Chilled Water Storage For Effective Energy Management in Smart Bu

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Theses and Dissertations
2014
Chilled water storage for effective energy

management in smart buildings
Wanyun Zhong
University of Toledo
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Zhong, Wanyun, "Chilled water storage for effective energy management in smart buildings" (2014). Theses and Dissertations. Paper
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A Thesis
entitled
Chilled Water Storage for Effective Energy Management in Smart Buildings
by
Wanyun Zhong
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Master of Science Degree in Electrical Engineering
_________________________________________
Dr. Lingfeng Wang, Committee Chair
_________________________________________
Dr. Weiqing Sun, Committee Member
_________________________________________
Dr. Hong Wang, Committee Member
_________________________________________
Dr. Patricia R. Komuniecki, Dean
College of Graduate Studies
May 2014
Copyright 2014, Wanyun Zhong
This document is copyrighted material. Under copyright law, no parts of this document
may be reproduced without the expressed permission of the author.
An Abstract of
Chilled Water Storage for Effective Energy Management in Smart Buildings
by
Wanyun Zhong
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Master of Science Degree in Electrical Engineering
May 2014
A smart building takes advantage of new highly energy-efficient technologies,
which reduce the operating cost of the building. One of the key features of a smart
building is some type of thermal energy storage (TES) technology. TES allows for
shifting of the electrical load from peak periods to off peak periods when electrical rates
are lower. One of the most common types of thermal energy storage is a chilled water
storage (CWS) system. Chilled water storage systems work by cooling water overnight or
during the off peak period and then using that chilled water during the day or peak period
to cool the building. This results in less electrical usage throughout the day when
electrical rates are the highest. This study proposed a two-agent management structure
that may efficiently control the CWS system. The study further investigated and modeled
the use of several strategies and scenarios of implementing a CWS system in a smart
building. Each scenario takes into account different peak periods, off peak periods, and
regular periods. Depending on the commercial goals and needs of the business, different
strategies may be suitable for that particular application.
iii
This work is for my dear family members.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my advisor Dr. Lingfeng Wang for his guidance, mentorship
and useful critiques of my research work.
I also want to express my thanks to Dr. Weiqing Sun and Dr. Hong Wang for
serving on my committee. Thanks for their time in this work.
I would also like to thank my friends who have always been there to answer my
questions. Finally, I would also like to thank my family for their support throughout my
studies.
v
Table of Contents
Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii
Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................................v
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................. viii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... ix
List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................................ xii
1 Introduction. .........................................................................................................1
1.1 Background .......................................................................................................2
1.2 Organization ....................................................................................................10
2 Literature Review...................................................................................................11
2.1 Smart Building .................................................................................................11
2.2 Time of Use......................................................................................................12
2.3 Energy Storage Technologies Available for On-Demand Energy ...................13
2.4 Technologies for Shifting Load Demand .........................................................15
2.5 Optimization of System for Cost Savings ........................................................16
2.6 Chilled Water Storage System Operation ........................................................17
3 System design and description ...............................................................................19
3.1 Structure of System ..........................................................................................19
3.2 Operational Strategies in Local Agent .............................................................21
vi
4 Simulation Results and Analysis ...........................................................................34
4.1 Simulation result of each strategy ....................................................................34
4.2 Comparisons of each strategy ..........................................................................51
5 Concluding remarks and future work ....................................................................54
5.1 Concluding remarks .........................................................................................54
5.2 Future work. .................................................................................................54
References ..........................................................................................................................56
vii
List of Tables
4.1 The WBT profile ......................................................................................................... 34
4.2 The HVAC load profile .............................................................................................. 35
4.3 Electrical cost, chiller capacity, and energy consumption of each strategy................ 51
viii
List of Figures
1-1: Shifting the load from peak to off peak hours ..............................................................6
1-2: Stratified chilled system during peak load and off peak load ......................................9
3-1: The proposed structure of the designed system ..........................................................19
3-2: HVAC load without a CWS system ...........................................................................21
3-3: HVAC load shifting in strategy 1 ...............................................................................22
4-1: The COP profile under the different wet bulb temperature ........................................35
4-2: Daily WBT and COP data ..........................................................................................35
4-3: Four electrical pricing methods proposed in the project ............................................36
4-4: Electricity consumption in strategy 0 .........................................................................36
4-5: Thermal energy usage in strategy 1 ............................................................................37
4-7: Cooling production by chillers in strategy 1 ..............................................................38
4-8: Thermal energy usage in strategy 2 ............................................................................38
ix
4-10: Cooling production by chillers in strategy 2 ............................................................39
4-11: Thermal energy usage in strategy 3-1 ......................................................................40
4-12: Electricity consumption in strategy 3-1 ....................................................................40
4-13: Cooling production by chillers in strategy 3-1 .........................................................41
4-17: Thermal energy usage in strategy 4 ..........................................................................43
4-18: Electricity consumption in strategy 4 .......................................................................43
4-32: The electricity cost for different strategies of the CWS system ...............................52
x
4-33: The chiller capacity for different strategies of the CWS system ..............................52
4-34: The electricity consumption for different strategies of the CWS system .................53
xi
List of Abbreviations
BEMS .........................Building Energy Management System
COP ............................Coefficient of Performance

CWS ...........................Chilled Water Storage
DOE ...........................Department of Energy
EIA .............................Energy Information Administration
HVAC ........................Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
S # ..............................Strategy #
TES ............................Thermal Energy Storage

TOU ...........................Time of Use
US ..............................United States
WBT ...........................Wet Bulb Temperature
xii
Chapter 1
Introduction
The smart building technology, which optimizes the energy usage between a
building and the power grid, has become an important way to improve energy efficiency
in the last few years. The power grid optimization results in a highly energy-efficient
building which uses less energy, costs less to operate and produces less environmental
impact than traditional buildings [1]. Smart building technology involves a whole-
building design approach that integrates the use of the most advanced energy efficient
technologies while still meeting the comfort and demand of the occupants [2]. In large
commercial buildings, there is usually a considerable difference in load demand
throughout the day. This is especially true for offices and schools, which only operate
throughout the day. As such, in order for power supply companies to meet the energy
demands during peak hours, power companies often need to increase their power
generation. However, smart building technology can utilize various new technologies
(such as solar energy and thermal energy storage) to transfer the load from peak hours to
off peak hours. This leads to a more efficient use of electricity and less demand on power
companies to expand their power generation capabilities.
Thermal energy storage (TES) technology, one of the cost-effective energy saving
1
technologies, is now being implemented in a number of smart buildings [1]. TES is used
for shifting the load of the HVAC in the building from peak hours to off peak hours in
order to reduce demand and cost during peak hours. It can help the building optimize the
coordination of energy load and smoothen the load curve. Chilled water storage (CWS) is
one kind of thermal energy storage technology, which uses a water storage tank to
transfer energy usage from peak periods (daytime) to off load periods (overnight). The
use of TES technologies, such as a chilled water storage system, in combination with a
smart building management system results in better energy efficiency and lower
operating costs for air conditioning.
In this thesis, I investigate the use of chilled water storage (CWS) as a means of
smoothing peak and off-peak demands caused by uneven HVAC loads in a smart
building system so as to meet comfort and commercial goals.
1.1 Background
Over the last several decades, there has been a dramatic increase in demand for
energy driven by economic growth, industrial growth, technology advances, and the
worlds continually expanding population. Figures from the United States Energy
Information Administration (U.S. EIA) project that over the next 30 years there will be a
56% increase in global energy consumption [3]. The estimates are an increase from 524
quadrillion Btu in 2010 to about 820 quadrillion Btu in 2040 [3]. According to the DOE,
up to 39% of the energy usage in commercial building is consumed by space heating,
cooling, and air conditioning [9]. Since these commercial buildings only operate
throughout the day, it results in a large difference in load demand between the day and
2
night. Due to this situation, companies are trying to find ways of being more energy
efficient with the current energy that is being produced.
The smart buildings architectural design is heavily considered with the energy
design. For example, the size and capacity of electrical and mechanical systems can be
minimized by considering the energy produced by solar technologies and natural lighting
loads [1]. Throughout the design process, building simulation software guides decisions
to achieve the most efficient building possible. Over the last 10 years, technology and
efficiency has greatly advanced allowing for new state of the art buildings to utilize a
variety of strategies to optimize their energy usage.
Passive solar technologies take advantage of solar heat and light to offset the need
for electric heating, air conditioning, and lighting. Common passive solar techniques
include placing building windows in a south-facing orientation so that solar energy can
be absorbed or reflected as needed [1]. This works by changing the shading of the
window to affect absorption or reflection during winter and summer seasons.
Additionally, another form of passive solar energy is daylighting, in which walls are
made entirely of glass to allow natural lighting and minimize the need for electric
artificial lighting [1]. Active solar technologies include photovoltaic solar panels which
convert solar energy into electricity.
High performance insulation is another technology used in smart buildings to
further maximize the energy efficiency. The insulation is made up of panels consisting of
a sandwich of rigid foam plastic insulation and plywood [1]. The cost is nearly the same
as buildings with a wood frame construction, but the insulation can better keep the smart
buildings temperature constant.
3
What is Thermal Energy Storage (TES)?
Thermal energy storage (TES) is a technology that allows thermal energy to be
stored for later use. It is mainly used for heating and cooling thermal applications. For
example, excess heat during the day time can be stored and later accessed at night when
temperatures outside drop. Other examples include using stored chilled water as a way of
air conditioning and cooling in buildings or homes. There are multiple mediums for
storage of thermal energy: water or ice tanks, bedrock or other solid materials, and phase-
change materials are just a few.
There are two main types of thermal energy storage systems: sensible and latent.
If the storage medium remains in a single phase during the storing cycle, the TES is using
sensible heat. Sensible thermal energy storage generally involves the use of heated or
chilled water tanks. If the medium undergoes a phase change (for example, ice to water)
it is known as a latent TES system [4, pg. 233]. Therefore, in sensible TES systems, the
medium exhibits changes in temperature as heat is added or removed (as the system is
charged or discharged). On the other hand, in latent TES systems the temperature remains
constant because when heat is added or removed the energy is used to change the phase
(liquid to solid, for example) of the medium. Most TES systems use sensible single phase
storing cycles due to simplicity and their high efficiency. Their drawbacks include
requiring a larger volume of medium than latent systems, but the simplicity of the system
often overcomes this. Advantages of using a latent system, such as ice, are the compact
storage volume, but the drawbacks are that they require very low temperatures for
freezing water into ice and more insulation is required.
4
TES systems can be full storage or partial storage systems. This means that the
TES system may be completely capable of using thermal energy storage for cooling or
heating or it may only be able to partially reduce the load [5]. The selection and usage of
a TES system depends upon many factors such as storage period (daily versus seasonal,
for example), operating conditions (heating or cooling), and economic viability [4, pg
222].
When is using a TES system appropriate?
Once electricity is generated, it cannot be stored easily and efficiently in large
amounts. Therefore, power plants and companies must be able to generate enough
capacity to cover the highest peak of consumption which is usually the hottest days of
the year around noon time. Since thermal energy is easily stored, a TES system can
exploit the off peak hours of the day by using the electrical power to chill or heat water
that can then be used in air conditioning applications [4, pg 458]. Therefore,
implementing TES systems can significantly help meet modern needs for more efficient
and environmentally friendly energy use in a buildings heating and cooling. The use of
TES systems has been shown to be able to reduce energy consumption, energy costs, and
conserve limited fossil fuels by facilitating more efficient energy use.
Economic justification for TES systems usually requires that the annual capital
and operating costs be less than annualized costs of equipment supplying the same
service. TES systems are usually economically compelling when a building is in need of
expanding their current cooling or heating system or the building is undergoing new
construction. This cuts the initial cost of implementing the TES system and allows for the
initial investment to be recuperated faster through decreased annual costs [4, pg 212].
5
Implementation
TES can be implemented in two fashions: to reduce energy consumption or to
transfer an energy load from one period to another. The consumption reduction is
achieved through storing unused waste energy, such as solar energy or heat produced by
equipment or appliances. Energy load transfer is achieved by storing energy at a given
time for later use during peak hours. Electrical energy is normally high in demand during
the day time and for that reason costs more. There is much interest in using TES systems
to reduce peak demand by transferring the day time energy load to low consumption
periods during the night. The most common example is an electrical chiller that chills
water during the night and then uses the thermal energy to cool the building during the
day [4, pg 213].
A major application of TES is to lower electrical demand and reduce the
associated charges. Reduction of the charges is accomplished by limiting electrical
heating or cooling during peak electrical demand periods. Cooling and heating are then
set to operate during off peak hours and charge the TES. During the peak demand period,
the TES is used to either fully or partially cool the building leading to a reduction in
operating costs. Figure 1-1 provides an example of shifting the load of a building from
peak hours to off peak hours in order to reduce demand and cost during peak hours.
Building Building
Load(KW) Load(KW)
cooling
cooling cooling
Noncooling
Noncooling
0 Time 0 Time
Figure 1-1: Shifting the load from peak to off peak hours
6
TES systems like the one shown above can be implemented in a retrofit
application or as a new installation. For example, consider a buildings air conditioning
system that cannot maintain the building adequately cool during high cooling load hours
but does well during average cooling. Instead of expanding the current air cooling system,
a partial TES system could be added to the current system to reduce the high load. During
the average or low load hours the current air conditioning system could charge the TES,
and then during peak hours the TES would help reduce load. Overall, this would be an
effective retrofit application because the current air conditioning system would not need
to be upgraded to a larger system that would have more energy costs.
The best places to implement TES systems include locations where electric rates
have demand charges (for peak usage), buildings where most of the cooling load occurs
when there is peak electrical load and rates, and climates with higher temperatures during
the day [5]. The building must also have available physical space to house the storage
medium and equipment. The best candidates for TES systems are buildings that do not
need around the clock cooling. For example, a hospital would not be a primary candidate
for TES system because the hospital is always running and there would be no time (like
overnight) to charge the TES. The best candidates are office buildings, schools, and other
day time facilities [5].
TES: A Water Chilled Storage Design
Early refrigeration systems and cooling systems used blocks of ice as a means of
cooling. The invention of mechanical refrigeration led to a decrease in interest of using
cool storage systems. During the 1980s, electric companies realized that the peak demand
on their systems was exceedingly high and it needed to be reduced [5]. These companies
7
recognized that it was costing them more to produce electricity during peak hours and
began to offer financial incentives for customers to shift from using high peak energy
periods to low peak periods.
Chilled water thermal storage can be used with standard air conditioning chillers
without special equipment. The use of such a system is ideal for increasing the capacity
of an existing system or for the use in a new building. These systems are increasingly
economical as the tank size increase; for example, systems with million gallon tanks have
significantly lowered capital costs than non-storage chilled buildings [5]. As described
earlier, chilled water storage systems are taking advantage of the sensible heat capacity of
water. A well-designed chilled water storage system maximizes the cooling capacity by
minimizing the storage temperature and preventing the mix of return (warm) water with
the chilled water.
Chilled water storage systems typically use water temperatures between 4 and 7
degrees Celsius. This temperature range is compatible with most conventional cooling
systems and allows for the use of chilled water storage in older buildings. Chilled water
storage is best for applications requiring the storage of 7,000kWh or more of energy
(approximately a 200,000 gallon tank). Many large chilled water storage systems store
between 1 and 5 million gallons of water [5].
Chilled water systems must maintain thermal separation between cool water and
warm return water. There are multiple methods of achieving this: stratification, multiple
tanks, and membrane designs [7].
Stratified chilled water storage is generally accepted as the simplest and most
efficient method of chilled water storage separation. Stratified chilled water tanks use the
8
tendency of water to form layers based on temperature and density [5]. As water gets
colder it becomes denser (until 4C); therefore the cold water will collect and stabilize in
the bottom of the tank while the warm water is near the top. During the charging, warm
water is taken from the top of the container and is chilled. This water is then added to the
bottom of the tank. During discharge, water is taken from the lowest portion of the tank
and return warm water goes to the top. It is important that a diffuser distributes the flow
of water into and out of the tank smoothly to avoid turbulence and mixing of the water
[5]. A basic diagram of a stratified chilled system is shown below:
Building Building
ON ON
OFF ON
Chiller(OFF) Chiller(ON)
Warm Water Warm Water

(typical 17C) (typical 17C)
Transition Layer Transition Layer
Cold Water Cold Water

(typical 4C) (typical 4C)
Figure 1-2: Stratified chilled system during peak load and off peak load
On the left side of Figure 1-2, a CWS system is shown during peak load; the
chilled water is leaving the storage tank through the bottom and cooling the buildings air
conditioning coils. The figure on the right shows the system during low peak load; and
the warm water is being chilled overnight using low cost electricity rates [6].
9
1.2 Organization
The remainder of this thesis is organized as follows: Chapter 2 provides a
literature review of this research field, Chapter 3 describes the system design and
mathematical models, Chapter 4 presents the simulation results and analysis of results,
and Chapter 5 provides conclusions and future work.
10
Chapter 2
Literature review
2.1 Smart Building
Smart buildings often use multiple energy sources for power, both in-house
supplied and grid supplied energy, with an eye on reducing the overall amount of energy
that the building requires from the power grid. Multiple sources are used to not only
assure continuous and reliable power, but also to help reduce the cost of energy for the
building [18]. The benefits of a smart building are many fold for organizations with the
most sought after benefits being return on investment of building projects, reduction of
operating expenses for organizations, good will and good image, improvement of social
responsibility and sustainability, and energy savings [12]. While an organization can reap
all of these benefits by creating energy self-sustaining buildings, one often
underestimated fact is the ability to save money. A smart building is shown to reduce
costs through various mechanisms, including optimization of climate control, matching
power to usage patterns, through dynamic power consumption, and through proactive
measures to reduce the overall energy required [12]. Money savings can be achieved,
despite the large capital investments to build a smart building through not only the
conservation (reduction in use of overall energy by a building) but also through more
11
effective use of energy; namely using stored and captured energy during peak energy
times when the cost of grid-supplied energy is the greatest. Through the reduction of
peak-cost energy, relying only on grid energy during low cost periods of the day,
organizations can save on energy expenses. Fox-Penner (2010) finds that a smart building,
when designed and harnessed properly, can add up to tremendous energy savings as
buildings can reduce their reliance on the energy grid when costs are high. Reducing peak
demand has the ability to help the organization to avoid paying top-dollar for energy.
This is known as time of use [13].
2.2 Time of Use
Smart building can reduce the overall energy use of a building, yet real cost
savings can be achieved by using energy in a wise manner, namely purchasing energy
when it is at low cost and using stored energy when the cost of supplied energy is at its
highest. Therefore, it is important to understand when energy costs are high and then rely
strictly upon stored energy during these times, switching from the grid to stored energy.
Energy switching during peak times is known as time of use or the ability to use signals
and feedback from the grid to plan when to use stored energy and when to rely upon the
grid for energy. While traditional non-grid power relies on the sources for energy flow
continuously and uses grid when stored energy is exhausted, such as at night when the
sun is no longer providing energy, time of use scheme uses grid energy when costs are
lowest (e.g., at night) and utilizes the stored energy during peak hours [18].
Time of use is also known as dynamic power consumption which takes signals
from the open electricity market and alters usage of grid-supplied power to be high
during non-peak times and low or none during peak usage and cost periods. Power
12
companies supply power at different rates depending upon demand and during high-use
times. Additionally, the power rate is higher for consumption, but also higher for power
buy back. This means that power used off the grid will cost more at peak times than at
non-peak times; however, any excess energy returned to the grid will also reap higher
paybacks. Therefore, companies that can store power for high peak times can alter usage
by using in-house power only during peak rate times and can also return any excess
energy back to offset grid supplied power costs [15].
Time of use looks at ways to reduce the overall cost of energy and how the use of
storage devices, such as batteries and water tanks, can help the organization use grid
energy during low-cost hours and rely upon smart energy during high-cost hours.
Therefore, not only is energy use reduced, but also the expense of the energy used is
reduced due to lower electrical rates during off-peak hours. Having multiple energy
sources within a structure allows more optimal power management and therefore a smart
building must incorporate real-time calculations and demands into planning and not just
efficiency measures to assure optimal payback of the system [18]. In order for time of use
energy to work, the building must have sufficient and reliable energy storage to assure
that the building can switch off-grid when needed to save money.
2.3 Energy Storage Technologies Available for On-Demand Energy
On-demand power requires saved and stored power to provide energy.
Traditionally renewable or green energy is both produced for immediate use and also
stored for on-demand use in a variety of energy storage capacity devices. While batteries
are the best known and most utilized source of on-demand power, smart buildings must
use numerous technologies to assure that needed power is both available and reliable and
13
can be sourced when the grid-supplied energy is at its peak. While smart buildings do not
suffer power fluctuations, on-demand power shifting requires adequate on-hand power to
supply power during peak-cost power times, thus allowing the conversion from grid to
stored power [19]. The most utilized storage devices used in smart buildings are batteries,
ice/heat storage units, water tanks, kinetic energy, super-capacitors and flywheels.
Each technology, while different in design and ability, works by taking produced
energy from sources, such as solar or wind power, and storing the energy in-house until
the energy is required to power the building. Storing energy has two main advantages:
reliable and continuous power and the ability to assure that produced energy is neither
lost nor sent into the grid during low-rate periods. By having energy stored, the building
can not only use the energy anytime, such as when power demand is highest and most
expensive, but can also be used to release excess energy back into the grid when the buy-
back rates are highest [16].
Batteries come in many different forms and are the most utilized source of energy
storage in smart buildings. Batteries can be lead-acid, nickel-based, lithium-ion, sodium-
sulfur, or flow. Batteries store and produce energy through chemical reactions that
produce electrons; this reaction is stored within the cell and creates flows when
demanded. The energy can be depleted and then reversed by sending electrons back into
the cells. The storage is long-term and can be expanded through the use of multiple
batteries [19]. Flywheels store energy in a rotating disk and as energy is added, the
flywheel speed increases, storing energy as rotational energy. As energy is extracted from
the flywheel it reduces speed and thus loses rotation [19]. Super-capacitors store energy
by the capacitance effect. The energy is stored between plates and then can be released
14
when needed [19]. Water tanks store energy as heat by heating or cooling stored water
and holding the water to be released to either run turbines for power or to flow through
radiators to produce heat. Ice/heat storage systems work by storing the energy as either
ice or hot water and then releasing this energy to regulate the climate within a building,
reducing the need for electricity-controlled units [16].
2.4 Technologies for Shifting Load Demand
Properly regulating energy use and switching from the grid to internally stored
energy is known as demand-side management where the customer controls the flow of
energy to and from the grid. Demand-side management of power requires the customer to
control power use and to regulate the flow of power from the grid into the structure. As
such, the customer can control not only the amount of energy from the grid, but also the
times when energy from the grid can flow. Smart switching allows customers to make
informed choices about energy consumption, adjusting both the timing and quantity of
energy use [11]. Shifting of load demand from the grid to internal energy requires the
ability to monitor the grid and to understand when peak energy times are, thus assuring
that energy use is not only reduced when the peak demand occurs, but also that the
energy comes from the storage and not the grid. Demand switches work by shutting off
power from a source and then opening a switch to allow power to flow from another
source. As such, the flow of energy is controlled thus assuring that the right power is
being used only at the right time [11].
Load shifting requires the use of controls to not only understand when the load
should be switched, but also to control what sources of energy are utilized to assure that
the in-house power is used effectively and efficiently. Through verification of demand
15
and continual monitoring of the grid, signals activate the load shifting and give the
customer complete control of energy within the building. Load shifting controls include
DG/S control devices that optimize usage and storage of energy and building energy
controllers which fully monitor and regulate the use of energy based upon time,
conditions, and available energy [11].
2.5 Optimization of System for Cost Savings
Integration of energy storage systems into power supplies and the grid is not new,
yet the advanced power electronics require special designs and controls which can require
costly designs and debugging of systems to assure the on-demand power supplies operate
effectively and that switching of power is controlled in real-time. When operating on-
demand power systems in a smart building, it is a requirement of the storage system to
operate and to control power flow and demand, thus creating issues within the system in
terms of demand, supply, switching and storage. Without an optimized system, cost
savings are offset or not realized [14].
Smart grid technology and smart building work only when optimized around
reduced demand and also around assuring that the demand is decreased during times of
prime-cost energy. Therefore, system optimization requires the use of intelligent system
architecture to assure ongoing monitoring of environments for use and to optimize power
usage based upon records of time, persons, demand, and temperature. The information
about relevant occupancy and setting conditions, as well as the final values of
environmental variables is used to train a multi-layer neural network whose outcomes
will provide ideal environmental values in case of absence of occupants or of provided
preference information. These systems control environments and provide optimized
16
energy, lowering usage at key times and offering substantial cost savings through
automation of environments [17].
2.6 Chilled Water Storage System Operation
Thermal storage units, including chilled water storage units, are usually in place
due to the economical advantage that they provide by utilizing energy during the off peak
period and their decreased energy use during the peak period. The two most common
models for chilled water storage would be a partial storage system and a full storage
system. One offers the capability of storing enough energy so that the chillers do not have
to run at all during the peak period, and the partial storage system can store enough to
lessen the demand during the peak period [5], [10].
In a full storage system, enough water is chilled during the off peak period to
satisfy the demand during the peak hours. During the peak hours, the chiller is not
operating, and all the cooling is done from the chilled water storage. The advantage of
this system is to maximize the savings by only using electricity during the off peak period
(which is the cheapest), and using none during the peak hours. However, since enough
water needs to be chilled to meet the total demand, the storage capacity needs to be very
large, and the cost of equipment is considerably more than the partial storage unit. Full
storage system is best utilized when there is a big gap in pricing between peak and off
peak usage, or if the peak period demand is short [5], [10].
The main type of partial storage system is the load leveling system. In this system,
the chiller is running at full capacity at all times. The chiller is on 24 hours, so the chiller
capacity is maximized. During the off peak period, the water is chilled. During the peak
17
period, the chiller is still on while complemented by the chilled water, utilizing all of the
stored chilled water during the peak hours. This is usually called load leveling. The
chilled water storage system is charged when the demand is less than the output of the
chiller, and the system is discharged when the demand is more than the output of the
chiller. The advantage of partial storage system is to minimize the cost of building a
larger water tank, as well as a more powerful chiller. The disadvantage is the electricity
usage is balanced between peak and off peak period, and the savings of using the off peak
price is not maximized. The system is usually used when there isnt a large pricing
difference between peak and off peak or when the peak usage or period is very long [5],
[10].
Another type of partial storage is demand limiting. It is similar to the partial
storage in that the chiller is always on, but only is at the maximum capacity during the off
peak period, and during the peak period the chiller is running below maximum capacity,
while being assisted from the chilled water storage. This system is essentially a hybrid
between the load leveling and full load system. The cost is in between the full load and
load leveling systems, as is the savings between those two. The main reason for using this
system is when there is a limit on how much energy can be used at one time during the
peak period. In this situation, the options left are the full load and demand limiting
systems. The capital cost of installing the demand limiting load is less than the full load,
but the savings are not as great [5], [10].
18
Chapter 3
System design
3.1 Structure of System
The proposed agent controlled CWS system in a smart building comprises a two-
layer agent management structure, which communicates between the utility power grid, a
CWS system and a smart building, as seen in Figure 3-1.
Utility Power Grid
Primary Agent
(Multiple pricing
methods)
Local Agent
(7 Different Strategies)
Smart Building
CWS System
(HVAC Load)
Figure 3-1: The proposed structure of the designed system
19
The primary agent communicates with the local agent and controls the electric
supply from the utility power grid into the smart building. The main function of the
primary agent is to set the electricity price based on the current electricity load on the
utility power grid as a whole. The primary agent often has multiple pricing methods.
These prices usually vary based on the amount of electricity purchased or used as well as
the time of day and month of the usage. The prices can be adjusted in real-time. This
means that the price varies every day and time based on the current load of the power
grid. Alternatively, other pricing methods exist which charge by average load for that
particular season (e.g., winter versus summer).
On the other hand, the local agent is responsible for communicating with the
smart building, the CWS system and the primary agent, so as to control the electric
supply into the smart building. In particular, the local agent collects and analyzes
information from the primary agent, the CWS system and the smart building, such as the
HVAC loads of the smart building, the pricing methods (determined by the primary
agent), the CWS capacity, the CWS current charge, as well as user defined input.
Accordingly the local agent chooses a suitable strategy that would optimize the charging
and discharging of the CWS in order to satisfy the users goal and needs. After an
operational strategy is chosen, the local agent applies a pricing method from the primary
agent and operates the HVAC and the CWS system (e.g., when to charge and discharge
the CWS and when to turn off or turn on the HVAC).
This management system allows for easy and optimal energy usage and reduction
of operating costs for the smart building.
20
3.2 Operational Strategies in Local Agent
The local agent operates under various strategies to meet different consumers
demands. The strategies may include, but are not limited to, those described as follows:
Strategy 0:
The smart building works without a CWS system. Refer to Fig. 3-2, there is no
energy shifting for the HVAC load.
QLoad(KW)
0 24 Time (hours)
Figure 3-2: HVAC load without a CWS system
The electric energy consumption on the chillers is

Q (t)
Energy Consumption = dt (3.1)
COP(temp(t))
Consequently, the electricity expense is

Q (t)
Electricity Cost = Price(t)dt (3.2)
COP(temp(t))
Strategy 1:
Scope:
The HVAC loads have one peak per day; the rest is off peak periods.
Description of strategies:
Full storage;
21
During the peak period, the chillers stop working; only the CWS tanks
supply the HVAC loads of the smart building;
During the off peak period, the chillers supply the HVAC loads and
charge the CWS tanks at the same time.
Pictorial Illustration:
QLoad(KW)
Wchiller
0 hb he 24
Time(hours)
Figure 3-3: HVAC load shifting in strategy 1
Mathematical Models:
,-
%&'() (*)+*
,.
,.
(01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) %&'() (*))+*

+ >01,233-4 678?*9:;(*)@ %&'() (*)A +* (3.3)
,-
Wherein,
hb: peak period begin
he: peak period end
QLoad(t): the HVAC load of the smart building
WChiller: power rating of the chillers
CD
BCE Q (t)dt : the peak loads shifted to the off peak period
22
CE
B (WGCHIIDJ COP(temp(t)) Q (t))dt + BCD (WGCHIIDJ COP(temp(t))
Q (t))dt: The rest capability of the chillers after supplying the HVAC loads during
the off peak period
COP(temp(t)): coefficient of performance regarding the chillers
temp(t): wet bulb temperatures
,-
(1 K3'LL ) N OP(QR = %&'() (*)+* (3.4)
,.
k IUU : coefficient of thermal energy loss of the CWS tanks per day; typically
k IUU 2%
N: number of the CWS tanks
Etank: the maximum thermal energy stored per tank.
1, (he hb 4) and (24 lb + le) 4

N=X (3.5)
2, (he hb < 4) or (24 lb + le) < 4
A tank needs to be charged or discharged more than 4 hours in order to eliminate
turbulence and provide a stable, sharply defined transition layer, or thermocline. If the
charging or discharging time is less than 4 hours, two parallel tanks need to be used.
Strategy 2:
Scopes:
The HVAC loads have one peak, one regular period, and one off peak period.
Basic strategies:
Full storage;
supply the HVAC loads of the smart building;
23
During the regular period, the chillers supply the HVAC loads
charge the CWS tanks.
QLoad(KW)
Wchiller
0 le hb he lb 24 Time(hours)
,-
%&'() (*)+*
,.
3-
(01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) %&'() (*))+*

+ (01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) %&'() (*))+* (3.6)
3.
Wherein,
lb: off peak period begin
le: off peak period end
In order to maximize the shifting loads, the chillers may supply HVAC loads and
charge the CWS tanks during the regular period.
24
,-
%&'() (*)+*
,.
,.
(01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) %&'() (*))+*

+ (01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) %&'() (*))+* (3.7)
,-
Strategy 3-1:
Scopes:
The HVAC load has multiple peak periods, regular periods, and off-peak periods.
Basic strategies:
Full storage;
supply the HVAC load of the smart building;
During the regular periods, the chillers supply the HVAC loads;
During the off peak periods, chillers supply the HVAC load and charge
the CWS tanks.
QLoad(KW)
Wchiller
0 le1 hb1 he1 lb1 le1 hb1 he2 lb1 24 Time(hours)
25
c ,-2
b (Q&'() (*))+*
2de ,.2
3-e
(01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) Q&'() (*))+*

c 3-2
+ b (01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) Q&'() (*))+*
2d 3.2

+ (01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) Q&'() (*))+* (3.8)
3.e
Strategy 3-2:

g CDH
b (Q (t))dt
Hde CEH
CEe
(WGCHIIDJ COP(temp(t)) Q (t))dt

g CEH
+b (WGCHIIDJ COP(temp(t)) Q (t))dt
Hd CD(Hhe)

+ (WGCHIIDJ COP(temp(t)) Q (t))dt (3.9)
CDg
26
Strategy 4:
Scopes:
The HVAC load has one peak period per day; the rest are off-peak periods.
Basic strategies:
Partial storage;
During the peak period, both the chillers and the CWS tanks supply the
HVAC loads of the smart building;
During the off peak period, chillers supply the HVAC loads and charge
the CWS tanks.
QLoad(KW)
Wchiller
0 hb he 24 Time(hours)
,-
(%&'() (*) 01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)))+*
,.
,.
(01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) %&'() (*))+*

+ (01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) %&'() (*))+* (3.10)
,-
27
Strategy 5:
Scopes:
The HVAC loads have one peak, one regular period, and one off peak period.
Basic strategies:
Partial storage;
During the peak period, both the chillers and the CWS tanks supply the
HVAC loads of the smart building;
During the regular period, the chillers supply the HVAC loads;
charge the CWS tanks.
QLoad(KW)
Wchiller
0 le hb he lb 24 Time(hours)
,-
(%&'() (*) 01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)))+*
,.
3-
(01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) %&'() (*))+*

+ (01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) %&'() (*))+* (3.11)
3.
28
,- ,.
B,. (%&'() (*) 01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)))+* B (01,233-4 678(*9:;(*))

%&'() (*))+* + B,- (01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) %&'() (*))+* (3.12)
29
Strategy 6-1:
Scopes:
The HVAC load has multiple peak periods, regular periods, and off-peak periods.
Basic strategies:
Partial storage;
During the peak periods, the chillers stop working; only the CWS tanks
supply the HVAC load of the smart building;
During the regular periods, the chillers supply the HVAC loads;
During the off peak periods, chillers supply the AC load and charge the
CWS tanks.
QLoad(KW)
Wchiller
0 le2 hb1 he1 lb1 le1 hb2 he2 lb2 24 Time(hours)
c ,-2
b (%&'() (*) 01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)))+*
2de ,.2
3-e
(01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) %&'() (*))+*

c 3-2
+ b (01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) %&'() (*))+*
2d 3.2

+ (01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) %&'() (*))+* (3.13)
3.e
30
Strategy 6-2:

c ,-2
b (%&'() (*) 01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)))+*
2de ,.2
,.e
(01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) %&'() (*))+*

c ,.2
+ b (01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) %&'() (*))+*
2d ,-(2he)

+ (01,233-4 678(*9:;(*)) %&'() (*))+* (3.14)
,-c
31
Strategy 7:
Scopes: Real-time pricing
Basic strategies:
When EPrice is lower than or equal to a predetermined buy price and the
CWS tanks are not full, charge the tanks;
When EPrice is higher than or equal to the cost per unit multiplied by a
profit margin and the tanks are not empty, discharge the tanks;
The buy price is adjusted by an average rolling method.
CWSPERC: energy storage percentage; detected by temperature sensors in CWS
tanks
EPRICE: real-time price, reflect the demand degree in local grid
BUYPRICE: buy price
CWSCOST: average cost per unit in CWS tanks
PROFITMARGIN: target profit=sell price/buy price; typically
PROFITMARGIN=3
Determining Buy Price:

Bhr O8pq6O(*)+*
BUYPRICE = (3.15)
36 (8p7sqtuvpwqN + 1)
Charging Procedure:
WHILE EPRICE<=BUYPRICE AND CWSPERC<100
CHARGE;
32
SET Timer t;
60x67xt = 60x8Op6 60x67xt

P
(01,233-4 %&'() ) O8pq6O
+ +* (3.16)
678(*9:;(*))
60x8Op6 = 60x8Op6
P
01,233-4 678?*9:;(*)@ %&'()
+ +* (3.17)
OP(QR
ENDWHILE
Discharging Procedure:
WHILE EPRICE>=CWSCOST*PROFITMARGIN and CWSPERC>0
DISCARGE;
SET a timer t;
P
%&'()
60x8Op6 = 60x8Op6 +* (3.18)
' OP(QR
ENDWHILE
33
Chapter 4
Simulation and Analysis
4.1 Simulation result of each strategy
An Expo Center project in Shanghai is illustrated here as an exemplary
simulation. Since July is the hottest month in Shanghai, the weather data of a typical July
day is used to test the capacity of the system. The wet bulb temperatures of the same day
are shown in table 4.1:
Table 4.1 The WBT profile
HOURS 0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00

WBT() 25.18 26.17 27.95 29.64 30.17 28.9 27.02 26.11
HOURS 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
WBT() 26.19 26.18 26.09 25.91 25.67 25.37 25.01 24.65
HOURS 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00
WBT() 24.29 24.01 23.82 23.75 23.85 24.04 24.29 24.51
COP is the ratio of cooling production to the actual energy consumption [23]. It
measures the efficiency of a cooling pump. A higher COP means higher efficiency and
lower operation cost. According to the models used in other projects, we assume COP
and wet bulb temperate has a linear relationship [22], [24]. Regarding the chillers used in
the project, COP is 5.6 during 20C, refer to Equation 4-1.
678 = (1 z(0{t 20)) 5.6 (4.1)
34
In this project, K is assumed as 2%, refer to Figure 4-1.
6.5
6
COP
5.5
4.5
4
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Wet Bulb Temperature(C)
Figure 4-1: The COP profile under the different wet bulb temperature
32
wet bulb temperature(C)
30
28
26
24
22
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (h)
5.2
5
COP
4.8
4.6
4.4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (h)
Figure 4-2: Daily WBT and COP data
The estimated HVAC load in a typical day is shown in table 4.2.
Table 4.2 The HVAC load profile
HOURS 0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00

LOAD (KW) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13070
HOURS 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
LOAD (KW) 34810 57656 65173 66599 60116 61812 70769 71205
HOURS 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00
LOAD (KW) 70681 69321 36799 41444 12105 8815 0 0
35
The primary agent offers different pricing methods, including constant pricing,
two-period TOU pricing, three-period TOU pricing, and multiple-period TOU pricing,
and real-time pricing. The first four pricing methods are shown in Figure 4-3.
Constant Pricing Two-Period TOU Pricing

Electricity Pricing($)
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours) Time (hours)
Three-Period TOU Pricing Multi-Period TOU Pricing
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours) Time (hours)
Figure 4-3: Four electrical pricing methods proposed in the project
According to these assumptions, the strategies in the local agent are simulated and
analyzed as follows:
Strategy 0:
4
x 10
8
5
Q (KW)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
Figure 4-4: Electricity consumption in strategy 0
The figure above illustrates the energy usage without a CWS system. This is a
foundation of the HVAC system that is used to compare with the following strategies.
36
Strategy 1
4
x 10
10
CHILLER TO BUILDING
CHILLER TO TANK
8 TANK TO BUILDING
Q (KW)
4
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
Figure 4-5: Thermal energy usage in strategy 1
The figure above illustrates the thermal energy usage in strategy 1. Strategy 1
employs a system with charging the CWS tanks during off peak periods (22:00-6:00) and
utilizing the stored energy during peak periods (6:00-22:00). Using this strategy, there is
full storage which allows the CWS tanks to completely cool the building during peak
hours without the need of running the chillers.
4 Electricity consumption
x 10
1.5
W (KW)
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
The figure above illustrates the electrical consumption of strategy 1. As seen
above, electricity is only used during the off peak hours of (22:00-6:00).
37
4
x 10 Cooling production
10
Q (KW)
6
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
Figure 4-7: Cooling production by chillers in strategy 1
The figure above illustrates the cooling production by chillers in strategy 1. As
seen above, the CWS is only cooled during the off peak hours of 22:00-6:00. This aligns
itself with the same time frame of electricity consumption seen in Figure 4-6. It can be
noted that although electricity consumption is constant over this period, the cooling
production slightly decreases due to changing COP.
Strategy 2
4
x 10
10
CHILLER TO BUILDING
9 CHILLER TO TANK
TANK TO BUILDING
8
6
Q (KW)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
The figure above illustrates thermal energy usage in strategy 2. Strategy 2
employs a system with charging the CWS tanks during off peak periods (22:00-6:00),
utilizing the stored energy during the peak periods (8:00-21:00) and uses the chillers to
38
directly supply the building during regular period (6:00-8:00 & 21:00-22:00). Using this
strategy, only the CWS tanks operate during peak hours while only the chillers operate
during the regular periods.

4
x 10 Electricity consumption
2.2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
Q (KW)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
The figure above illustrates the electrical consumption of strategy 2. As seen from
above, electricity is only consumed during the off peak hours of (22:00-6:00) to charge
the CWS and during regular hours to cool the building (6:00-8:00 & 21:00-22:00).
4
11
10
6
Q (KW)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
The figure above illustrates the cooling production of strategy 2. As seen from
above, the CWS is only cooled during the off peak hours of 22:00-6:00 and the building
is cooled during regular hours (6:00-8:00 & 21:00-22:00). This aligns itself with the same
time frame of electricity consumption as seen in Figure 4-9.
39
Strategy 3-1
4
x 10
8
CHILLER TO BUILDING
CHILLER TO TANK
7
TANK TO BUILDING
Q (KW)
4
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
Figure 4-11: Thermal energy usage in strategy 3-1
The figure above illustrates the thermal energy usage under strategy 3-1. Strategy
3-1 employs a system that uses the chillers to directly cool the building during multiple
regular periods (as indicated in teal color) and during peak periods the CWS tanks cool
the building (as indicated in purple). Charging of the CWS tanks takes place during off
peak periods (22:00-6:00). Using this strategy, there are multiple regular periods and
therefore less usage of the CWS to cool the building throughout the day.
Electricity consumption
15000
12500
10000
Q (KW)
7500
5000
2500
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
Figure 4-12: Electricity consumption in strategy 3-1
The figure above illustrates the electricity consumption of strategy 3-1. As seen
from above, electricity is used during the off peak hours of (22:00-6:00) to charge the
40
CWS and during various regular hours (6:00-8:00, 11:00-13:00, 15-18, and 21:00-22:00)
to cool the building.

4
8
5
Q (KW)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
Figure 4-13: Cooling production by chillers in strategy 3-1.
The figure above illustrates the cooling production of strategy 3-1. As seen above,
the CWS is cooled during the off peak hours of 22:00-6:00 and the building is cooled
during multiple regular hours between 6:00 and 22:00. This aligns itself with the same
time frame of electricity consumption seen in Figure 4-12.
Strategy 3-2
4
x 10
8
CHILLER TO BUILDING
7 CHILLER TO TANK
TANK TO BUILDING
5
Q (KW)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
The figure above illustrates the thermal energy usage under strategy 3-2. Strategy
3-2 is a variant of strategy 3-1. The CWS tanks still cool the building during peak
periods. However, both the CWS and the chillers operate during the regular periods. If
41
the chillers cannot satisfy the demand of the building, the CWS will supplement the rest.
On the other hand, if the demand of the building is low, the extra thermal energy
production of the chillers will be charged into the CWS.

11000
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
W (KW)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
Figure 4-15: Electricity consumption in strategy 3-2.
The figure above illustrates the electrical consumption of strategy 3-2. As seen
from above, electricity is used during the off peak hours of to charge the CWS and during
various regular hours to cool the building and/or charge the CWS.
4
6
4
Q (KW)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
Figure 4-16: Cooling production by chillers in strategy 3-2
The figure above illustrates the cooling production of strategy 3-2. As seen from
above, the CWS is cooled during the off peak hours and the building is cooled during
multiple regular hours between 6:00 and 22:00. This aligns itself with the same time
frame of electricity consumption as seen in Figure 4-15.
42
Strategy 4
4
x 10
8
CHILLER TO BUILDING
7 CHILLER TO TANK
TANK TO BUILDING
Q (KW)
4
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
The figure above illustrates the HVAC usage under strategy 4. Strategy 4 employs
a system that uses CWS tanks to partially cool the building (as indicated in purple)
throughout the day in order to stabilize the electricity consumption. Using this strategy,
there is usage of both the CWS and the chillers to cool the building (8:00-20:00). There is
also usage of the chillers to cool the building and to charge the CWS (7:00-8:00 and
20:00-22:00).
8000
7000
6000
5000
W (KW)
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
above, the electrical usage is the same throughout the entire day. This is due to the CWS
charging throughout the night and the HVAC running during the day. The reason for this
43
is that a smaller CWS or chiller is used in this strategy and therefore it is not large enough
to cool the entire building during peak hours.

4
3.5
2.5
2
Q (KW)
1.5
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
The figure above illustrates the cooling production of strategy 4. The cooling
production is constant throughout the day due to the nature of this model using a small
CWS. This aligns itself with the same time frame of electricity consumption as seen in
Figure 4-18.
Strategy 5
4
x 10
8
CHILLER TO BUILDING
7 CHILLER TO TANK
TANK TO BUILDING
5
Q (KW)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
the same system as that of strategy 4, which uses CWS tanks to partially cool the building
(as indicated in purple) throughout the day in order to stabilize the electricity
44
consumption. Using this strategy, there is usage of both the CWS and the chillers to cool
the building (8:00-20:00). There is also usage of the chillers to cool the building and to
charge the CWS (7:00-8:00 and 20:00-22:00).

8000
7000
6000
5000
W (KW)
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
The figure above illustrates the electrical consumption of strategy 5. As seen from
above, the electrical usage is the same throughout the entire day; this is due to using a
smaller, partial CWS tank system.

4 Cooling production
x 10
3.5
2.5
2
Q (KW)
1.5
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
production is constant throughout the day due to the nature of this model using a partial
CWS. This aligns itself with the same time frame of electricity consumption as seen in
Figure 4-21.
45
Strategy 6-1
4
x 10
8
CHILLER TO BUILDING
7 CHILLER TO TANK
TANK TO BUILDING
5
Q (KW)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
The figure above illustrates the HVAC usage under strategy 6-1. Strategy 6-1
employs a system that uses CWS tanks to partially cool the building throughout multiple
peak periods. Using this strategy, there is usage of the chillers to completely cool the
building during multiple regular periods (6:00-8:00, 11:00-13:00, 15:00-18:00, 21:00-
22:00) as well as usage of both HVAC and the CWS to cool the building during multiple
peak periods (8:00-11:00, 13:00-15:00, 18:00-20:00).

16000
14000
12000
10000
W (KW)
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
The figure above illustrates the electrical consumption of strategy 6-1. As seen
above, the electrical usage is highest during regular hours in which the HVAC is directly
46
cooling the building. During peak hours, the usage is constant because the CWS is
assisting by partially cooling the building.

4
8
5
Q (KW)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
production varies due to the nature of this model using a partial CWS combined with
multiple peak and regular periods. This aligns itself with the same time frame of
electricity consumption as seen in Figure 4-24.
Strategy 6-2
4
x 10
8
CHILLER TO BUILDING
7 CHILLER TO TANK
TANK TO BUILDING
5
Q (KW)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
The figure above illustrates the HVAC usage under strategy 6-2. Strategy 6-2
employs a system that uses CWS tanks to partially cool the building (as indicated in
purple) throughout the day in order to stabilize the electricity consumption, regardless of
47
the electricity pricing. Using this strategy, there is usage of both the CWS and the chillers
to cool the building (8:00-20:00). There is also usage of the chillers to cool the building
and to charge the CWS (7:00-8:00 and 20:00-22:00).

8000
7000
6000
5000
W (KW)
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
The figure above illustrates the electrical consumption of strategy 6-2. As can be
seen above, the electrical usage is constant. This is because the CWS is only partially
powering the building during peak periods (the HVAC is constantly running even when
the CWS is cooling the building).

4 Cooling production
x 10
3.5
2.5
2
Q (KW)
1.5
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
The figure above illustrates the cooling production of strategy 6-2. This aligns
itself with the same time frame of electricity consumption as seen in Figure 4-27.
Strategy 7
48
4
x 10
8 CHILLER TO BUILDING
CHILLER TO TANK
7 TANK TO BUILDING
Q (KW)
4
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
a system that uses CWS to cool the building throughout the day based on real-time
pricing. Using this strategy, there is usage of the HVAC to completely cool the building
during low cost times (indicated by teal) as well as usage of the CWS to cool the building
during high cost times (indicated by purple). Additionally, the CWS tanks are charged
when the cost is the lowest (22:00-6:00).

18000
16000
14000
12000
10000
W (KW)
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
above, the electrical usage is highest when electrical costs are lowest (during low-cost
mid-day periods and at night).
49
4
8
Q (KW)
4
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)
The figure above illustrates the cooling production of strategy 7. This aligns itself
with the same time frame of electricity consumption as seen in Figure 4-30.
50
4.2 Comparisons of each strategy
The clients often evaluate the strategies based upon electricity costs, chiller
capacities, and electricity consumptions. Refer to table 4.3, figure 4-32, figure 4-33, and
figure 4-34.
Table 4.3 Electrical cost, chiller capacity, and energy consumption of each strategy
STRATEGIES ELECTRICITY CHILLER ELECTRICITY

COST($) CAPACITY CONSUMPTION(KW)
(KW)
0 $ 22,447.39 14041 147196
1 $ 12,854.00 19266 154128
2 $ 7,521.31 18696 153937
3-1 $ 12,449.63 14017 150477
3-2 $ 12,778.96 9424 150784
4 $ 21,587.20 6229 149496
5 $ 20,574.31 6229 149496
6-1 $ 18,174.27 14017 148597
6-2 $ 18,263.36 6229 149496
7 $ 14,117.33 15000 186188
51
4
x 10
2.5
ELECTRICITY COST($)
1.5
0.5
0
S0 S1 S2 S3-1 S3-2 S4 S5 S6-1 S6-2 S7
STRATEGIES
Figure 4-32: The electricity cost for different strategies of the CWS system
4
x 10
2.2
1.8
1.6
CHILLER CAPACITY (KW)
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 S0 S1 S2 S3-1 S3-2 S4 S5 S6-1 S6-2 S7
STRATEGIES
Figure 4-33: The chiller capacity for different strategies of the CWS system
52
5
x 10
2
1.8
1.6
ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION(KW)
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
S0 S1 S2 S3-1 S3-2 S4 S5 S6-1 S6-2 S7
STRATEGIES
Figure 4-34: The electricity consumption for different strategies of the CWS system
However, in comparing and contrasting the different strategies, there is not a
single best strategy, but different strategies have their distinct advantages and
disadvantages in different application scenarios. S2 has the lowest cost of operation out
of all the strategies, which is probably preferred by most clients, but because of its large
capacity (the second largest of all the strategies), it requires a more expensive upfront
capital investment. S0 has the lowest overall energy consumption, but has the highest
cost of operation. S4, S5 and S6-2 have the lowest chiller capacities, so they have the
lowest initial investment. A strategy with lower overall energy consumption is good for
places that offer tax or tariff credits under a certain power consumption threshold. In
summary, when a company is choosing which strategy to implement, they have to choose
a strategy that is suitable for their specific situation, as different strategies each have pros
and cons.
53
Chapter 5
Conclusion and future work
5.1 Conclusion
The proposed system offers an efficient energy management structure for a CWS
system. By using the predetermined strategies in the local agent, clients are able to
cooperate with the primary agents multiple pricing methods to achieve the clients
HVAC consumption goals, such as saving electricity costs, lowering initial installment
costs, or lowering carbon dioxide output.
5.2 Future Work
Renewable Energy
Renewable energy resources such as solar power and wind power can be
considered as further improvements to this system design. The renewable energy
resources are not as reliable as the traditional ones because they are affected by weather
conditions. Instead of using energy storage batteries, the CWS system is a cheaper and
greener alternative to shift renewable energy for meeting users peak demand. The CWS
systems under the proposed management system are not only charged by utility power
grid, but also can be charged by the local renewable energy resource. The agents can
communicate and negotiate between each other; and they can help the smart building to
54
intelligently choose what time to charge and discharge. The renewable energy resource is
always the first choice when charging the tank and supplying the demand of the building.
Real-time Pricing Optimization
Although real-time pricing has not been widely deployed, various optimization
strategies could be used for managing smart building electricity expenses. The future
studies may focus on a comprehensive algorithm for the real-time pricing policy.
Theoretically, the algorithm is also workable under current TOU policies. Artificial
intelligence technologies may be used in this study.
55
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59

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Chilled water storage for effective energy

Follow this and additional works at: http://utdr.utoledo.edu/theses-dissertations

Chilled Water Storage for Effective Energy Management in Smart Buildings

Master of Science Degree in Electrical Engineering

The University of Toledo

Chilled Water Storage for Effective Energy Management in Smart Buildings

The University of Toledo

A smart building takes advantage of new highly energy-efficient technologies,

strategies may be suitable for that particular application.

and useful critiques of my research work.

serving on my committee. Thanks for their time in this work.

Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... vi

List of Tables ................................................................................................................. viii

List of Figures .................................................................................................................... ix

List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................................ xii

1.1 Background .......................................................................................................2

1.2 Organization ....................................................................................................10

2.1 Smart Building .................................................................................................11

2.2 Time of Use......................................................................................................12

2.3 Energy Storage Technologies Available for On-Demand Energy ...................13

2.4 Technologies for Shifting Load Demand .........................................................15

2.5 Optimization of System for Cost Savings ........................................................16

2.6 Chilled Water Storage System Operation ........................................................17

3 System design and description ...............................................................................19

3.1 Structure of System ..........................................................................................19

3.2 Operational Strategies in Local Agent .............................................................21

4.1 Simulation result of each strategy ....................................................................34

4.2 Comparisons of each strategy ..........................................................................51

5 Concluding remarks and future work ....................................................................54

5.1 Concluding remarks .........................................................................................54

5.2 Future work. .................................................................................................54

4.1 The WBT profile ......................................................................................................... 34

4.2 The HVAC load profile .............................................................................................. 35

3-1: The proposed structure of the designed system ..........................................................19

3-2: HVAC load without a CWS system ...........................................................................21

3-3: HVAC load shifting in strategy 1 ...............................................................................22

3-4: HVAC load shifting in strategy 2 ...............................................................................24

3-5: HVAC load shifting in strategy 3 ...............................................................................25

3-6: HVAC load shifting in strategy 4 ...............................................................................27

3-7: HVAC load shifting in strategy 5 ...............................................................................28

3-8: HVAC load shifting in strategy 6 ...............................................................................30

4-2: Daily WBT and COP data ..........................................................................................35

4-3: Four electrical pricing methods proposed in the project ............................................36

4-4: Electricity consumption in strategy 0 .........................................................................36

4-5: Thermal energy usage in strategy 1 ............................................................................37

4-6: Electricity consumption in strategy 1 .........................................................................37

4-7: Cooling production by chillers in strategy 1 ..............................................................38

4-8: Thermal energy usage in strategy 2 ............................................................................38

4-9: Electricity consumption in strategy 2 .........................................................................39

4-11: Thermal energy usage in strategy 3-1 ......................................................................40

4-12: Electricity consumption in strategy 3-1 ....................................................................40

4-13: Cooling production by chillers in strategy 3-1 .........................................................41

4-14: Thermal energy usage in strategy 3-2 ......................................................................41

4-15: Electricity consumption in strategy 3-2 ....................................................................42

4-16: Cooling production by chillers in strategy 3-2 .........................................................42

4-17: Thermal energy usage in strategy 4 ..........................................................................43

4-18: Electricity consumption in strategy 4 .......................................................................43

4-19: Cooling production by chillers in strategy 4 ............................................................44

4-20: Thermal energy usage in strategy 5 ..........................................................................44

4-21: Electricity consumption in strategy 5 .......................................................................45