l06 Nozzles-Diffusers 170404

Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Nozzles and diffusers
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 1 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Outline
Sonic velocity and Mach number
Stagnation properties
Steady 1-D isentropic compressible flows in a
duct
Design of nozzles: convergent nozzles and
convergent-divergent (De Laval) nozzles
Design of diffusers: divergent diffuser
Off-design performance of convergent nozzles
Off-design performance of convergent-divergent
nozzles
Effects of viscous dissipations
Outline
duct
nozzles

When, in a mass of gas at rest, a small disturbance
results in a slight local rise of pressure, it can be
shown that a pressure wave is propagated throughout
the gas with a velocity which depends upon the local
pressure and density of the gas. This velocity is the
speed of sound (or sonic velocity) given by:
p
cs =
S=const isentropic process https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nh6Figt5jkI
For an ideal gas an isentropic
process can be modeled as: Mollier Chart (steam)
p
k
= const

Therefore it can be shown that:
p
cs = k = kRT

For real gases, one could write:
p
cs = k


Mach number Ma is defined as:
c
Ma =
cs
Ma < 1: subsonic flow Ma > 1: supersonic flow
It is worthwhile recalling that p, and T are the local values of pressure, density
and temperature of the gas, i.e. cs and Ma are local quantities.
In all processes related to the propagation of pressure waves, the changes take
place so rapidly that there is virtually no time for any heat transfer between
adjacent layers of fluid; the processes can be considered therefore adiabatic.
Also, when the amplitude of the pressure wave is small and there is no material
alteration in the pressure and temperature of the gas, as is true of an ordinary
sound wave, there is no increase of entropy. Therefore, the process can also be
considered isentropic.
Outline
duct
nozzles
Stagnation (or total) properties are the properties which a gas stream of
enthalpy h and velocity c would possess when brought to rest isentropically and
without work transfer in an horizontal duct under steady-state conditions. From
the energy conservation for open systems, applied between a generic point P
and the stagnation point P, we obtain that:
2 2
c c
Q +Li = h0 - h 0 - h0 = h +
2 2
where h0 indicates the total (or stagnation) enthalpy.
For an ideal gas:
k
c2 T 0 k-1
0
T =T+ p0 = p
2Cp T
0 c 2 c s2 kRT k -1
T =T+ 2 = T +Ma 2 = T 1+Ma 2
c s 2Cp k 2
2 R
k -1
Stagnation properties (ideal gas)

T v 0A
p0A h v 0A
p0A
TA0 A0
pA h0A A0 t 0A
c 2A pA
c 2A
2Cp tA
A 2
TA A
hA
S
1 k S
p k c2 T0 k-1
0
v = v 0 T =T+0 p0 = p
p 2Cp T
Stagnation properties for a real gas

(e.g., steam)
h v 0A p0A
k
T 0 k -1
h0A p0 = p
A0 t 0A T
pA
c 2A 1
2 tA 0 p k
A V = V 0
hA p
Based on the definition of h0, the first law of thermodynamics can be rewritten
as:
2 2
c -c
Q +Li = h2 - h1 + 2 1 + gz +...
2
2 2 Q +Li = h0 + gz +...
c2 c1
Q +Li = h2 + - h1 - + gz +...
2 2
It can be derived that for an adiabatic steady flow in a fixed horizontal duct:
h0 = 0 h0 = const
and for an ideal gas undergoing an adiabatic steady process in a fixed

horizontal duct:
T0 = 0 T0 = const
In Lecture No. 2 it was shown that for any process involving an ideal gas:
T p
S - S A = Cpln - Rln
TA pA
This equation can be rewritten with reference to total properties:
0 T0 p0
S - S0A = Cpln 0 - Rln 0
TA pA
0
p0A
For an adiabatic process S - S0A
= Rln 0 . If the process is also isentropic
p

one has S=SA, i.e. S0= S0A for definition of stagnation properties, therefore:
p0A p0A 0
Rln 0
p = 0 0
= 1 p = const
p A1
Outline
duct
nozzles
Hypothesis and model equations

Hypothesis:
Isentropic flow (adiabatic and without viscous dissipation);
no shaft work (fixed duct)
steady-state conditions
compressible flow (gdz is negligible)
1D-flow (changes in flow area and curvature of the axis are gradual; all
properties are uniform across planes normal to the axis)
Model equations (differential form):
Ac const d dA dc (1) Mass conservation equation

+ + =0
A c
Q +Li = h + Ek + Eg + E dh + cdc = 0 (2) First law for open systems
dp
TdS = dh - Vdp dh - =0 (3) Isentropic process

Effects on velocity of changes in flow

area - NOZZLE
From Eqs. (1-3), it can be shown that: * See slide 87
dA dp 1- Ma2
dA dc
A
=
c

Ma2 -1 (6)
dc
c
=-
dp 1
p kMa2
(7)
A
=
p kMa2
(8)
If one considers a continuous expansion (dp< 0, i.e. dc>0 for eq. 7), the
changes in flow area of the nozzle must be as follows:
Subsonic flow (Ma<1) dA<0 convergent duct
Supersonic flow (Ma>1) dA>0 divergent duct
Ma = 1 dA = 0 i.e., it can occur in the throat duct only
Aout
Ma < 1 Ma>1
A t Ma = 1
machines & fluid power Ain

area - DIFFUSER
dA dp 1- Ma2
dA dc
A
=
c

Ma2 -1 (6)
dc
c
=-
dp 1
p kMa2
(7)
A
=
p kMa2
(8)
If one considers a continuous compression (dp>0, i.e. dc<0 for eq. 7), the
changes in flow area of the diffuser must be as follows:
Supersonic flow (Ma>1) dA<0 convergent duct
Subsonic flow (Ma<1) dA>0 divergent duct
Ma = 1 dA = 0 i.e., it can occur in the throat duct only

area CHOKED DUCTS
When the condition Ma=1 occurs in a section of the duct, the duct and the flow
are said to be chocked. For isentropic 1-D flows, Ma=1 can be reached only in
the throat of the duct. In this case, At is often labeled as Ac.
With reference to the design of a nozzle, it is now possible to:
identify how area should vary along the nozzle axis in order to obtain a
continuous isentropic expansion from Ma<1 to Ma>1;
calculate the pressure ratio that produces chocking in the nozzle throat.

fixed m
m = Ac A = m A
1
c c
Notation
tank Upstream environment
poo , oo ,Too
conditions: Ain A out
c0 0 p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1
Downstream
p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1 Stagnation (total) conditions: environment
p2
nozzle p1o , 1o ,T1o
which are equal to:
cin c out
p2
poo , oo ,Too
pin , in , Tin At pout , out , Tout

We will assume that fluid conditions at nozzle inlet are equal to the upstream environment
conditions (pin= p1 Tin= T1 , in= 1, cin = c1).
Tout, out, cout in general are different from downstream environment conditions (T2, 2, c2).
Pressure pout is generally equal to pressure p2 in design conditions, but may be different in
off-design conditions.
If flow is adiabatic, T0= T1= Tin=Tout (T constant throughout the nozzle, for an ideal gas)
If flow is also isentropic (Q=0,Lw=0), p0= p1= pin=pout (p constant throughout the nozzle)
Area variation along nozzle axis

By coupling Eqs. (2, 3), and integrating the velocity from the condition p0 to the generic
condition p, the following relation between the fluid velocity at a given section of the
nozzle and the pressure in that section can be shown for an ideal gas:
k-1
* See slide 90
k pO p
0 k
c= 2 0
1- 0 (9)
k -1 O pO c
Nozzle outlet section
Downstream p1
conditions
p0O Nozzle inlet section
p2 p2 p Upstream
p0O p0O conditions
p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1
cout c cin=c1 Upstream total
conditions
p1o , 1o ,T1o p2 p1 p
A out At 0 1
po
=
Ain poo , oo ,Too po 0

poo
0

k-1 1 k-1
k pO p
0 k p k k pO p
0 k
c = 2 0
1- 0 = O0 0 2 0
1- 0
k -1 O pO pO k -1 O pO

Isentropic evolution from p0 to the generic pressure p
2 k+1
k 0 0 p k p k
c = 2 pO O 0
- 0 (10)
k -1 pO pO

m
m 1
A (11)
c 2 k+1 c
k 0 0 p k p k
2 pO O 0 - 0
k -1
pO pO


= const
m
fixed m
m = Ac A = m A 1 2 k+1
m
c c k
p k
p k
c = 2 p0OO0 0 - 0
A=
c
k-1 pO pO
= const : A min A t c
m
max Ain
c
Downstream p1
conditions Aout
p2 p2 p p0O
Upstream At
p0O p0O conditions
p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1
cout c cin=c1 1
Upstream total
conditions
0 p2 p1
p
p 0o
p1o , 1o ,T1o poo poo
A out At =
po , oo ,Too
o
Ain
Pressure ratio which produces choking:

critical pressure ratio
The throat area can be found by minimizing Eq. (11), i.e. for a fixed flow rate by
finding out the maximum of Eq. (10):
k
d c p 2 k-1
= 0 0 = (12)

d p p0O p
O c k +1
For a nozzle expanding from Ma<1 to Ma>1 the flow velocity c equals the local
velocity of sound cs in the throat area, therefore Eq. (12) gives the pressure
ratio that produces chocking (called critical pressure ratio).

= const
m
fixed m
m = Ac A = m A 1 2 k+1
A=

m
c c k
p k
p k
c = 2 p0OO0 0 - 0 c
k-1 pO pO
m
max c out Ain
cs
c
Downstream p1
conditions Aout
p2 p p0O cin
p2 Upstream At
p0O p0O conditions
p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1
cout c cin=c1 1
Upstream total 0 p2 p 2
k
p1
p
conditions k-1 p 0o
0 =
p1o , 1o ,T1o poo pO c k +1 poo
A out At =
po , oo ,Too
o
Ain
Pressure ratio which produces choking

By replacing Eq. (12) in Eq. (9) one obtains:
k-1 k-1
0
k k
p k
k p0O k pO 2 k-1 k p0O
cc = 2 1- 0 = 2 1-
0 = 2
k -1 O0 pO c k -1 O k +1 k +1 O0

k p0O
cc = 2 (13)
k +1 O0
Pressure ratio which produces choking

Furthermore:
1
1
k k k
0 p k p0O 0 2 k-1 k p0O
c c = c c c = O o 2 = O
2
p c k +1 O0 k +1 k +1 O0

1 k+1
0
2 k-1 k pO 2 k-1
= O0 2 = p0O O0 k
k +1 k +1 O0 k +1
k+1
2 k-1
c c = p0O O0 k (14)
k +1
Summary of critical ratios

k
p 2 k-1 (12)
0 =
p
0 c k +1
1
1
k k 1
o p k o 2 k-1 2 k-1
c = o = c =
c
= 0o (15)
p k +1
k +1
0

k 1
k 1
k k
o pc k o 2 k-1 2
Tc T0 o T0 T0o (16)
k +1 k 1
p0

For steam, Eqs. (9)-(15) can be still applied using a suitable average value of k,
However, Tc cannot be evaluated from Eq. (16) and it has to be read from steam
Mollier diagram based on pc and c. A2
Case in which p2>pc

= const
m

m fixed m
1
= Ac A =
m A 2 k+1
A=

m
c c k
p k
p k
c = 2 p0OO0 0 - 0 c
k-1 pO pO
m
max Ain
cs
p2 p p1 c c out
0
Downstream 0
pO pO c p0O Upstream
conditions conditions Aout
p2 p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1 Aout cin
At
Upstream total
cout cin=c1 conditions
p1o , 1o ,T1o 0 k
1 p
pp2 2 k-1 p2 p1
=
0 o = p 0o
A out po , oo ,Too
o
pp
Ooc

k +1 p0o poo
Ain
NB: In this case the nozzle is not chocked
Outline
duct
nozzles
Design of nozzles
Design data:
mass flow rate:
m
0
fluid properties in the nozzle upstream environment : p1 , 1 , c1 p1 , 1
0
back pressure (in the environment downstream from nozzle): p2

Quantities to be evaluated:
characteristic nozzle cross sections: A in , A out , A t
fluid velocity at outlet port: c out
Conditions pin, in, cin are
equal to p1, c1, 1
Upstream Upstream
conditions conditions
p2 p2
p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1 p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1
Upstream total
c1 c out Upstream total c1 c out
p1o , 1o ,T1o p1o , 1o ,T1o

= A out =
A out
A in po , oo ,Too
o A in At
po , oo ,Too
o
Design of nozzles
Cross section of the inlet port:

m 1 10
A in = c1 0
1c1 A in
Conditions pin, in, cin are

equal to p1, c1, 1
Upstream Upstream
p2 p2
p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1 p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1
Upstream total
c1 c out Upstream total c1 c out
p1o , 1o ,T1o p1o , 1o ,T1o

= A out =
A out
A in po , oo ,Too
o A in At
po , oo ,Too
o
Design of nozzles
Cross section of the outlet port
p2
* Three cases are possible, depending on the ratio
p10
k Convergent nozzle
p2 p 2 k-1
Case 1a: 0 = p1o , 1o
c1 c out (not chocked)
0
p1 pO c k +1 =
p0o , 0o
p1 , 1 , c1
p2
p2
c out A out
k A in
p2 p 2 k-1 Convergent nozzle

Case 1b: 0
0 = p1o , 1o (chocked)
p1 pO c k +1 c1 c out
p1 , 1 , c1
=
p0o , 0o p2 p2
c out A out
A in
k De-Laval nozzle
p2 p 2 k-1 (chocked)
p2
Case 2: 0
0 = p1o , 1o
p1 , 1 , c 1 c1 c outp 2
p1 pO c k +1 =
p0o , 0o
A in At A out
* NB: in the following slides, the pressure ratio
p2 p2 p2
will be expressed as p0 . It is obvious that 0 0 , being p1 p0
0 0
1 p1 p0
Design of nozzles
Cross section of the outlet port (method 1):
Convergent nozzle is adopted
k
p2 p 2 k-1 p1o , 1o
c1 c out
Case 1a: 0 = = p1 , 1 , c1
p2
p1 pO
0
c k +1 p0o , 0o
c out A out
p2

m
m
A in
A out
out c out 2 k+1
k 0 0 p2 k p2k (17)
2 p1 1 0 - 0
k -1 p1 p1
NB: in design conditions:
pout = p2
k-1
k p10 p2 k
0
c out = 2 1- 0 (18)
k -1 1 p1

Design of nozzles

m p1o , 1o
c1 c out
Case 1a: A out = p1 , 1 , c1
p2
out c out p0o , 0o p2
c out A out
A in
pout = p2 (in design conditions)

pout k 1 k 1
(ideal gas out p k p k
law) RTout (isentropic process
Tout Tin out T1 2 T2 !!
pin p1 for an ideal gas)
1 law (in-out) Q + Li = h + Ek + Eg + E h + Ek = 0
2 2
cin c out 2
c out cin + 2 hin hout
hin + hout +
2 2
Ideal gas: dh = c p dT
2
c out cin + 2Cp Tin Tout c12 + 2Cp T1 Tout
Design of nozzles
k
p2 p 2 k-1 p1o , 1o
c1 c out
Case 1b: 0 = = p1 , 1 , c1
p2
p1 pO
0
c k +1 p0o , 0o
c out A out
p2
A in

m
m
A out Ac
c c c k+1 (19)
2 k-1
p10 10 k
k +1
NB: in design conditions:
pout = p2 k p10
c out = cc = 2
k +1 10 (20)
Design of nozzles

m m p1o , 1o
c1 c out
Case 1b: A out Ac = p1 , 1 , c1
p2
out c out c cc p0o , 0o
c out A out
p2
A in
k
2 k-1
pout p2 = p10
pout k +1
(ideal gas out 2
law) RTout Tout Tc T1o
k 1
pout Ideal gas

c out c s,out k kRTout
out
1st Law in-out) c out 2
cin + 2Cp Tin Tout c12 + 2Cp T1 Tout
Design of nozzles
Cross section of the outlet port + throat (method 1):
De-Laval (convergent-divergent) nozzle must be adopted
k
p2 p 2 p1o , 1o p2
Case 2: k-1 c1 c outp 2
0 = = p1 , 1 , c 1
0 p0o , 0o
p1 pO c k +1 A in At A out
k-1

m
m k p10 p2 k
A out
0
c out = 2 1- 0
out c out 2 k+1 k -1 1 p1
k 0 0 p2 k
p2 k
2 p1 1 0 - 0
k -1 p1 p1

m
m
A t Ac k p10
c c c k+1 c t = cc = 2
k +1 10
2 k-1
p10 10 k
k +1
Design of nozzles

m m p1o , 1o p2
Case 2: At Ac c1 c outp 2
= p1 , 1 , c 1
t ct c cc p0o , 0o
A in At A out
k
2 k-1 k-1
pt = p10 k p10 p2 k
k +1
0
p c out = 2 1- 0
(ideal gas t t 2 k -1 1 p1
law) RTt Tt Tc T1o
k 1
pt Ideal gas
c t c s,t k kRTt
t
1st Law in-t) 2
c t cin + 2Cp Tin Tt c12 + 2Cp T1 Tt
Design of nozzles
p1o , 1o p2
Case 2:
m = p1 , 1 , c 1 c1 c outp 2
A out p0o , 0o
out c out A in At A out
pout = p2 (in design conditions)

pout k 1 k 1
(ideal gas out p k p k
law) RTout (isentropic process
Tout Tin out T1 2 T2 !!
pin p1 for an ideal gas)
2 2
cin c out 2
c out cin + 2 hin hout
1 law (in-out) hin + hout +
2 2
Ideal gas: dh = c p dT
2
c out cin + 2Cp Tin Tout c12 + 2Cp T1 Tout
A3
Outline
duct
nozzles
Design of divergent diffusers
m
2 A1
1 c1
m
A2
2 c 2
c 2 c 2h2 h1
2
1
1k
1 p2
2 1
p1
Design of divergent diffusers

A 2 2 2 r2 l2 sin 2

c2
2

c1
A1 1 2 r1 l1 sin1
Outline
duct
nozzles
Off-design: convergent nozzles

Upstream
conditions
p2
p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1
Upstream total
c1 c out
conditions
p1o , 1o ,T1o
= A out
A in
poo , oo ,Too
Data:
characteristic nozzle cross sections: A in , A out
0 0 0
fluid properties upstream of nozzle: p1 , 1 , c1 p1 , 1 equal to p0 , 0
0

mass flow rate:
m
fluid velocity at outlet port: c out

In order to study the behaviour of the nozzle in off-design conditions, lets keep the
upstream conditions constant and equal to the design conditions. How does the
mass flow rate change when we vary the downstream environment pressure p2?
= const
*
Fixed Lets vary the p10 = p10
Upstream downstream
conditions pressure
m 10 = = const
0 *
1
p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1 p2
The superscript * indicates the
c1 c out design conditions
Fixed Upstream
total conditions
p1o , 1o ,T1o A out
= A in
poo , oo ,Too
p2
0 1
p1o

Lets write the mass flow rate in the outlet section
From Eq. (11) (VALID FOR 2 k+1
ISENTROPIC EVOLUTION = out c out A out A out k 0 0 pout k pout k

m 2 p1 1 0 - 0
BETWEEN 1 and out): k -1 p1 p1

= const
*
Fixed
Upstream
Lets vary the
downstream

m p10 = p10
conditions pressure 10 = = const

0 *
1
p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1 p2
c1 c out
Fixed Upstream
total conditions
p1o , 1o ,T1o A out
= A in
po , oo ,Too
o
The dashed line represents the trend

of the previous mass equation. But
p2
which is its range of validity? 0 p
0
1
pO c p1o


m 2 p1 1 0 - 0

= const
*

m p10 = p10
10 = = const
0 *
2 k+1
1
m0 = A out 2 k p10 10 1 k - 1 k 0
k -1
p2=pout=p1=p0
When p2=p1=p0, no expansion occurs

in the nozzle and the mass flow rate is 0.
pout=p2, so the equation above describes 0
the mass flow rate of point 0
p2
0 p
0
1
pO c p1o


m 2 p1 1 0 - 0

= const
*

m p10 = p10
2 k+1
= = const
0 * k 0 0 p2b
k p k
10 1 b = A out
m 2 p1 1 0 - 2b
0
k -1 p1 p1

k-1
k p10 p2b k
c out,b = 2 1-
k - 1 10 p10

b =m
m *
b
If pressure p2 is decreased (e.g., to p2b), the mass p2b p2

*
flow rate expanded by the nozzle increases. In 0 0

p1 p1
these conditions, pout=p2 and the evolution is
isentropic, thus the equation above describes the p2
mass flow rate as a function of p2. Point b may 0 p
0
1
represent the design conditions *.
pO c p1o

From Eq. (11) (VALID FOR 2 k+1 k+1

k 0 0 out,c p k p k 0 0 2 k-1
ISENTROPIC EVOLUTION c = out,c c out,c A out,c
m A out 2 p1 1 0 - out,c 0 A out p1 1 k
k -1 p1 p1 k +1
BETWEEN 1 and out):
k
p
out,c p2c p 2 k-1
0
*

m p10 = p10 = const p0

1 p1 pO c k +1
0

0
0 *
1 = 1 = const k p10
c out,c t s,out c
c = c = c = c = 2
k +1 10
*
m b
If pressure p2 is further decreased to p2c, the mass

flow rate expanded by the nozzle increases and
we achieve the chocking conditions (cout=cs,out, i.e.,
Ma=1 in the outlet section). In this point, p2b p2
*
p2
pout is still equal to p2 and the evolution is still
isentropic, thus the equation above still describes
0 p
0
0 0
p1 p1 1
the mass flow rate as a function of p2c. pO c p1o


k 0 0 out,c p k p k 0 0 2 k-1
k -1 p1 p1 k +1
BETWEEN 1 and out):
k
p
out,c p2c p 2 k-1
0
*


1 p1 pO c k +1
0

0
0 *
1 = 1 = const k p10
c out,c t s,out c
c = c = c = c = 2
k +1 10
*
m b
p
pout,c = p2c p10 0
p2 p pO c
Point C:
p10 p0O c
k-1
p k
0 2
Tout,c = T10 out,c T1 *
p2
1
0
k 1 p p2
p1
k p10 0 0 0
c out,c = c t = c s,out = c c = 2
k +1 10 pO c p1 p1o


k 0 0 out,c p k p k 0 0 2 k-1
k -1 p1 p1 k +1
BETWEEN 1 and out):
k
p
out,c p2c p 2 k-1
0
*


1 p1 pO c k +1
0

0
0 *
1 = 1 = const k p10
c out,c t s,out c
c = c = c = c = 2
k +1 10
*
m b
At point c, cout=cs,out. This means that the evolution

inside the chocked nozzle is no more influenced by
the downstream pressure, if the latter continues to
decrease. In other words, the perturbation in the *
p2
downstream pressure cannot propagate backwords
in the nozzle, because cout=cs,out
0 p
0
p2
0 1
pO c p1 p1o

k 0 0 pout,d k p k 2 k-1
ISENTROPIC EVOLUTION m d = out,dc out,d A out,d A out 2 p1 1 0 - out,d
0 A out p10 10 k
k -1 p1 p1 k +1
BETWEEN 1 and out):
k
pout,d p 2 k-1
0
p0
p0 c k +1

m k+1
1

c = A out p10 10 k 2 k-1 = const
*
d =m
m p 10 = p 10
k +1
= = co n st
*
d c 10 0
1
pcr
p2d *
m b
As a consequence, the mass flow rate remains constant and
equal to the critical mass flow rate even though the pressure
p2 further decreases. In these conditions:
k
0 2 k-1
pout,d pc pO p2d
k +1
p2d
*
In fact, pout cannot be lower than pcr. An expansion wave p2 p2
occurs at the nozzle outlet, from pcr to p2d. 0 0
p
0 0 1
The above equation of mass flow rate is still valid, but the
critical pressure ratio must be used.
pO pO c pO p1o

k 0 0 pout,d k p k 2 k-1
ISENTROPIC EVOLUTION m d = out,dc out,d A out,d Aout 2 p1 1 0 - out,d
0 A out p10 10 k
k -1 p1 p1 k +1
BETWEEN 1 and out):
k
pout,d p 2 k-1
0
p0
p0 c k +1

m k+1
1

c = A out p10 10 k 2 k-1
d =m
m = const
p 10 = p 10
*
k +1
d c = = con st
*
10 0
1
pcr
p2d *
m b
k
p = p = p0 2 k-1
out c 1 p2
p2 p k +1
Point d:
p10 p0O c
k-1
p k 2
Tout = Tc = T10 0 = T10
p2d
*
p2 p2
p0 c k +1
k p10
0 0
p
0 0 1
c out,d = c out,c = c s,out = 2
k +1 10
pO pO c pO p1o

The characteristic diagram of the nozzle, in terms of absolute mass flow rate,
depends on the upstram total pressure.

m p10
*
m
*
p p2
0 0
p2
0 1
pO c p1 p1o
Characteristic diagram of convergent

nozzles
It is useful to express the nozzle performance in terms of non-dimensional
parameters: the expansion ratio and the reduced mass flow rate:
2 k+1
p2 p k 0 0 p2 k p2 k
0
0
m = A out 2 p1 1 0 - 0
p1 pO c k -1 p1 p1

2 k+1
p10 10
m k p2 k p2 k
0
= 2 0 - 0 Subsonic nozzle
p1 A out k -1 p1 p1

k+1
p2 p = A out p10 10 k 2 k-1
0
0 m
p1 pO c k +1
k+1
p10 10
m 2 k-1
= k
p10 A out k +1
Chocked nozzle

nozzles p p 2
p2 p 0
0
p1 pO c
p10 p0O c
k 1 2 k+1
p00 00 p10 10
m p10 10
m k p2 k p2 k
m 2
k
k 1
= 2 -
p10 A out k 1 p10 A out k -1 p10 p10
p00 A out
p10 10
m
p10 A out
k
p2
0 p 2
0
k 1 1
p
O c k 1 p1o

nozzles
p0O O0
m
p0O A out
k k = 1.1 - 1.35 - 1.6
k
2 k-1
= 0.585 - 0.537 - 0.497
p10 10
m
k +1
p10 A out
k+1
2 k-1
k
k +1
k p2
0 2 k-1 1

k +1
p1o

nozzles
The mass flow rate for subsonic flow conditions can also be approximated
according to the following simplified expression (equation of an ellipse):
k 1
p10 10
m 2 k 1
p00 00
m k
p10 A out k 1 m
2
po o 2
p00 A out p2 pc
Aout p o po po
1
1 co
p
p10 10
m
p

p10 A out
k
p2
0 p 2
0
k 1 1
p
O c k 1 p1o
A4
Outline
duct
nozzles
Off-design: De Laval nozzles

Upstream
conditions
p2
p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1
Upstream total c1 c out
conditions
p1o , 1o ,T1o
=
At A out
po , oo ,Too
o A in
Data:
characteristic nozzle cross sections: Ain, A t , A out
0 0 0
fluid properties upstream of nozzle: p1 , 1 , c1 p1 , 1 equal to p0 , 0
0

mass flow rate: m
fluid velocity at throat and outlet port: c t , c out

In design conditions:
NB: design conditions are
denoted with des or a
p1 , 1 p2 p2a p2,des
c1 c out
p
po
p1
pc
a p2a p2,des

When p2 is changed with respect to design conditions:
NB: nozzle is chocked

p1 , 1 p2 for p2p2d
p2d is the
c out discriminant
c1 pressure ratio and it is
higher than pc
p p2b
po b NB: nozzle is
p2d
p1 d
chocked for p2p2d
e p2e https://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=0ycxMTUnruw
pc Shock waves
NB: the shock wave moves
k
towards the outlet section when
pc 2

1
p0O k 1
k
a
p2 decreases. For some
p2a p2,des conditions, it may occur in the
0.528 for air outlet section or even
Expansion wave p2f downstream from it.

p2 > p2d (see for instance p2b): subsonic flow, the nozzle behaves like a
Venturi duct and an isentropic subsonic diffusion occurs in the divergent
part;
p2d > p2 > p2a (see for instance p2e): the flow is supersonic in the
throat, therefore the nozzle is chocked. However, a shock wave occurs
in the divergent duct. In fact, the duct over-expand the gas so that
before the gas can discharge into the surroundings some de-
compression and deceleration of the gas must occur. Across the shock
wave the flow is no more isentropic. After the shock wave the flow can
be either subsonic (normal or oblique shock waves) or supersonic
(oblique shock waves).
p2 < p2a (see for instance p2f): the fluid expands isentropically through
the nozzle and then expands outside the nozzle to the back pressure
through oblique expansion waves (i.e., not isentropically).

in the convergent part of the nozzle, the flow can be considered
isentropic for all operating conditions.
It can be concluded that:

p p
p2 p (note that 0 0 )
a De Laval nozzle is chocked when
p10 p0O d pO d pO c
p2 p
a De Laval nozzle works as in design conditions when 0
0
p1 pO a
for subsonic flow the process in the De Laval duct can be considered
isentropic
shock waves occur in the divergent part of De Laval nozzle
when p p2 p
0 0 0
pO a p1 pO d

In order to study the behaviour of the De Laval nozzle in off-design conditions, lets keep the
upstream conditions constant and equal to the design conditions. How does the mass flow rate
change when changing the downstream environment pressure p2?
= const
*
Fixed Lets vary the p 10 = p 10
upstream downstream p2
10 = = const
0 *
conditions pressure m 1
p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1 The superscript * indicates the

p2 design conditions
Fixed upstream c1 c out

total conditions
p1o , 1o ,T1o A in At A out
=
po , oo ,Too
o
p2
0 1
p1o


m 2 p1 1 0 - 0
Fixed Lets vary the
Upstream downstream p2
= const
*
conditions pressure
m p10 = p10
p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1 10 = = const
0 *
p2 1
Fixed Upstream c1 c out

total conditions
p1o , 1o ,T1o A in At A out
=
po , oo ,Too
o
The dashed line represents the

trend of the previous mass
p2
equation. But which is its range of 0 p
0
1
validity?
pO c p1o


m 2 p1 1 0 - 0

= const
p1 , 1 p2 *
c out
m p10 = p10
c1
10 = = const
0 *
1
p2=pout=p1=p0 k 0 0 2 k+1
p p2b 0 = A out 2
m p1 1 1 k - 1 k 0
k -1
po b NB: nozzle is

p2d
p1 d
chocked for p2p2d
e p2e
pc
a p2a p2,des
p2f
When p2=p1=p0, no expansion occurs 0

in the nozzle and the mass flow rate is 0.
p2
pout=p2, so the equation above describes
the mass flow rate of point 0
0 p
0
1
pO c p1o


m 2 p1 1 0 - 0

= const
p1 , 1 p2 *
c out
m p10 = p10
k 0 0 p2b
2
k p
k+1
k
c1 b = A out
m 2 p1 1 0 - 2b
= = const
0 *
10 1 k -1 0
p1 p1
p2=pout=p1=p0
p p2b
o
p b NB: nozzle is k-1
p2d k p10 p2b k
p1 d
chocked for p2p2d
c out,b = 2 1-
k - 1 10 p10
e p2e
pc
a p2a p2,des
b
p2f
When p2=p2b, the mass flow rate starts to

increase. The nozzle behaves as a Venturi duct.
In this condition, evolution is isentropic and p2b
p2
pout,b=p2b, so the equation above describes the
mass flow rate as a function of p2
0 p
0
p10 1
pO c p1o


m 2 p1 1 0 - 0

2 k+1

p1 , 1 p2 *
c out
m p10 = p10 = const d = A out
m 2
k 0 0 p2d k p2d k
p1 1 0 - 0
c1 k -1 p1 p1
10 =
0 *
1 = const
p2=pout=p1=p0
p p2b k-1
o k p10 p2d k
p b NB: nozzle is c out,d = 2 1-
p2d k -1 10 p10
p1 d
chocked for p2p2d

e p2e d
pc
a p2a p2,des b
k p10 p2f
c t = c s,t = c c = 2
k +1 10
When p2=p2d, the nozzle is chocked (p=pc, Ma=1 in
the throat section). At point d, the nozzle behaves
as a Venturi duct. In this condition, evolution is p2d
p2
isentropic and pout,d=p2d, so the equation above still 0 p
0
p10 1
describes the mass flow rate at point d. pO c p1o


m 2 p1 1 0 - 0

= const
*
p1 , 1 p2 p10 = p10
c out
m 2 k+1
k 0 0 p2d k p2d k
k+1
= = const
0 * 2 k-1
c1 10 1
d = Aout
m 2
k -1
p1 1 0 - 0 A t p10 10 k
k +1
p1 p1

p2=pout=p1=p0
p p2b
o
p b NB: nozzle is
k+1
p2d 2 k-1
p1 d
chocked for p2p2d At p10 10 k
e p2e d k +1
pc
a p2a p2,des b
k p10 p2f
c t = c s,t = c c = 2
k +1 10
The mass flow rate, at point d, coincides with the
critical mass flow rate:
p2d
p2
d = A out
m 2

k 0 0 p2d
2
k
k+1
p2d k 0 0 2 k-1
p1 1 0 - 0 A t p1 1 k
k+1
0 p
0
p10 1
k -1 p1 p1

k +1
pO c p1o

k k
ISENTROPIC EVOLUTION m = out c out A out A out 2 k p10 10 pout - pout ??
0 0

= const
p1 , 1 p2 *
c out
m p10 = p10 2 k+1
k 0 0 p2d k p2d k
k+1
2 k-1
c1 md = A out 2 p1 1 0 - 0 A t p10 10 k
= = const
0 * k -1 p1 p1 k +1
10 1
p2=pout=p1=p0
p p2b
o
p b NB: nozzle is
k+1
p2d 2 k-1
p1 d
f a=des e d k +1
e p2e
*
m
pc
a p2a p2,des b
p2f
When p2<p2d, the nozzle is chocked and the mass p2f p2e
flow rate does not change anymore. p10 p10
k+1
p2 p2d
= A t p10 10 k 2 k-1 p2d
p2
*

p10 p0O
m
k +1 0
p2a p

p10 p0
p
0
p10 1
When p2<p2d, is the above mass flow rate equation
pO c p1o
still valid? For which points?

= const
*
p2 p10 = p10
p1 , 1
c out
m 10 = = const
0 *
c1 1
p2=pout=p1=p0
p p2b
o
p b NB: nozzle is
k+1
p2d 2 k-1
p1 d
f a=des e d k +1
e p2e
*
m
pc
a p2a p2,des b
p2f
We distinguish 3 cases: p2f p2e
p10 p10
p2a p2 p2d
Case 1: 0 0 0 p2d
*
p2
pO p1 pO
p2 p2a
0
p2a p

p10 p0
p
0
p10 1
Case 2:
p10 p0O pO c p1o
p2 p2a
Case 3:
p10 p0O
*
NB: different notations can be used p2a p2,des p p p
0 0 0 0 0
for the design pressure ratio: pO pO pO a pO des pO

= const
*
p2 p10 = p10 Case 1:
p1 , 1
c out
m 10 = = const
0 * p2a p2 p2d
c1 1
0 0 0
pO p1 pO
p2=pout=p1=p0
p p2b
o
p b NB: nozzle is
k+1
p2d 2 k-1
p1 d
f a=des e d k +1
e p2e
m*
pc
a p2a p2,des b
p2f
p2a p2 p2d
Case 1: p0 p0 p0 p2f p2e
O 1 O
p10 p10
The evolution inside the nozzle, from 1 to
p2a p2d
p2
out, IS NO MORE ISENTROPIC because
of the shock waves (e.g., point e) 0 p10 p
0
p10 1
pO c p1o
2 k+1
k 0 0 pout k p k
= A out
m 2 p1 1 0 - out
0
k -1 p1 p1 p2a p2 p2d
These formulas are no longer valid for 0 0 0
k-1 k-1 pO p1 pO
p k k p10 pout k
Tout = T10 out
0
c out = 2 1-
k -1 10 p10
p1

= const
*
p2 p10 = p10 Case 1:
p1 , 1
c out
m 10 = = const
0 * p2a p2 p2d
c1 1
0 0 0
pO p1 pO
p2=pout=p1=p0
p p2b
o
p b NB: nozzle is
k+1
p2d 2 k-1
p1 d
f a=des e d k +1
e p2e
*
m
pc
a p2a p2,des b
p2f
p2a p2 p2d
Case 1: p0 p0 p0 p2f p2e
O 1 O
p10 p10
pout = p2
p2a p2d
p2
Tout : to be evaluated by applying 1st Law and mass conservation
0 p10 p
0
p10 1
c2 c2 pO c p1o
Tout T1 out 1 1 Law (1->out)
2Cp 2Cp

m
c out
A out out Mass conservation
p
out out Ideal gas law
RTout

= const
*
p2 p10 = p10
p1 , 1
c out
m 10 = = const
0 *
Case 2:
c1 1
p2 p2a
0
p2=pout=p1=p0 p10 pO
p p2b
o
p b NB: nozzle is
k+1
p2d 2 k-1
p1 d
f e d k +1
e p2e
m *
pc a=des
a p2a p2,des b
p2f
p2 p2a
Case 2:
p10 p0O p2f p2e
p10 p10
The evolution inside the nozzle, from 1 to out,
p2a p2d
p2
IS ISENTROPIC. pout,a=p2a. This point represents
the design conditions. The isentropic relations for 0 p10
p
0
p10 1
mass flow rate, temperature and speed are valid pO c p1o
2 k+1 2 k+1 k+1

k 0 0 out,a p k p k k 0 0 p2a k
p2a k 2 k-1
a =m
m des = A out 2 p1 1 0 - out,a 0 = A out 2 p1 1 0 - 0
0 0
A t p1 1 k
k -1 p1 p1 k -1 p1 p1 k +1
k-1 k-1 k-1
k-1
p k p k k p10 pout,a k k p10 p2a k
Tout,a = T10 out,a
0
T10 2a
0
c out,a = 2 1- = 2 1- 0
k -1 10 p10 k -1 10 p1
p1 p1


= const
*
p1 , 1 p2 p10 = p10
c out
m 10 = = const
0 *
c1 1
p2 p2a
p2=pout=p1=p0 Case 3:
p p2b p10 p0O
o
p b NB: nozzle is
k+1
p2d 2 k-1
p1 d
f e d k +1
e p2e
m *
pc a=des
a p2a p2,des b
p2f
p2 p2a
Case 3:
p10 p0O p2f p2e
The evolution inside the nozzle, from 1 to out, IS p10 p10
ISENTROPIC, but a pressure wave occurs at the nozzle
p2a p2d
p2
1
outlet (e.g., point f). Note that pout,fp2f. The isentropic
p
relations for mass flow rate, temperature and speed are 0 p10
0
p10
valid, but the design pressure ratio must be used
pO c p1o
2 k+1 2 k+1 k+1

k 0 0 pout,f k pout,f k k 0 0 p2a k
p2a k 0 0 2 k-1
f = A out
m 2 p1 1 0 - 0 = A out 2 p1 1 0 - 0 A t p1 1 k
k -1 p1 p1 k -1 p1 p1 k +1

k-1 k-1 k-1 k-1 p
Tout,f
p
= T10 out,f
k p
T10 2a
k
c out,f = 2
k p10 pout,f k
1- = 2
k p10 p2a k
1- 0
pout,f = p10 0 p2f !!
0 0
p1 p1
k -1 10 p10

k -1 10 p1

pO a

2 k+1
= out c out A out A out k 0 0 p2 k p2 k

How to evaluate p2d, p2a? m 2 p1 1 0 - 0 (1)
By intersecting Eq. (1) and Eq. (2) k -1 p1 p1

k+1
= const
*
p10 = p10 = At 2 k-1
m p10 10 k (2)

m 10 = = const
0 *
1
k +1
Note that the Eq. (1) is valid when the
evolution inside the nozzle is isentropic, i.e.:
Eq. (1)
p2 p2 p2 p2
0
d Eq. (2) 0
p1 p1 a p10 p10 d
*
m a=des
NB: the evolution inside the nozzle is
also isentropic for:
p2 p2 p2 p2

p10 p10 a
p10 p10 d
Remember that in this case the mass flow
p2 p p2 p2 rate can still be calculated from Eq. (1),
0 0 0 0 1 p2
p1 a pO c p1 d p1o but using using 0 in the equation
p1 a
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic
75 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
Characteristic diagram of convergent-

divergent nozzles
It is useful expressing the nozzle performance in terms of non-dimensional
parameters: the expansion ratio and the reduced mass flow rate:
2 k+1
p2 p = A out k 0 0 p2 k p2 k A t
0
0 m 2 p1 1 0 - 0
p1 pO d k -1 p1 p1 A t
2 k+1

p10 10
m A out k p2 k p k
= 2 - 02
p10 A t At k -1 p10 p1 Subsonic nozzle

k+1
p2 p = A t p10 10 k 2 k-1
0
0 m
p1 pO d k +1
k+1
p10 10
m 2 k-1
= k
p10 A t k +1
Chocked nozzle

divergent nozzles
p2 p p2 p

p10 p0O d p10 p0O d
p0O O0
m k 1
p10 10
m 2 k 1 2 k+1
p0O A t p10 A t
k
k 1

m p10 10
= 2
k p2 k p2 k
-
p10 A t k -1 p10 p10

p10 10
m
p10 A t
p2 p2 p2
0 0
p
0 0 1
p1 a pO c p1 d p1o

divergent nozzles
p0O O0
m k = 1.1 - 1.35 - 1.6
p0O A t
p10 10
m k
p10 A t
k+1
2 k-1
k
k +1
p2
0 p2
0 1
p1 d
p1o

divergent nozzles
The mass flow rate for subsonic flow conditions can also be approximated
according to the following simplified expression (equation of an ellipse):
k 1
p0O O0
m p10 10
m 2 k 1
k m
2
2
po o
p10 A t k 1 p2 - pc
p0O A t p A out po po p o
p + =1
02 0 p
p1 pO 1- oc

p10 10
m d
p

p10 A t p p
02 0
p1 pO
d
p2 p2 p2
0 0
p
0 0 1
p1 a pO c p1 d p1o
Outline
duct
nozzles

Formation of a boundary layer, so that the values of the cross section
to use in the previously developed equations are not equal to the
geometrical ones. In a turbomachine, such an effect can be included in
a coefficient that also accounts for blade thickness:
A

A geom.
In a turbomachine, is the ratio of the effective and geometric flow
areas, and is therefore a measure of the aerodynamic blockage due to
blade surface and endwall boundary layers.
The process is no more isentropic: this implies a reduction of the
velocity in the outlet port of a nozzle and a lower pressure increase in
a diffuser with respect to the isentropic case. This effect can be
accounted by introducing:
Isentropic efficiency of nozzle and diffuser;
Velocity loss coefficients to account for kinetic energy reduction at
nozzle outlet with respect to the isentropic case.
Loss coefficients for a nozzle

o
p1 p2o p1o
c out h 1o
=
c out,is p1
dS =
dQ dL w
+ 0
1 c12 2
T T 2
c out,is c out
2
dQ dL w 2 2
dS = + 0
T T
p2
For design conditions, the value of
might range from 0.97-0.99 for a
out
convergent nozzle and from 0.94-0.97 out,is
in a convergent-divergent nozzle.

82 S
Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
Isentropic efficiency ofoa nozzle

p1 p2o p1o
h 1o
2
c out - c12 h1 - hout
n = 2 2
= p1
c out,is - c1 h1 - hout,is
1 c12 2
2
c out,is c out
2
2 2
p2
out
out,is

83 S
Isentropic efficiency of a diffuser

o
p1
1o po2
h 2
c2
p2 2
2is
2
his
h2,is - h1 c12
d = =
h2 - h1 h 2
his h
p1
1
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 84
S
Backup
slides
* Effects on velocity of changes in flow

area
dh can be derived from (3) and replaced in (2):
dp (4)
cdc = -

dp cdc 1 dp d dc 1 d 1 d
cdc = - =- = - 2 c 2s =-
c2 c 2 d c c Ma2
d dc
= -Ma2 (5)
c
Eq. (5) can be replaced in (1) giving:
-Ma2
dc dA dc
c
+
A
+
c
=0
dA dc
A
=
c

Ma2 -1 (6)
* Effects on velocity of changes in flow

area
Eq. (4) can be rearrenged to give:
cdc dp p 1 dc dp 1 p 1 dc dp 1 c 2s
=- =- k =-
c2 p c2 c p k c2 c p k c2
dc dp 1
=- (7)
c p kMa2
Eq. (7) can be replaced in (6) giving:
dp 1- Ma2
dA
A
=-
dp 1
p kMa 2
2
Ma -1 =
p kMa2
(8)
Back to slide 14
** Calculation of velocity
From Eq. (4) (see slide 87):
c p dp
0 cdc = -
p0O
For an isentropic expansion of an ideal gas from the stagnation conditions O0 to
the generic pressure p:
1
p p0O 1 1 p0O k
= =

k 0 k
O O0 p
Therefore:
1 1 1
2 p
0 k 1
p
0 k 1- 1
p
p
0 k
k 1- k
1 1
c 1
k
O p - O O 1-
p
0
=- p k dp = - p k =- p - pO
2 O0
0
O0 1 O0 k -1
1- p0O
O

k
** Calculation of velocity
1 1

1
1-
2 p0O k 1- 1 1 p0O k 1
p
k=-

c k 1- k 1- k
0
p0O k 0
=- 0 p k - pO -1
2 O k -1 O0 k -1 pO

k-1
c2 k p0O p k
= 1- 0
2 k -1 O0 pO

k-1
k pO p
0 k
c= 2 0
1- 0 (9)
k -1 O pO

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l06 Nozzles-Diffusers 170404

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Politecnico di Torino

Nozzles and diffusers

Sonic velocity and Mach number

Sonic velocity and Mach number

Stagnation properties (ideal gas)

Stagnation properties for a real gas

and for an ideal gas undergoing an adiabatic steady process in a fixed

This equation can be rewritten with reference to total properties:

Hypothesis and model equations

Model equations (differential form):

Ac const d dA dc (1) Mass conservation equation

Effects on velocity of changes in flow

Effects on velocity of changes in flow

Effects on velocity of changes in flow

With reference to the design of a nozzle, it is now possible to:

pin , in , Tin At pout , out , Tout

Area variation along nozzle axis

Ain poo , oo ,Too po 0

Area variation along nozzle axis

Area variation along nozzle axis

Pressure ratio which produces choking:

Area variation along nozzle axis

Pressure ratio which produces choking

Pressure ratio which produces choking

Summary of critical ratios

Case in which p2>pc

back pressure (in the environment downstream from nozzle): p2

p1o , 1o ,T1o p1o , 1o ,T1o

Conditions pin, in, cin are

p1o , 1o ,T1o p1o , 1o ,T1o

p2 p 2 k-1 Convergent nozzle

pout = p2 (in design conditions)

pout Ideal gas

pout = p2 (in design conditions)

Design of divergent diffusers

Design of divergent diffusers

Off-design: convergent nozzles

Off-design: convergent nozzles

Off-design: convergent nozzles

ISENTROPIC EVOLUTION = out c out A out A out k 0 0 pout k pout k

conditions pressure 10 = = const

The dashed line represents the trend

Off-design: convergent nozzles

ISENTROPIC EVOLUTION = out c out A out A out k 0 0 pout k pout k

When p2=p1=p0, no expansion occurs

Off-design: convergent nozzles

ISENTROPIC EVOLUTION = out c out A out A out k 0 0 pout k pout k

If pressure p2 is decreased (e.g., to p2b), the mass p2b p2

flow rate expanded by the nozzle increases. In 0 0

Off-design: convergent nozzles

If pressure p2 is further decreased to p2c, the mass

Off-design: convergent nozzles

Off-design: convergent nozzles

At point c, cout=cs,out. This means that the evolution

Off-design: convergent nozzles

Off-design: convergent nozzles

Off-design: convergent nozzles

Characteristic diagram of convergent

Characteristic diagram of convergent

Characteristic diagram of convergent

Characteristic diagram of convergent

Off-design: De Laval nozzles

Off-design: De Laval nozzles