MOULD AND METAL FORMING TECHNOLOGY

SAND CASTING OF METALS

Topics covered: Melting practices

Cupola, Arc and Induction furnaces
Melting furnaces
A furnace is used to melt the metal.

A foundry converts an ore into usable metal.

A furnace contains high temperature zone, a region surrounded by a refractory

wall which withstands high temperature and minimises the heat losses to the
surroundings.
Classification of Furnaces
According to the metal Electric resistance type (CU)
Gray Cast Iron
Cupola Pot furnaces (fuel fired) (Mg & Al)
Air furnace Stationary
Rotary furnace Tilting
Electric arc furnace
Reverberatory furnaces (fuel fired ) (Al & Cu)
Steel Stationary
Open hearth furnace. Tilting
Electric furnace.
Arc furnace Rotary furnaces
High frequency induction furnace Fuel fired
Converter Electrically heated

Non-ferrous metals Induction furnaces (Al & Cu)

Crucible furnaces (Al ,Cu) Low frequency
Pit type
Tilting type Electric Arc furnaces (Cu)
Non-tilting or bale out type
Cupola
Cupola
For many years, the Cupola was the primary method of melting used in iron

foundries. The Cupola furnace has several unique characteristics which are
responsible for its widespread use as a melting unit for cast iron.

The main considerations in selection of Cupolas are melting capacity, diameter of

shell without lining or with lining, etc.

Cupola
It is employed for melting scrap metal, pig

iron, grey cast iron and nodular cast iron.

Besides iron castings Cupola can be used for

melting some copper based alloys.

Cupola is obtained in different sizes.

Cupola can be operated for long time.

Cupola does not produce metal of uniform

quality.

Fuel used for Cupola are a good grade low-

sulphur coke, anthracite coal or carbon

briquettes.
Cupola: Size
Cupola capacity varies from 1 to 15 tons of
melted iron per heat.
Certain Cupolas have capacity of to 1 ton
and are called as Cupolettes.
Cupolettes have height from 2.5 to 4 m.

Cupolettes may be tilted to horizontal position

as well.
The height if Cupola is commonly about 6 m.

The inside dia. of Cupola ranges from 75 cm

to 2.5 m. although the Cupolas of much larger
dia. have been operated.
Sometimes the Cupola may be fitted with a
collector, filter and precipitator.
Construction
A typical Cupola melting furnace consists of a
vertical cylindrical steel shell constructed from
boiler plates (6 to 20 mm thick) and the shell is lined
with firebrick and clay.
It has both top and bottom open.

The bottom of the Cupola is supported on cast iron

legs.
The bottom opening of the Cupola is closed by cast
iron doors which can be made to open or close and
the doors are supported by an iron prop (support).
The bottom opening doors swung open after the
melting operation is over and the contents of the
Cupola are taken out.
Air from the blower comes inside through blast pipe
and enters Wind Box which surrounds the Cupola
and supplies the air evenly through the tuyeres.
Construction
The tuyeres extend through the shell and
refractory wall to the combustion zone and
supply air necessary for combustion.
Cupola with 75 cm diameter may have 3-4
tuyeres, where as larger ones are fitted with 8-
10 tuyeres.
Tuyeres may be fitted in one or more
number of rows.
A volume of air passing to the combustion
zone can be measured with volume meter.
A Cupola using 10:1 ratio of iron to coke,
consumes about 800-900 cubic meters of air
to melt one ton of iron.
Construction
There is a tap hole in the Cupola from where
the molten metal is taken out to be poured into
the molds.
The fire in the Cupola is also lit through the tap
hole.
Above the tap hole, little higher is the slag
hole. Slag being lighter than the metal floats
over the molten metal and is removed through
the slag hole.
Cupola remains open or has a metal shield or
a spark arrester at its top.
The Cupola is provided with a charging
platform and charging door at suitable height
to feed the charge in the Cupola.
Cupola Operation
1. Preparation of Cupola

2. Lighting of the fire in the coke bed

3. Charging of Cupola

4. Melting

5. Slagging and metal tapping

6. Dropping down the Cupola bottom

 Preparation of Cupola
The bottom door is dropped open.

The contents of previous operation such as unburned coke,

slag and metal left in the Cupola are removed.

The slag, coke, iron sticking to the side walls of the furnace
are chipped off.

Damaged firebricks are replaced by new ones.

Eroded refractory lining is repaired.

A typical refractory mixture contains Silica and fireclay.

Once the furnace lining is reconditioned, the bottom door is

closed and duly supported.

A layer of sand (about 10 cm.) having 3-6% moisture is

rammed over the bottom door. The sand is rammed such
that is creates a sloping surface towards the tap hole. The
slope provides better flow to the molten metal.
Lighting of the Fire
Cupola is started about 3 hours before the molten metal is needed for pouring into

the molds.

For starting the Cupola soft, dry pieces of wood are placed on the sand bed

rammed above the bottom door.

Coke is placed over the wooden pieces up to about the tuyeres level.

The wooden pieces are ignited through the tap hole.

Air necessary for combustion of coke enters from the tuyeres.

When the initial amount of coke is burning well, an additional amount of the same is

added to the desired length.

Coke can be added through the charging door to increase the height of the coke

bed.
Charging of Cupola
After the coke bed is properly ignited, the Cupola is

charged from the charging door.

Charging Cupola means adding the alternate layers

of limestone (Flux), Iron and Coke up to the level of

the charging door.

The fuel employed for combustion in the Cupola can

be a good grade of low sulphur coke, anthracite

coal, carbon briquettes.

A ratio of metal to fuel by weight ranges from 4:1 to

12:1.

Metal charge may consists of -

o Pig iron

o Cast iron scrap

o Steel scrap

o Returns (Sprue, Runner, gates, riser, etc.)

Charging of Cupola: Flux
Slag is the oxides and other impurities accumulates during the melting operation.

Flux is the substance which helps to form slag to remove the impurities from the

Cupola.

Flux lowers the melting point of the slag and increases its fluidity.

The flux used in Cupola operations are Limestone (CaCO3), Sodium Carbonate

(Na2CO3), Fluorspar (CaF2), Calcium Carbide (CaC2), etc.

Flux is added in small proportions up to 2-4 % by weight of the metal.

Large proportions of flux may attack the acid refractory lining of the Cupola.
Melting
After the Cupola is fully charged, a soaking period of about 30 min. to one hour

is given to permit the charge to preheat.

Blowers are not started during the soaking period.

At the end of the soaking period the air blast inlet is turned on.

The coke becomes hot to melt the molten metal and after about 10 min. droplets of

the iron start falling through the Cupola.

The molten metal starts to accumulate above the sand bed.

The tap hole is closed with bott and the molten iron is allowed to collect for about

5 min.
Slagging and Metal Tapping
After enough molten metal is collected above the sand bed, the slag hole is

opened and the slag floating on the surface of the molten metal is taken out.

Once the slag is removed, the bott is knocked out and the molten metal is ladled

and poured into the molds.

Air blast continues, melting progresses and the molten metal is tapped for pouring

into the molds.

The Cupola charge is consumed with the passage of time and thus additional

charge of limestone, metal and coke is added through charging door.

The tap hole is opened intermittently and the molten iron is taken out. The tapping

is usually accompanied by intermittent slagging.

Dropping down the Bottom
Near the end of the Cupola operation, the charging of the Cupola is stopped.

All the contents of the Cupola are allowed to melt till one or two charges are left

above the coke bed.

At this stage, the air blast is shut off.

The prop under the bottom door is knocked down and the remains of the

operations are dropped onto the floor or collected in the bucket.

Zones of the Cupola
Well:

It is well of molten iron.

The molten iron collects in this zone before being tapped.

The well is situated above the rammed sand and below tuyeres.

Superheating, Combustion and Oxidising Zone:

It is situated 15 to 30 cm. above the tuyeres.

The oxygen from the air blast is consumed in this zone.

Lot of heat is liberated and supplied from this zone.

The temperature of the combustion zone varies from 1550oC to 1850oC.

The chemical reactions occur in this zone are:

Zones of the Cupola
Reduction Zone:

It extends from the top of the combustion zone to the to the top of coke bed.

An endothermic reaction takes place in this zone, in which hot CO2 moving

upward gets reduced.

This consumes heat at reduces the temperature to 1200oC.

Melting Zone:

Melting zone starts from the first layer of the metal charge above the coke bed.

Iron charge melts in this zone and comes down to well.

Following reaction takes place in this zone:

Zones of the Cupola
Preheating Zone:

Preheating zone is from melting zone to the bottom of the charging door.

Preheating zone contains Cupola charge as alternate layers.

The gases like CO2, N2, CO rising from the combustion zone and reduction zone

preheat the cupola charge in this zone

The temperature is about 1100oC.

Stack Zone:

Stack zone starts from above the preheating zone and ends at the spark arrester.

Hot gases fro the cupola pass through the stack zone and escape to the

atmosphere.
Advantages of Cupola
Simple design and easier construction.

Low initial cost as compared to other furnaces.

Simple to operate and maintain.

Economy of operation and maintenance.

Less floor space required as compared to other furnaces.

Cupola can be continuously operated for many hours.

Limitations of Cupola
Since the molten Iron and coke comes in contact with each other, certain

elements like Si, Mn are lost while others like Sulphur, are picked up.

Close temperature control is difficult to maintain.

Efficiency of Cupola

The efficiency of cupola varies from 30-50%.

Arc Furnaces
Electric Furnaces
Electric furnaces produce high quality castings because

o The furnace atmosphere can be closely controlled.

o Losses by oxidation can be eliminated

o Alloying elements can be added without fear of their loss due to oxidation

o The control over composition of the melt and its temperature is easy.

Electric furnaces are used for melting steels like Tool Steel and Stainless Steel,

Cast Iron, Brass, etc.

As compared to other furnaces cost of operation of Electric Furnace is high.

Capacity of Electric Furnaces ranges from 250 Kg. to 125 Tons.

Types of Electric Furnaces
1. Direct Arc Furnace

2. Indirect Arc Furnace

3. Resistance Heating Type

4. Coreless Type or High Frequency Induction Furnace

5. Core Type or Low Frequency Induction Furnace

Direct Electric Arc Furnace
Direct Electric Arc Furnace
It is most widely used melting unit in steel foundries.

It melts steel of different compositions.

Construction
A direct arc furnace consists of a heavy steel shell lined with refractory brick and

silica for acid lined furnace and magnesite for basic lined furnaces.

Acid lining is preferred when good steel scrap low in sulphur and phosphorus is

available so that removal of these two elements is not required.

A basic lined furnace is used for inferior steel which contains high amount of

Sulphur and Phosphorus.

Construction
The roof of the direct arc furnace consists of a steel roofing in which silica bricks

are fixed.

The direct arc furnace may be charged either from the charging door which is

also used to remove slag from molten metal or from furnace roof.
Construction
Depending on whether it is two phase or three phase electric furnace, two or three graphite

electrodes are inserted through the holes in the roof of the furnace.

The electrodes can be raised up and down.

Direct arc furnace has its diameter up to 6 meters.

Electrodes guides are placed on the furnace roof which are water cooled to dissipate the

heat.

The furnace is supported on bearings on the two sides.

The arc furnaces are tilted for charging, running off the slag and pouring the molten

metal into the ladle.

The rating of transformer supplying power to the arc ranges from 800 kVA to 40000kVA.

A 50 ton direct arc furnace requires current of the order of 250000 amps and arc

voltage of about 250 volts.

Operation: Preheating
The interior of the furnace is preheated before placing the metal charge in the

furnace.

Preheating is done by alternately striking and breaking the arc between the

electrodes.

The used pieces of the electrodes are kept on the hearth.

After preheating, the electrode pieces placed on the hearth are removed.
Operation: Charging
For melting cast iron acid lined furnace is used.

For melting steel, depending upon the contents of Sulphur and Phosphorus, either

acid lined or basic furnace is used.

Operation
Once the cold charge has been placed on the hearth of the furnace, electric arc is

drawn between the electrodes and the surface of the metal charge by lowering the
electrodes down till the current jumps the gap between the electrode and the
charge surface.

The arc gap between the electrode and charge is regulated by automatic

controls which raise and lower the electrode and maintain desired arc gap by
maintaining constant arc voltage.

Smaller arc lengths produce more intense heat.

Operation
Three arcs burning simultaneously produce a temperature of the order of 11000oF

and readily melt flux and metal scrap.

The slag formed due to melting of flux, etc. covers the molten metal pool.

Slag present on the top of molten metal reduces further oxidation of metal,

refines the metal and protects roof and side walls from heat radiated by molten
metal.

The molten metal pool increases with time as passage of time till the whole of the

scrap is melted.

The slag is first removed from charging door by tilting furnace backward.

The furnace is then tilted forward molten metal is emptied into ladles.

Hearth, side walls and the roof of the furnace are repaired by using suitable

refractory materials after each heat.

Advantages of Direct Arc Furnace
The slag formed in direct electric arc furnace have refining action.

The temperature and heat control is close.

The thermal efficiency of direct arc furnace is about 70%.

It can make steel directly from pig iron and steel scrap.

Arc furnace equipment is cheaper than induction furnace.

Arc furnace is preferred for its quick readiness for use, longer hearth life, ease

of repair and independence of the quality of the charge over induction furnace.
Limitations of Direct Arc Furnace
The heating cost is higher than that any other furnace.
Applications
In general, high quality carbon steel and alloy steels can be melted in direct

electric arc furnace.

Indirect Electric Arc Furnace
Indirect Electric Arc Furnace
An indirect arc furnace has capacity ranging from few kg to 2 tons.

Its preferred to produce smaller melts as compared to direct arc furnace.

Unlike direct arc furnace an electric arc is struck between two graphite

electrodes. Metal charge does not form a part of the electric circuit.

An electric arc furnace is of rocking type because it rocks back and forth during

melting process.

The metal thus comes in contact with refractory linings.

Metal thus melts because heat radiations from the arc and the hot refractory walls

of the furnace and conduction from the hot refractory wall linings when furnace
rocks.

An indirect electric arc furnace is used for melting cast iron, steel copper and its

alloys.
Construction
An indirect arc furnace consists of a barrel type shell made up of steel plates,

having refractory lining inside.

There are three openings, two for two graphite electrodes and the third is

charging door for feeding the metal charge into the furnace.

Built up with charging door is pouring spout.

Construction
Furnace is mounted on the rollers which are driven by a rocking drive unit to

rock the furnace back and forth during melting.

While the furnace rocks, liquid metal washes over the heated refractory linings

and absorbs heat from them.

During rocking metal charge constituents get mixed up thoroughly.

Rocking of the furnace speeds up the melting, stirs the molten metal, avoids

refractory lining from getting overheated and thus increases the life of refractory
lining.

The angle of rocking refractory furnace is adjusted in such a manner that the liquid

metal level remains below the pouring spout.

Construction
In an alternative design of a rocking furnace, instead of an arc, resistance heating

of a single electrode may provide necessary heat for melting.

The electrode has reduced diameter at its centre which offers resistance to the

flow of electric current and hence generates high heats which are utilised for
melting purposes.

The furnace operates noiselessly.

The furnace involves high operational costs.

Operation
Pig iron charged in the furnace.

Above pig iron scrap is placed.

Electric power is turned on and graphite electrodes are bought nearer till the

current jumps and an electric arc is set up between them.

The heat generated in the arc is responsible for melting the charge.

As soon as some metal has melted, the furnace is set to rock, to and fro.

Rocking helps better heat exchange between refractory linings, molten metal

and solid metal.

Rocking of the furnace and adjustment of arc gap between to electrodes is

automatically controlled.

When melting is complete, the furnace is tilted mechanically farther than rocking

and the liquid metal is taken out from pouring spout into the ladle.
Advantages of Indirect Electric Arc Furnace
Metal charge does not form part of electrical circuit.

Rocking of the furnace avoids overheating of the refractory lining thus avoids

damage of the refractory lining, stirs the molten metal thus provides melt of
uniform composition and speeds up melting.

Low cost scrap metal can be used in an indirect arc furnace.

Operation and control of the furnace is simple.

Limitations of Indirect Electric Arc Furnace
An indirect electric arc furnace attains lower temperatures and has less

efficiency as compared to a direct arc furnace.

Induction furnaces

1 - Melt
2 - Water-cooled coil
3 - Yokes
4 - Crucible
Induction furnaces
An induction furnace is an electrical furnace in which the heat is applied

by induction heating of metal.

Induction heating is a rapid form of heating in which a current is induced directly

into the part being heated.

Induction heating is a non-contact form of heating.

The advantage of the induction furnace is a clean, energy-efficient and well-

controllable melting process compared to most other means of metal melting.

Most modern foundries use this type of furnace and now also more iron foundries

are replacing cupolas with induction furnaces to melt cast iron, as the former emit
lots of dust and other pollutants in melting process.

Induction furnace capacities range from less than 1 kg. to 100 tones and are used

to melt iron and steel, copper, aluminium and precious metals.

Induction Furnace
The induction heating power supply sends alternating current through the induction coil, which generates a magnetic
field.

The furnace contains a crucible surrounded by a water cooled copper coil. The coil is called primary coil to which a high
frequency current is supplied.

An alternative electromagnetic field induces eddy currents in the metal which will eventually lead to joule heating by
converting the electric energy to heat without any physical contact between the induction coil and the work piece.

The joule heating , also known as ohmic heating and resistive heating is the process by which the passage of an electric
current through a conductor releases heat. The heat produced is proportional to the square of the current multiplied by the
electrical resistance of the wire.
Q IR
High temperature can be obtained by this method.

Induction furnaces are of two types: cored furnace and coreless furnace.

Cored furnaces are used almost exclusively as holding furnaces. In cored furnace the electromagnetic field heats the metal
between two coils. Coreless furnaces heat the metal via an external primary coil.
Induction furnace
The high-frequency magnetic field can also be used to stir the hot metal, which is

useful in ensuring that alloying additions are fully mixed into the melt.

Induction furnaces often emit a high-pitched whine or hum when they are running,

depending on their operating frequency.

Metals melted include iron, steel, copper, aluminium and precious metals.

Since no arc or combustion is used, the temperature of the material is no higher

than required to melt it.

The one major drawback to induction furnace usage in a foundry is the lack of

refining capacity; charge materials must be clean of oxidation products and of a

known composition.
Induction furnaces
Operating frequencies range from utility frequency (50 or 60 Hz) to 400 kHz or

higher, usually depending on the material being melted, the capacity (volume) of
the furnace and the melting speed required.

Generally, the smaller the volume of the melts, the higher the frequency of the

furnace used; this is due to the skin depth which is a measure of the distance
an alternating current can penetrate beneath the surface of a conductor.

The heating system in an induction furnace includes:

o Induction heating power supply,

o Induction heating coil,

o Water-cooling source, which cools the coil and several internal

components inside the power supply.

Types of Induction Furnace
In the coreless type, metal is placed in a crucible surrounded by a water-

cooled alternating current solenoid coil.

A core type or a channel-type induction furnace has a loop of molten metal,

which forms a single-turn secondary winding through an iron core.

Coreless Type or High frequency Type
Induction Furnace
Construction
It consists of a refractory crucible placed centrally inside water cooled copper

coil.

Dry refractory or insulation is packed tightly between the crucible and the

copper coil.
Construction
A high frequency insulation furnace is of two types:

1. A tilting type

2. A lift coil type in which the furnace shell along with the coils can be lifted up to

leave aside the crucible in its position.

Principle of Operation
Steel scrap is placed in the furnace as metal charge.

A high frequency current is passed through the water cooled copper coils. The

copper coils act as primary coil of a transformer.

The metal charge is secondary coil.

Heavy alternating currents are induced in the metal charge by electromagnetic

induction.
Principle of Operation
The metal charge offers resistance to the passage of the secondary currents which

creates heat.

This heat developed in the skin of the metal charge reaches inside by conduction and

melts the charge.

The magnetic field created by the secondary currents provides a stirring action on the

molten metal speeding up the melting process and mixing the metal charge uniformly.
Advantages of Coreless Type Induction Furnace
An induction furnace can melt relatively small quantities (from 1.5 kg to 12 tons)

of wide variety of metals and alloys quickly, conveniently and cleanly.

Magnetic stirring of the melt produces excellent uniformity in the molten metal.

Simpler in construction as compared to low frequency induction furnace.

Rate of energy input can be controlled.

Furnace atmosphere can be easily controlled.

It doesnt need warming up time.

A number of alloys and elements like Ni, Co, Cr, W, Mo, V, etc. can be easily

melted in this type of furnace.

Limitations of Coreless Type Induction Furnace
The initial cost of the furnace and the auxiliary equipment is high therefore this

furnace is used where high quality is required.

Due to the speed of melting metal, very little time is available for analyzing the melt

composition.

The metal charge of the required composition needs to be selected carefully.

It has thermal efficiency of about 60%.

Core Type or Low frequency Type /
Channel type Induction Furnace
Construction and Operation
The primary coil has many turns and is wound on the steel core.

The secondary coil has only one turn which is a channel or loop of liquid metal
within the furnace.
The furnace uses a.c. current.

The secondary currents are induced in the metal bath around the channel and heat is
generated due to the electrical resistance of the metal to the flow of secondary
currents.
Channel of molten metal connects to the main metal container above, which holds
the metal charge.
The stirring action occurring due to secondary currents melts the metal.

The metal in the channel gets heated, circulates heat in the container and melting
process proceeds.
Once the metal reached required pouring temperature it can be ladled out from the
pouring spout.
Advantages of Core Type Induction Furnace
It is more efficient induction furnace.

It has thermal efficiency of about 80%.

Melting is rapid and clean.

Combustion products are not present.

Oxidation losses are minimum.

Melt can be accurately controlled as regard to composition and temperature.

The furnace operation is economical.

Magnetic stirring of the melt ensures the uniformity of the metal.

Limitations of Core Type Induction Furnace
Furnace can not be operated with sold charge. Furnace operation can be started
only after filling the channels with molten metal procured from some other
furnace.

If the metal gets solidified in the channels, it can not be re-melted by the heat
created in the secondary coil.

Core type furnace is restricted to melt one alloy so that liquid metal can always be
maintained in the channels. For meting another alloy the furnace should be
emptied, thoroughly cleaned and restarted with new molten alloy.

This furnace is not suitable for intermittent operation.

Applications of Core Type Induction Furnace

This furnace is used to melt non-ferrous metals and their alloys where relatively

long periods of continuous operation are required.

It is also used to produce malleable cast iron.