field.

It is also known as a unipolar generator, acyclic generator, disk dynamo, or Faraday disc.
The voltage is typically low, on the order of a few volts in the case of small demonstration
models, but large research generators can produce hundreds of volts, and some systems have
multiple generators in series to produce an even larger voltage.[14] They are unusual in that they
can produce tremendous electric current, some more than a million amperes, because the
homopolar generator can be made to have very low internal resistance.

MHD generator

Main article: MHD generator

A magnetohydrodynamic generator directly extracts electric power from moving hot gases
through a magnetic field, without the use of rotating electromagnetic machinery. MHD
generators were originally developed because the output of a plasma MHD generator is a flame,
well able to heat the boilers of a steam power plant. The first practical design was the AVCO Mk.
25, developed in 1965. The U.S. government funded substantial development, culminating in a
25 MW demonstration plant in 1987. In the Soviet Union from 1972 until the late 1980s, the
MHD plant U 25 was in regular commercial operation on the Moscow power system with a
rating of 25 MW, the largest MHD plant rating in the world at that time.[15] MHD generators
operated as a topping cycle are currently (2007) less efficient than combined cycle gas turbines.

Alternating current

Induction generator

Main article: induction generator

Some AC motors may be used as generators, turning mechanical energy into electric current.
Induction generators operate by mechanically turning their rotor faster than the synchronous
speed, giving negative slip. A regular AC asynchronous motor usually can be used as a generator,
without any internal modifications. Induction generators are useful in applications such as
minihydro power plants, wind turbines, or in reducing high-pressure gas streams to lower
pressure, because they can recover energy with relatively simple controls.

To operate, an induction generator must be excited with a leading voltage; this is usually done by
connection to an electrical grid, or sometimes they are self-excited by using phase correcting
capacitors.

Linear electric generator

Main article: Linear alternator

In the simplest form of linear electric generator, a sliding magnet moves back and forth through a
solenoid - a spool of copper wire. An alternating current is induced in the loops of wire by
Faraday's law of induction each time the magnet slides through. This type of generator is used in
the Faraday flashlight. Larger linear electricity generators are used in wave power schemes.

Variable speed constant frequency generators

Many renewable energy efforts attempt to harvest natural sources of mechanical energy (wind,
tides, etc.) to produce electricity. Because these sources fluctuate in power applied, standard
generators using permanent magnets and fixed windings would deliver unregulated voltage and
frequency. The overhead of regulation (whether before the generator via gear reduction or after
generation by electrical means) is high in proportion to the naturally-derived energy available.

New generator designs such as the asynchronous or induction singly-fed generator, the doubly
fed generator, or the brushless wound-rotor doubly fed generator are seeing success in variable
speed constant frequency applications, such as wind turbines or other renewable energy
technologies. These systems thus offer cost, reliability and efficiency benefits in certain use
cases.