MICROWAVE DEVICES

MICROWAVE
There is no sharp distinction between microwaves and other radio
frequency signals but microwaves are generally described as
electromagnetic waves with frequencies that range from
approximately 500 MHz to 300 GHz or more. Conventionally, the
lower boundary fro microwave frequencies is set at 1 GHz.
As frequency increases, many of the simplifying assumptions that
work at lower frequencies become less accurate. Also the other
techniques that are impractical at lower frequencies become more
useful.
MICROWAVE
Some few examples.
At low frequencies, the inductance and capacitance of component leads can
be ignored. At microwave frequencies, even short connecting leads have
significant capacitive and inductive reactance, so the physical design of
components must change.
Because of the short wavelength of microwave signals, antennas of
reasonable physical size can have very high gain, and parabolic reflectors
become practical.
At microwave frequencies, the losses in conventional transmission lines are
quite large
WAVEGUIDE
Both dielectric and conductor losses in a conventional transmission
lines increases with frequency. Waveguides provide an alternative at
microwave frequencies. A waveguide is essentially a pipe through
which an electromagnetic wave travels. As it travels along the guide,
it reflects from the walls.
It is possible to build a waveguide for any frequency, but waveguides
operate essentially as high-pass filters, that is, for a given waveguide
cross section, there is a cut-off frequency below which waves will not
propagate.
WAVEGUIDE
As the electric and magnetic fields are completely contained within
the guide, waveguides have no radiation loss. Dielectric losses are
very small, since the dielectric is usually air. There are some losses in
the conductive walls of the waveguide, but because of the surface
area of the walls, these losses are much smaller that the losses in
coaxial or open-wire line.
WAVEGUIDE
Modes and Cut-Off Frequency
The number of ways in which the electrical energy can propagate
along a waveguide is called modes. All these modes must satisfy
certain boundary conditions. For each different mode, the ray strikes
the walls of the waveguide at a different angle. As the angle a ray
makes with the wall of the guide becomes larger, the distance the
ray must travel to reach the far end of the guide becomes greater.
Though propagation in the guide is at the speed of light, the greater
distance traveled causes the effective velocity down the guide to be
reduced.
Modes and Cut-Off Frequency
It is desirable to have only one mode propagating in a waveguide.
The effect of multimode propagation (more than one mode
propagating at the same time), in a pulse signal, is that the pulse will
arrive at the far end at several different times, one for each mode.
Thus a brief pulse will be spread out over time, becoming longer. If
another pulse follows close behind, there may be interference
between the two. That effect is called dispersion. Dispersion limits
the usefulness of waveguides with pulse signals and other types of
modulation. Because of dispersion, it is undesirable to have more
than one mode propagating.
Modes and Cut-Off Frequency
Each mode has a cut off frequency below which it will not propagate.
Single mode propagation can be achieved by using only the mode
with the lowest cut-off frequency. This mode is called dominant
mode. The waveguide is used at frequencies between its cut-off
frequency and that of the mode with the next lowest cut-off
frequency. Modes are designated as transverse electric (TE) or
transverse magnetic (TM) according to the pattern of electric and
magnetic fields within the waveguide.
Modes and Cut-Off Frequency
The term TE means that there is no component of the electric field
along the length of the guide. The field strength varies sinusoidally
across the guide cross section. The first number following the TE
designation represents the number if half-cycles of the wave along
the long dimension (a) of the rectangular guide, and the second
represents the number of variations along short dimension (b).
In a rectangular waveguide, TE10 is the dominant mode. In a typical
rectangular waveguide with a = 2b, the TE01 and TE20 modes each
have cut-off frequency twice that of the TE10 mode, giving an
approximate 2:1 frequency range for the waveguide operating in the
TE10 mode will be assumed unless otherwise stated.
Modes and Cut-Off Frequency
Modes and Cut-Off Frequency
The cutoff frequency for the TE10 mode can easily be found. For this
mode to propagate, there must be at least one-half wavelength
along the wall.
Therefore, at the cut-off frequency,

=

= 2

=
2
Modes and Cut-Off Frequency
The dominant mode depends on the shape of the waveguide. For
circular waveguide, the dominant mode is the TE11 mode, but the
TM01 mode is also used because it has circular symmetry which
allows its use in rotating joints. (rotating antennas used in radar).
Sample Problem
Find the cut-off frequency for the TE10 mode in an air-dielectric
waveguide with an inside cross section of 2 cm by 4 cm. Over what
frequency range is the dominant mode the only one that will
propagate?

fc = 3.75 GHz Freq. Range = 7.5 GHz

Group and Phase Velocity
Assuming an air dielectric, the wave travels inside the waveguide at
the speed of light. However, it does not travel straight down the
guide but reflects back and forth from the walls. The actual speed at
which a signal travels down the guide is called group velocity, and it
is considerably less than speed of light. The group velocity in a
rectangular waveguide is given by the equation

= ( ) m/s = ( ) m/s

where vg = group velocity
= free space wavelength fc = cutoff frequency
a = larger dimension of the interior cross section f = operating frequency
Group and Phase Velocity
When we first looked at waveguide propagation, we noted that
waveguides are generally used with only one mode in order to
reduce dispersion (the tendency of signals to spread in time). If two
signals of different frequencies start to travel down a guide at the
same instant, the higher frequency signal will arrive at the other end
first.
Group and Phase Velocity
It is possible to define a quantity called phase velocity to describe
the variation of phase along the wall of the guide. Phase velocity is
the rate at which the wave appears to move along the wall of the
guide, based on the way the phase angle varies along the walls.
The relationship between phase velocity and group velocity is they
are the geometric mean of the speed of light.
=
where vp = phase velocity
Group and Phase Velocity
From the given relationship of group velocity and phase velocity, we
can derived the formula for phase velocity as

= m/s or =
m/s

( ) ( )

Surprisingly, the phase velocity in a waveguide is always greater than

the speed of light. A phase velocity greater than speed of light is
possible because phase velocity is not really the velocity of anything.
Sample Problem
Find the group velocity for the waveguide with cut off frequency of
3.75 GHz at a frequency of 5 GHz. Find also the phase velocity.

vg = 198 x 106 m/s vp = 4.54 x 108 m/s

Impedance and Impedance Matching
It is often necessary to calculate the wavelength of a signal in a
waveguide. For instance, it may be required for impedance
matching. It might seem that the wavelength along the guide could
be found using the group velocity. However, what really important in
impedance matching calculations is the change in phase angle along
the line.
The guide wavelength is always greater than the free-space
wavelength. Interestingly, the more slowly the waves in the guide
propagate along it, the more quickly the phase angle varies along the
guide.
Impedance and Impedance Matching
Like any transmission line, a waveguide has a characteristics
impedance. Unlike wirelines, however, the waveguide impedance is a
function of frequency. The actual impedance Zo of a waveguide is
given by

= or =


( ) ( )

Impedance and Impedance Matching
Techniques for matching impedance using waveguides also differ
from those used with conventional transmission lines. Shorted stubs
of adjustable length can be used, but simpler method is to add
capacitance or inductance by inserting materials into the guide. In
practice, a turning screw is used. As the screw is inserted further
into the guide, the effect is first capacitive, then series-resonant, and
finally inductive.
Guide Wavelength
There are two different velocities in a waveguide and both change
with frequency. For calculating wavelength in the guide, phase
velocity must be used.

= =


= or =

() ( )
Coupling Power into and out of
Waveguide
There three basic ways to launch a wave down to a guide.
Probe
Loop
Hole
Coupling Power into and out of
Waveguide
PROBE
A probe is used resembling a quarter-wavelength antenna. The
probe couples the electric field in the guide and it therefore should
be located at an electric field maximum. For TE10 mode, it should be
at the center of a (wide) dimension. The probe launches a wave
along the guide in both direction. If the propagation in only one
direction is desired, the probe is located quarter wavelength from
the closed end of the guide.
Coupling Power into and out of
Waveguide
Coupling Power into and out of
Waveguide
LOOP
A loop is used to couple with the magnetic field in the guide. It is
placed in a location of maximum magnetic field, which for the TE10
mode occurs close to the end wall of the guide.
Coupling Power into and out of
Waveguide
HOLE
It is simply putting a hole in the waveguide, so that electromagnetic
energy can propagate into or out of the guide from the region
exterior to it.
Coupling Power into and out of
Waveguide
If the arrangement used is to transfer power from a waveguide to a
transmission line, the line will accept only energy travelling along the
guide from right to left. This device is called directional couplers.
Holes are often used to make directional couplers.
Directional couplers are characterized by their insertion loss,
coupling and directivity all are normally specified in decibels.
Coupling Power into and out of
Waveguide
The insertion loss is the amount by which a signal in the main guide
is attenuated. The coupling specifications gives the amount by which
a signal in the main guide is greater than the coupled to the
secondary waveguide. The directivity refers to the ratio between the
power coupled and the secondary guide, for signals traveling in the
past possible directions along the main guide.
Passive Microwave
Devices
Bends and Tees
Anything that changes the shape or size of a waveguide has effect on
the electric and magnetic fields inside. If the disturbance is
sufficiently large, there will be a change in the characteristic
impedance of the guide but as long as the bend or twist is gradual,
the effect is minimal.
Since the rectangular guide operates in TE10 mode, the electric field
lines are perpendicular to the long direction. Therefore, the E-plane
bend changes the direction of the electric field lines and similar logic
holds for the H-plane bend.
Bends and Tees
E PLANE AND H PLANE BEND
Bends and Tees
One of the more common components used with ordinary
transmission line is the tee, which allows one line to branch into two.
Of course, when using tees, special attention must be paid to
impedance matching. A signal applied to port 1 appears at each of
the other ports. For the H-plane tee, the signal will be in phase at the
two outputs, while the E-plane tee produces two out-of-phase
signals. Sometimes H-plane tee is referred to as shunt tee, and the E-
plane tee is called a series tee.
Bends and Tees
Bends and Tees
STRIPLINES and MICROSTRIPS
Striplines and microstrips are transmission lines that can be
constructed on a printed circuit board. They are very useful for
making interconnections between components. Striplines and
microstrips, like waveguide, have a critical frequency. Below the
critical frequency, they resemble conventional transmission lines and
their impedance depends only on the geometry and the dielectric
constant of the line. Above the critical frequency, their characteristic
impedance becomes a function of frequency, as it is for a waveguide.
STRIPLINES and MICROSTRIPS

MICROSTRIP STRIPLINE
ATTENUATORS
SLIDE VANE ATTENUATOR
The slide-vane attenuator is a thin dielectric material such as glass
that is coated with a lossy resistive material. It can be placed in the
waveguide to orient the vane along the length of the waveguide at
the location of maximum E field for maximum attenuation.
ATTENUATORS
FLAP ATTENUATOR
A flap attenuator has a vane that is dropped into the waveguide
through a slot in the top of the guide. The further the vane is
inserted into the waveguide, the greater the attenuation.
ATTENUATORS
ROTARY VANE ATTENUATOR
A rotary-vane attenuator is a precision waveguide attenuator in
which attenuation follows a mathematical law. In this device the
attenuation is independent of frequency. It has three sections, each
with a resistance card in the center. With all resistance cards line up,
the E field is perpendicular to the card and there is zero attenuation.
CIRCULATORS and ISOLATORS
An isolator is a device that allows a signal to pass in only one
direction. In the other direction, it is greatly attenuated. An isolator
can be used to shield a source from a mismatched load. Energy will
still be reflected from the load, but instead of reaching the source,
the reflected power is dissipated in the isolator.
CIRCULATORS and ISOLATORS
A circulator is a very useful device that allows the separation of
signals. The three point circulator allows a signal introduced at any
point to appear at, and only at, the next port in a counterclockwise
rotation. One simple example of an application of circulator is as a
transmit-receive switch.
CIRCULATORS and ISOLATORS
The operation of both circulator and isolator is based on the
magnetic properties of ferrites. These ceramic compounds of iron
with other metals are ferromagnetic but not conductive. In all
materials, the electrons spin about their axis while orbiting around
the nucleus of an atom. If a ferrite is subjected to a magnetic field
from a permanent magnet, the electron spins experience a
phenomenon called precession: the axis about which an electron
spins also begin to spin. The interaction between an electromagnetic
wave and the ferrite results in a phase shift as the wave propagates
through the material. This shift is called Faraday rotation.
Active Microwave
Devices