Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 1
Description and Estimation of Rock Properties

In this chapter, properties of reservoir rocks and their measurements are

introduced. Porous materials are seen and used everywhere in nature, in
science and technology, and everyday life. The definition of a porous
material may differ somewhat in different studies. For the purpose of
studying of porous media flow, the porous materials are solid or
semisolid containing pores or voids and are permeable to a variety of
fluids.

1. Definitions
1.1 Porosity
The porosity φ of a porous medium is the volume fraction of its pore
space. It is expressed as
V
φ = p

Vb (1-1)
Vb the bulk volume of the porous medium
Vp the pore volume.
The porosity varies between zero and unity, depending on the type of
porous material and the way it was formed.

Total porosity represents the total void space of the medium.

Effective porosity is the amount of the void space that contributes to the
flow of fluids.

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Hydrocarbon porosity refers to the part of the porosity that contains
hydrocarbon. It is total porosity multiplied by the fraction of the pore
volume that contains hydrocarbon.

Two kinds of pores or voids:

Pore space, called “interconnected” or “effective” pore space
“Dead” pore space that consists of “isolated” or “non-
interconnected” pores or voids dispersed in the medium.
Only the effective or interconnected pore space contributes to the flow
of fluids through the porous medium.

Experimental methods commonly used to determine the porosity:

i) Imbibition method. The porous sample is saturated with a

preferentially wetting fluid by letting the fluid imbibe into the sample
under vacuum. The sample is weighed before and after imbibition. From
the two weights, the density of the fluid and the dimensions (bulk
volume) of the sample, the porosity can be calculated.

ii) Mercury injection method. As most materials are not wetted by

mercury, it will not penetrate into the pores unless a pressure is applied.
After the sample is evacuated, mercury is forced to penetrate into the
sample under high pressure.

iii) Gas expansion method. The porous sample is enclosed in a vessel of

known volume V1 under known gas pressure P1. When the vessel is
connected to an evacuated vessel of known volume V2, the gas expands
into this vessel and the gas pressure in the first vessel decreases to a
lower value P2. Applying the ideal gas law to the above process gives
the effective pore volume Vp of the sample:

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 ⎛ P ⎞
V p = Vb −V1 −V2 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ P2 − P1 ⎠
(1-2)
where Vb is the bulk volume of the sample which is determined in a
separate measurement.

iv) Density method. The bulk density of the sample ρb and the density of
the solid matrix of the sample ρs are determined. The total porosity of
the sample is calculated by
ρb
φ = 1−
ρs (1-3)

Average porosity of a reservoir

The accuracy of the average porosity of a reservoir as found from core
analysis depends on the quality and quantity of the data available and on
the uniformity of the reservoir. The porosity is also calculated from
electric logs and neutron logs, often with the assistance of some core
measurements.

1.2 Permeability

1.2.1 Definition and Darcy’s law

- The property of a porous medium which allows a fluid to flow
through it is called permeability.
- This parameter is determined entirely by the pore structure.

Darcy’s law : The darcy permeability k is calculated by applying

Darcy’s law (Darcy, 1856) to a slow (creeping), one dimensional,
horizontal, steady flow of a Newtonian fluid:

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 k A ΔP
q=
μ L , (1-4)
q volumetric flow rate (cm3/sec)
A cross-sectional area of the sample (cm2)
L length of the sample in the flow direction (cm)
ΔP hydrostatic pressure drop (atm)
μ viscosity of the fluid (cP)

Using these units in Darcy’s law results in the practical unit of

permeability the darcy (D). One darcy is equal to 0.987 (μm)2 in SI units.
One darcy is a relatively high permeability, and for tight porous
materials the unit millidarcy (mD) is used.

1.2.2 Measurement of permeability

Measurement of permeability is usually performed with one-
dimensional, cylindrically shaped samples. In the measurement various
flow rates of the fluid are recorded as a function of pressure drop.
Permeability is obtained by fitting a straight line to the data points.
Theoretically, this line should pass through the origin.

Figure 1. Effect of turbulent

flow on measured permeability

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Both liquids and gases are routinely used to measure permeabilities.
Liquids, however, may interact with the rock sample and thus change the
pore structure of the medium and therefore the permeability of the
medium. For example, the flow of fresh water through porous samples
containing clay caused permeability reduction because of clay swelling
upon contact with fresh water.

1.2.3 Units of Darcy’s Law under different systems

The potential (datum pressure) of a fluid: ψ = p + ρ g z
Darcy’s law in general form:
kA dψ
q=−
μ ds
or
kA ⎛ dp dz ⎞
q=− ⎜ +ρg ⎟
μ ⎝ ds ds ⎠

Darcy unit system:

kA ⎛ dp 1 dz ⎞
q=− ⎜ + ρ g ⎟
μ ⎝ ds 1.01325 x106 ds ⎠

k – darcy, A – cm2, μ – cp, p – atm, s – cm, ρ – gm/cm3, g – 980.7cm/sec,

q – cm3/sec

SI unit system:
kA ⎛ dp dz ⎞
q=− ⎜ +ρg ⎟
μ ⎝ ds ds ⎠

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k – m2, A – m2, μ – kg/m-sec, p – N/m2 (Pa), s – m, ρ – kg/m3, g – 9.8
m/sec2, q – m3/sec

Field unit system:

kA ⎛ dp ρg dz ⎞
q = − 0.001127 ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
μ ⎝ ds 144 g c ds ⎠

k – md, A – ft2, μ – cp, p – psia, s – ft, ρ – lb/ft3, g – 32.17ft/sec2, q –

bbl/d

cgs unit system:

kA ⎛ dp dz ⎞
q=− ⎜ +ρg ⎟
μ ⎝ ds ds ⎠

k – cm2, A – cm2, μ – gm/cm-sec(poise), p – dyne/cm2, s –cm, ρ –

gm/cm3, g – 980.7cm/sec2, q – cm3/sec

1.2.4 Gas Permeability

In using gas in measuring the permeability, the gas volumetric flow rate
varies with pressure. Therefore, the value of q at the average pressure in
the core must be used. Assuming the used gases follow the ideal gas
behavior, Darcy’s law is in the following form:
kA( p12 − p22 )
qgb = (1-5)
2 μ g Lpb
qgb gas volumetric flow rate at base pressure (cm3/sec)
A cross-sectional area of the sample (cm2)
L length of the sample in the flow direction (cm)
P1 inlet (upstream) pressure (atm)
P2 outlet (downstream) pressure (atm)
Pb base pressure (atm)
μg gas viscosity at mean pressure (cP)

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The Klinkenberg Effect
The permeability of a porous medium sample measured by flowing air is
always greater than the permeability obtained when a liquid is the
flowing fluid. This is because that gases exhibit slippage at the pore wall
surface. The gas slippage results in a higher flow rate for the gas at a
given pressure differential. For a given porous medium, the calculated
permeability decreased as the mean pressure (pm) increased. If a plot of
calculated permeability versus 1/pm is extrapolated to the point of 1/pm =
0 (or pm = infinite), this permeability would be approximately equal to
the liquid permeability (see Figure 2). The straight-line relationship in
Fig.2 can be expressed as:
⎛ 1 ⎞
k g = k L + c⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (1-6)
⎝ pm ⎠
kg = calculated gas permeability
pm = mean pressure (pm = (p1+p2)/2)
kL = Klinkenberg permeability
c = slope of the line
The magnitude of the Klinkenberg effect varies with the core
permeability and the type of the gas used in the experiment.

Figure 2. The Klinkenberg effect in gas permeability measurement

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Figure 3. Effect of gas pressure on measured gas permeability for
various gases. (Calhourn, J., 1976)

1.3 Pore Size and Pore Size Distribution

If α (D ) is the distribution of pore volume fraction as a function of pore

size, D, then the pore size is selected such that (Dullien, 1992)
∞

∫α ( D)dD = 1 .
0
(1-7)

Mercury porosimetry
-The volume of mercury penetrating the sample is measured as a
function of the pressure imposed on the mercury.
-Drainage capillary pressure curves obtained by mercury intrusion
porosimeter are customarily interpreted in terms of the bundle of
capillary tubes model.
-The pore size is calculated from this pressure by Laplace’s
equation of capillarity and, using the bundle of capillary tube
model of pore structure, the volume of mercury is assigned to this
pore size.

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In the case of interconnected pore space the “body” of each pore is
connected to the bodies of adjacent pores via “necks” or “throats”. The
“sizes” of both the pore bodies and the pore throats play an important
role in determining various macroscopic properties, such as
permeability, capillary pressure curves of porous media, etc. Both the
body and the throat sizes can be “measured” using computer
reconstruction of pore structure from photomicrographs of serial
sections of the sample.

1.4 Resistivity Factor

A “resistivity factor”, often called “formation resistivity factor”, is
defined as
Ro
F=
Rw , (1-8)
Ro the electrical resistance of porous sample saturated with an ionic
solution,
Rw the bulk resistance of the same ionic solution occupying the same
space as the porous sample (same cross-section area and length).
In the case of nonconductive solids Ro is always greater that Rw and
therefore, F is always greater than unity.

Correlation of the formation resistivity factor with porosity φ and a

“cementation exponent” m.
1
For clean and uniform sand F =
φ2
Archie (1942) suggested: F = φ −m 1.3 < m < 2.5

It is more common to express the formation factor as:

F = aφ − m
where a, m are unique properties of sample.

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1.5 Isothermal Compressibility (coefficient)

The isothermal compressibility for a substance is:

1 dv 1 ⎛ dv ⎞
c=− c = − ⎜ ⎟
v dp or more generally v ⎜⎝ dp ⎟⎠T (1-9)
Where c = isothermal compressibility
v = volume
p = pressure

Rock-matrix compressibility cr:

The rock-matrix isothermal compressibility is the fractional change in
solid rock volume with a unit change in pressure while the temperature
is held constant:

1 ⎛ dvr ⎞
cr = − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (1-10)
vr ⎝ dp ⎠T

Units are in reciprocal pressure units, psi-1.

Rock-bulk compressibility cb:

1 ⎛ dvb ⎞
cb = − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (1-11)
vb ⎝ dp ⎠T

Pore volume compressibility (Formation isothermal compressibility)

cf :
At any value of external-internal pressure difference, the change in pore
volume per unit of pore volume per unit change in pressure. Note that
pore volume increases with the pore pressure:

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 1 ⎛ dv p ⎞
cf = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (1-12)
vp ⎝ dp ⎠T

1 ⎛ dφ ⎞
cf = ⎜ ⎟
Or φ ⎜⎝ dp ⎟⎠T (1-13)

Example: The values of cf for limestone and sandstone reservoir rocks:

2 x 10-6 to 25 x 10-6 psi-1.
When the internal fluid pressure within the pore spaces of a rock is
reduced:
• the volume of the solid rock material increases
• the pore volume decreases

Both of these volume changes act to reduce the porosity of the rock
slightly, of the order of 0.5% for a 1000 psi change in the internal fluid
pressure (e.g., at 20% porosity to 19.9%).

2. Fundamentals of Capillarity

2.1 Surface (interfacial) tension

Interface is a boundary between two immiscible phases and is taken as a
mathematical line or mathematical surface.

Types of interfaces
liquid—Gas (L—G)
Liquid—Liquid (L—L)
Liquid—Solid ( L—S)
Gas—Solid (G—S)

Surface Tension, γ, and Interfacial tension, σ, are basic properties of

interfaces. The stress causing this spontaneous decrease of surface area

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is called surface or interfacial tension. Surface tension may be thought of
either as a force per unit length in a surface (dyne/cm, or equivalently,
mN/m), or a free energy per unit surface area (erg/cm2, or equivalently,
mJ/m2).
• The term Surface Tension is reserved for interfaces involving a
liquid in equilibrium with their own vapour, or for liquid-air type
of interfaces.
• The term Interfacial Tension (IFT) is used for L-L or L-S types of
interfaces.
The physical meaning of force per unit length and energy per unit area is
understood by the following examples.

Figure 4: Example of film of soap

Work = Force × Length or displacement

W = (γl) ⋅ dx
W = γ ⋅ dA
where dA = l ⋅ dx and denotes the change in interface area.

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 Typical IFT values

H2O-air 72 mN/m
Hg-air 450 mN/m
Hydrocarbons-air ~20—50 mN/n
H2O-Oil ~20 mN/m
(H2O + NaCl)-Oil ~30 mN/m
(H2O + Soap)-Oil ~0.1mN/m to 1×10-3mN/m

2.2 Wettability and Contact Angle

The relative wettability of a porous medium by two fluids is

characterized by the contact angle θ. The contact angle θ is defined as
the angle between the tangent to the liquid/solid boundary constructed at
a point on the three-phase line of contact and the tangent to the
gas/liquid boundary constructed at the same point.

Figure 5 Contact angle of a liquid on a solid surface

Young’s equation:
σ sg − σ sl = σ lg cosθ , (1-14)
where σ lg and σsg are the surface tensions of liquid and solid,
respectively, and σ sl is the interfacial tension between the liquid and the
solid.

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The contact angle may have any value between 0 and 180º. It is
customary to simply classify fluids into two categories: wetting and non-
wetting fluid. For wetting fluids, 0 ≤ θ < 90º, and for non-wetting fluids,
90º < θ ≤ 180º. In the pores of porous media, the curved interfaces
between two immiscible fluids may take different shapes and directions
of the curvature.

Figure 6 Menisci in (a) a water- wet and (b) an oil-wet capillary.

Terminology Used in Contact Angle Measurements

• θA, Advancing contact angle: The contact angle when the interface
is forced by human action or otherwise to move in the direction of
the wetting phase displacing the nonwetting phase. θA is usually
measured through the wetting phase and the solid surface.
• θR, Receding contact angle: The contact angle when the wetting
phase is receding ( e.g. when the nonwetting phase displaces the
wetting phase). θR is also usually measured through the wetting
phase and the solid surface.
• θE, Equilibrium or intrinsic Contact Angle: the contact angle when
the system was attained equilibrium position over time.

Equilibrium Contact Angle - Approach to Equilibrium

Rock- fluid interactions are time dependent. They significantly affect the
measurement of contact angles. Salinity of water, pH, type of ions,
temperature, and polar groups in the crude oil, all have an effect on
equilibrium contact angle θA.

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2.3 Capillary Pressure

Immiscible fluids in porous media are separated from each other by

curved interfaces across which there exists a pressure difference or a
step change in pressure. This pressure difference, called capillary
pressure PC, is balanced at equilibrium by a pressure difference ΔP at
any points of contact between the two fluids:

PC ≡ ΔP = Pnw − Pw (1-15)
where subscripts w and nw represent wetting and non-wetting phase,
respectively. As, at equilibrium, Pnw > Pw, the capillary pressure is, by
definition, always positive.

Equation 1-15 shows that the capillary pressure always tends to

compress the non-wetting phase relative to the wetting phase. It is
helpful to remember that the pressure in the phase on the concave side of
the surface is always greater than the pressure in the phase on the convex
side. Laplace’s equation for capillary pressure in a capillary tube is:
2σ
PC = ΔP =
rm , (1-16)
Where rm is the mean radius of the curvature of the meniscus.

Typical application of Eq. 1-16 is in a circular capillary of a very small

radius. If the contact angle of a liquid on the capillary walls is zero, the
meniscus can be approximately thought to be hemispherical. Thus, the
mean radius of the curvature is equal to the radius of the capillary.
2σ
PC =
r , (1-17)
where r is the radius of the capillary.

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The general case is when the liquid/gas surface or liquid/liquid interface
meets the circular capillary wall through contact angle θ, as illustrated in
Fig. 2-3.

If the meniscus is a spherical cap and both r and R are positive

quantities, the following geometric relation holds:
r
R=
cosθ , (1-18)
and Eq. 2-7 becomes

2σ
PC = cosθ . (1-19)
r

Figure 6. The relationship

between the radius of the
curvature of the meniscus
and the radius of the
capillary tube.

Equation 1-19 is the most widely used form of “Laplace’s equation” in

porous media.

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2.4 Capillary Rise

The best illustration of the phenomenon of capillary rise may be the

capillary rise method for measuring the surface tension of a liquid, such
as water in a clean glass capillary. The contact angle of some fluids on a
clean glass surface is near zero. Eq. 1-19 can be used directly. At
equilibrium, the ΔP, or PC, in Eq. 2-9 must equal to the hydraulic
pressure drop in the liquid column in the capillary. This is ΔP = Δρgh,
where Δρ is the difference in density between liquid and gas phase and g
is the gravitational constant. Eq. 1-19 becomes
2σ
Δρ gh =
r . (1-20)

Figure 7. Capillary rise in a glass tube

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2.5 Capillary Pressure Curves
Capillary pressure-saturation relationship
When a porous sample saturated with a single fluid, e.g. air, is
submerged in a second fluid, e.g., water, one of the following
phenomena may be observed:
1. The water may spontaneously imbibe into the sample and thus
displacement of air from the sample takes place.
Water – wetting phase
Air – non wetting phase
Porous sample – water wet
Displacement – free imbibition
2. The water may not penetrate at all into the sample unless it is
placed under an externally applied pressure.
Water – non wetting phase

Drainage capillary pressure curve

The quasi-static displacement of wetting phase, e.g., water, by a non-
wetting phase, e.g., oil or air, is defined by the set of increasing values of
the capillary pressure, Pc, and a corresponding set of decreasing values
of water saturation. The wetting phase is drained out of the sample.

Imbibition capillary pressure curve

The capillary pressure verses saturation relationship for the process of
wetting phase displacing non-wetting phase in quasi-static steps.

Capillary pressure hysteresis

Because of the difference between the conditions for configurational
stability of the fluid-fluid interfaces during the drainage process and the
imbibition process, the capillary pressure curves display hysteresis.
The advancement of the non-wetting phase into the medium is
controlled by the neck pores.
The advancement of the wetting phase is controlled by the bulge
pores.

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 Figure 8. Typical capillary pressure curves

The definitions of main terms of capillary pressure curves:

Irreducible (wetting phase) saturation Swi:
The reduced volume of the wetting phase retained at the highest
capillary pressure where the wetting phase saturation appears to be
independent of further increases in the externally measured
capillary pressure.

Residual (non-wetting phase) saturation Snwr:

The reduced volume of the nonwetting phase that is entrapped
when the externally measured capillary pressure is decreased from
a high value to zero.

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Primary drainage curve:
The relationship characteristic of the displacement of the wetting
phase from 100% saturation to the irreducible saturation.

(Secondary) Imbibition curve:

The relationship characteristic of the displacement of the
nonwetting phase from the irreducible saturation to the residual
saturation
Secondary drainage curve:
The relationship characteristic of displacement of wetting phase
from residual saturation to the irreducible saturation

Hysteresis loop
Experimental evidence has indicated that the irreducible saturation
obtained by initial drainage is the same as that obtained by
secondary drainage. When the residual saturations are the same,
the imbibition after secondary drainage will follow exactly the
imbibition curve obtained after primary drainage. The secondary
drainage curve and the secondary imbibition curve constitute a
closed and reproducible hysteresis loop.

Leverett J-Function
Because the capillary pressure is a function of pore size, which is a
function of porosity and permeability, it varies with reservoir porosity
and permeability. It is not practical to measure a separate capillary
pressure curve for each value of porosity and permeability, all capillary
pressure curves for a particular reservoir can be combined into one curve
by use of the Leverett J-function given by:

pc k
J= (1-21)
σ cosθ φ

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If the capillary pressure curves are measured for several different
porosities and permeabilities, all the data can be plotted on one curve by
use of J-function.

3. Steady Multiphase Flow in Porous Media

3.1 Introduction

When two immiscible fluids flow simultaneously through a porous

sample under steady conditions, there will be a pattern of occupancies of
the two fluids which greatly influence the effective permeabilities of the
two fluids in the sample.

The distribution of the two fluids depends

• the saturations
• the wettability conditions of the pore surface
• the interfacial tension
• fluid viscosities
• the pore velocity

The case of the most interest corresponds to

• one of the two fluids wets the pore surface preferentially
• the interfacial tension is large
• the velocities are low

Flow of immiscible fluids in porous media:

• Steady-state All macroscopic properties of the system are time
invariant at all points
• Unsteady-state Properties change with time
• Co-current Both phases flow in the same direction
• Counter-current Different phases flow in opposite directions
• Steady state flow VS. displacement (imbibition, drainage)

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3.2 Saturations
Saturation is defined as the fraction, or percent, of the pore volume (PV)
occupied by a particular fluid (oil, gas, or water):

Oil, gas, and water saturation are:

V V V
So = o , Sg = g , Sw = w
PV PV PV
Where Vo, Vg and Vw are oil, gas, and water volumes, respectively. The
saturation of each individual phase ranges between zero and 1.0. The
sum of the saturations is 1.0:

So + Sg + Sw = 1.0.

3.3 Relative permeabilities

- A macroscopic (phenomenological ) description of

multiphase flow in porous media

Equations of relative permeabilities

kA ΔP
q=
Darcy’s Law: μ L
Conditions of steady cocurrent flow are usually established by injecting
both fluids at constant rates and allowing time for the discharge rates to
become equal to the injection rates. Under these conditions it has been
found in experiments that the saturation and the capillary pressure are
approximately independent of position.

An extended Darcy’s law for two-phase flow in porous media, under

steady-state conditions:

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 k i A ΔPi
qi =
μi L , i = o, w (1-22)
qi the volumetric flow rate
ΔPi the pressure drop
μi the viscosity of phase i.
ki the “effective permeability” of the porous medium to phase i.

It is coustomary to express ki as relative permeability, i.e., as a fraction

of the absolute permeability of the porous medium k
ki
k ri = i = o, w (1-23)
k
and write Eq. 1-22 as

k ri k A ΔPi
qi = i = o, w (1-24)
μi L

As the saturation of a particular phase decreases, the effective

permeability of that phase also decreases. The sum of the effective
permeabilities is always less than or equal to the absolute permeability,
i.e.,

ko + k g + k w ≤ k
Or k ro + k rg + k rw ≤ 1

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Figure 9 Schematic of relative permeability curves of primary
drainage and secondary imbibition (Dullien, 1988).

Experimental methods of measuring relative permeabilities

The methods available for the measurement of relative permeabilities

can be divided into two categories: steady and unsteady flow tests.

Steady flow tests

In a typical steady-state method the two liquids are injected

simultaneously as a fixed ratio and know, metered flow rates. The
criterion of steady state is determined by the condition that the inflows
equal the outflows and /or the constant pressure drop has been reached
across the sample. The attainment of steady state may take anywhere

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from 2 to 40 hours or even longer, depending on the sample permeability
and the method used.

Figure 10 Schematic diagram of steady state relative permeability

apparatus

Procedure: (for waterflooing)

• Saturate the porous sample with the wetting phase (water)

• Displace the wetting phase with the non-wetting phase (oil) to
irreducible water saturation
• Starting from irreducible water saturation, increase water
saturation step by step to determined oil and water permeabilities
at different water saturations until the residual oil saturation
reached.

Unsteady flow methods

In the unsteady-state (external drive) method, one phase is displaced

from a core by pumping in the other phase and the relative
permeabilities are calculated by history matching the production data
(produced fluid ratio and pressure drop across the core sample) using
reservoir simulation.

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Advantages of the unsteady-state method:
• Fast
• The relative permeabilities measured in this fashion will exactly
reproduce the experimental oil recovery data (from which they
were derived).

Procedure: (for waterflooding, SPE 99763 by Wang and Dong, 2006)

• The absolute permeability is first measured by injecting single

water phase through a 100% water-saturated sandpack.
• Initial water saturation is established by injecting oil until water
was no longer produced, which is followed by the determination of
effective oil permeability at irreducible water saturation.
• The relative permeability test is conducted at a constant water
injection flow rate.
• After waterflooding, the average oil saturation in the core sample
is measured using a Dean Stark glass distillation assembly, which
is applied to check the recorded production data.

Relative permeabilities for a fluid pair can be affected

• pore structure
• Wettability
• capillary forces
• saturation history
• viscosities of fluid pair

Drainage and imbibition relative permeabilities

Whenever capillary forces are controlling, there is also a hysteresis
effect of the relative permeability curves, as shown schematically in Fig.
9, i.e., “imbibition” relative permeability curves are different from
“drainage” relative permeability curves.

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Effect of Wettability

The difference of procedures in determining relative permeability curves

• driving the sample down to “irreducible” water saturation and
measuring the relative permeabilities at increasing water
saturations.
• in a water-wet samples imbibition-type relative permeability
curves are determined
• in an oil-wet sample drainage-type relative permeability curves are
determined.
The most noticeable difference in relative permeability characteristics of
the two types of rocks is the difference in water saturations at which
water and oil relative permeabilities are equal: greater than 50% for
water-wet and less than 50% for oil-wet.

Summary of relative permeability curves

Water-wet Oil-wet
Connate water saturation Usually greater than 20 to Generally less that 15%,
25% frequently less that 10%
Saturation at which oil Greater that 50% water Less than 50% water
and water relative saturation saturation
permeabilities are equal
Relative permeability to Generally less that 30% Greater than 50% and
water at maximum water approaching 100%
saturation; i.e., floodout

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 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 2 Reservoir Fluids Properties

2.1 Reservoir Types Defined in Reference of Phase Behavior
The types of reservoirs can be defined by the phase behaviour of the initial res-
ervoir temperature and pressure with respect to the two-phase (gas and liquid)
region on pressure-temperature (PT) phase diagrams.

Pressure – temperature phase diagrams:

Typical pressure-temperature phase diagram of a pure substance

• Vapor-pressure line
• Critical point
• Triple point
• Melting-point line
• Sublimation-pressure line

1
Typical pressure-temperature diagram of a multi-component mixture

• Bubble point line

• Dew point line
• Two-phase region – two phases, gas and liquid, coexist. Two phase
region - enclosed by the bubble-point and dewpoint lines.
• Constant liquid volume line -The curves within the two-phase region
show the percentage of the total hydrocarbon volume that is liquid for
any temperature and pressure.
• Constant liquid volume line
• Cricondentherm, or maximum of two-phase temperature (250°F for the
present example)
• Cricondenbar, or maximum of two-phase pressure

Phase diagram depends on the composition of the mixture. Initially each hydro-
carbon accumulation will have its own phase diagram, which depends only on the
composition of the accumulation.

2
Examples of paths of production and phase change:

(Textbook Page 7)

Point A: Fluid at 300°F and 3700 psia. One-phase state (gas) in reservoir during
production.

A-A1: It will remain in the single-phase or gaseous state as the pressure declines
along path A-A1.

A-A2 : The fluid produced through the wellbore and into surface separators may
enter the two-phase region due to the temperature decline (A-A2).This accounts
for the production of condensate liquid at the surface from a gas in the reservoir.

Point B: fluid at temperature of 180 oF and an initial pressure of 3300 psia.

One-phase state (gas), where the reservoir temperature exceeds the critical tem-
perature.

Point B1: The dew-point pressure is reached at 2700 psia.

B1-B2: Below dew-point pressure a liquid condenses out of the reservoir fluid as
a fog or dew. This type of reservoir is commonly called a dew-point (retrograde)
reservoir. The term retrograde is used because generally vaporization, rather than
condensation, occurs during isothermal expansion.

3
B2-B3: Vaporization of the retrograde liquid occurs from B2 to the abandonment
pressure B3. Low reservoir temperature and high abandonment pressure will
cause more loss of the condensate.

Point C: Fluid at 2900 psia and 75°F. One-phase state (liquid). The temperature
is below the critical temperature. This type is called a bubble-point (undersatu-
rated) reservoir.

C-C1: Pressure declines, the bubble point will be reached (at 2550 psia) at point
C1.

Below C1: Bubbles, or a free-gas phase, will appear. The free gas evolved begins
to flow to the well bore, and in ever increasing quantities. Other names for this
type of liquid (oil) reservoir are depletion, dissolved gas, solution gas drive, ex-
pansion, and internal gas drive.

Point D: Fluid at 2000 psia and 150°F. A two-phase reservoir, consisting of a

liquid or oil zone overlain by a gas zone or cap. The composition of the gas and
oil are different from each other. The oil is at its bubble point and will be pro-
duced as a bubble-point reservoir with the presence of the gas cap.

2.2 Gas Properties

1. Ideal Gas Law

Equations of State: Describe the pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) behavior

of a fluid.

The ideal gas law:

PV = nR’T (1.4)

p - absolute pressure
V - volume
n - moles
T - absolute temperature
R' - the gas constant

Units: p - psia, V - ft3, n - lb-moles, T – Ro (Rankine) , R' = 10.73

p - atm, V - cm3, n - g-moles, T – K (Kelvin), R' = 82.05
Ro = 460 + oF
K = 273.15 + oC

4
Standard conditions: 14.7 psia and 60°F.
Volume of gas at standard conditions: SCF (standard cubic feet), MSCF (1000
standard cubic feet), MMSCF.

Example: Calculate the moles, pounds and molar volume at standard conditions
of ethane in a 500 cu ft tank at 100 psia and 100oF.

n=pV/RT = (100 x 500)/(10.73 x 560) = 8.32 lb-moles

m = Mn = 8.32 x 30.07 = 250.2 pounds
Vmolar=10.732x(60+460)/14.7 = 379.4 SCF/Mole

2. Specific Gravity

Density of gas, ρg, at a given temperature and pressure:

ρMw
ρg =
R'T

Mw = molecular weight

Specific gravity - the ratio of the density of a gas at a given temperature and
pressure to the density of air at the same temperature and pressure, usually 14.7
psia and 60°F.

The specific gravity of a gas (at standard conditions):

pM w
ρg R'T Mw ⎛ Mw ⎞
γg = = = ⎜= ⎟ (1.5)
ρ air p x 28.97 28.97 ⎝ 29 ⎠
R 'T
3. Real Gas Law

pVa = znR’T (1.7)

Va - the actual gas volume.

5
Compressibility factor z (gas deviation factor) – a measure of the deviation from
the ideal behavior. It is a dimensionless quantity and varies usually between 0.70
and 1.20.

Definition of the gas deviation factor:

Figure 1.3 Gas deviation factors of two gases (Textbook 16)

Determination of the gas deviation factor:

The gas deviation factor is different for each gas or mixture of gases and for each
temperature and pressure of that gas or mixture of gases.
1). The gas deviation factor is commonly determined by measuring the volume of
a sample at desired pressures and temperatures, and then measuring the
volume of the same quantity of gas at atmospheric pressure and at a tem-
perature sufficiently high so that all the material remains in the vapor phase.

6
Example: A gas has a volume of 364.6 cu cm at 213°F and 3250 psia. At 14.80
psia and 82°F it has a volume of 70,860 cu cm.

The deviation factor at 3250 psia and 213°F is:

7
2). Estimation from specific gravity:

(Textbook P.17)

The correlations of the two curves are:

ppc = 756.8 – 131.0γg -3.6γ2g (1.8)

Tpc = 169.2 + 349.5γg -74.0γ2g (1.9)

3). Pseudocritical pressure and temperature method

Pseudocritical pressure and temperature are defined as:

T pc = ∑ y j Tcj and p pc = ∑ y j pcj

j j
yj - mole fraction of jth component
Tcj and pcj are critical temperature and pressure of jth component.

Effects of CO2 and H2S on calculation of pseudoreduced properties (Wichert and

Aziz)
ε = 120 (A0.9 – A1.6) + 15(B0.5 – B4) (1.15)
A - sum of the mole fractions of CO2 and H2S in the gas mixture
B - mole fraction of H2S in the gas mixture

The modified pseudoproperties are given by:

T’pc = Tpc – ε (1.15a)

P’pc = ppcT’pc/[Tpc + B(1-B) ε] (1.15b)

8
4. Gas Formation Volume Factor Bg

Bg = [volume of gas in the reservoir]

[volume on the surface (standard conditions)]

Bg = psczT/Tscp (1.16)

Bg = 0.02829 zT/p cu ft/SCF

=0.00504 zT/p bbl/SCF (1.17)

(The constants in Eqs. (1.17) are for 14.7 psia and 60°F)

Example: For Bell Field gas at 3250 psia, 213°F, and z = 0.910:

Discussion:
1) 1 SCF (at 14.7 psia and 60°F) gas occupies 0.00533 ft3 or 0.000949 bbl of
space in the reservoir at 3250 psia and 213°F.
2) 1000 ft3 of reservoir pore volume in the Bell Field gas reservoir at 3250
psia contains
G = 1000/0.00533 = 188MSCF

5. Gas Isothermal Compressibility cg

1 dv
Definition:
cg = −
v dp
1). Isothermal compressibility of ideal gases:

9
 2). Isothermal compressibility of real gases:

Discussion:
I. For an ideal gas z = 1.0 and dz/dp = 0 , the compressibility is the reciprocal
of the pressure. That is:
cg = 1/p (for ideal gas)
II. For real gases, cg is a function of both pressure and z-factor.
a. At low pressures, the z-factor decreases as pressure increases. dv/dp
is negative and cg is larger than in the case of an ideal gas.
b. At high pressures, the z-factor increase with pressure. dv/dp is posi-
tive and cg is less than in the case of an ideal gas.

10
Fig 1.6. Gas compressibility of gas deviation factor versus pressure (Textbook).

Example Find the compressibility of a gas from z-factor curve (Fig 1.6).

Given: The gas deviation factor curve for a gas at 150 oF, Fig. 1.6.

Solution:
At 1000 psia, dz/dp = - 127x10-6, z = 0.83

cg = 1/1000 -1/0.83(-127x10-6) = 1153x10-6 psi-1

At 2500 psia, dz/dp = 0

cg = 1/2500 =400 x10-6 psi-1

At 4500 psia, dz/dp = -110 x 10-6, z = 0.90

cg = 1/4500 -1/0.90(110x10-6) = 100 x 10-6 psi-1

11
3) Isothermal compressibility of gas mixtures:

p = ppc ppr and dp = ppcdppr,

Equation (1.9) can be written in the following form:

1 1 dz
cg = −
p pc p pr zp pc dp pr (1.20)

Define: cr = cgppc
There is:

1 1 dz
cr = −
p pr z dp pr (1.21)

Correlations presented in Figs 1.7 and 1.8 can be used to find the isothermal
compressibility for gas mixtures.

2.3 Crude Oil Properties

1. Specific Gravity and API Gravity

Oil gravity, γo, is defined as the ratio of the density of the oil to the density of
water, both taken at the same temperature and pressure, mostly at standard con-
ditions.
ρo
γo =
ρw
API gravity is defined as:
141.5
o
API = −131.5
γo
Where γo is the specific gravity of the oil at standard conditions.

12
2. Solution Gas-Oil Ratio, Rso

Rso = Solution gas volume measured at standard conditions (SCF)

Stock tank oil volume (STB)

• The solubility of natural gas in crude oil depends on the pressure, tem-
perature, and the composition of the gas and the crude oil.
• The quantity of solution gas increases with pressure.
• The quantity of solution gas decreases with temperature.
• The quantity of solution gas increases as the compositions of the gas and
crude oil approach each other.

Saturated oil: A oil is said to be saturated with gas if on a slight reduction in

pressure some gas is released from solution.
Undersaturated oil: if no gas is released from solution as pressure is reduced,
the crude oil is said to be undersaturated.

Fig. 1.11 shows the change of Rso of an oil with pressure (textbook).

Determination of Rso

• Laboratory analysis with reservoir fluids

• Estimation using correlations
o Charts (McCain, 1990)
o Equations

13
3. Formation Volume Factor of Oil, Bo (FVF)

The definition of FVF:

The volume in barrels that one stock tank barrel with solution gas occupies in
the formation at reservoir conditions.

Bo =

Volume of reservoir fluid (STO + solution gas) at reservoir conditions

Volume of oil entering stock tank at standard conditions

The reciprocal of FVF is called Shrinkage factor:

bo = 1/Bo

Example of FVF change with pressure and temperature is shown in Fig. 1.12.

Fig. 1.12 FVF of Big Sandy Field oil (Text book page 34)

14
Two-phase formation volume factor (Total formation volume factor) Bt

Definition: The volume in barrels one stock tank barrel and its initial dissolved
gas occupies at any pressure and reservoir temperature.

Bt = Bo + Bg(Rsoi – Rso) (1.28)

Discussion of Eq. (1.28) (see figure for this equation):

• For one barrel of stock tank oil plus its dissolved gas.
• The volume of oil at the lower pressure is Bo.
• The quantity of gas evolved is Rsoi – Rso, measured at standard conditions.
• The volume of free gas at reservoir conditions is Bg(Rsoi – Rso).
• The total volume is equal to the total formation volume factor, Bt.
• Above or at the bubble-point, Rsoi = Rso, Bt = Bo.
• Below the bubble point, Bo decreases and (Rsoi – Rso) increases as pressure
decreases, two-phase factor increases.

15
Example of calculating Bt at 1200 psia using Fig 1.13:

Fig 1.13 Demonstration of Bo and Bt Calculation (Textbook page 36)

Knowns:
• Based on 1STB
• Initial solution gas = 567 SCF/STB
• At 1200 psia and 160°F the liberated gas has a deviation factor of 0.890
• liquid phase shrinks to 1.210 bbl at 1200 psia
• At 1200 psia Rso = 337 SCF/STB

Solution:
The gas volume factor with reference to standard conditions
Bg = 0.02829 zT/p = 0.02829x 0.890 x 620/1200 Eq. (1.17)
= 0.01300 cu ft/SCF
= 0.002316 bbl/SCF
Rsoi – Rso = 567 – 337 = 230
Vg = Bg(Rsoi – Rso) = 230 x 0.002316 = 0.5326 bbl
Bo = 1.210 bbl/STB
Bt = 1.210 + 0.002316 (567 - 337)
= 1.210 + 0.533 = 1.743 bbl/STB

16
4. Isothermal Compressibility of Oil, co
1 dv
Definition:
co = −
v dp
• dv/dp is negative, the negative sign converts the compressibility to a posi-
tive number.
• co changes with pressure.

Average compressibilities can be estimated using the following equation:

1 V1 −V2
co = − (1.31)
V p1 − p2
The reference V in Eq (1.31) can be V1, V2, or the average of the two.

5. Viscosity of Oil

Fig. 1.14 Viscosity of reservoir oils (Textbook Page 40)

• The viscosity of oil under reservoir conditions is commonly measured in

the laboratory.
• Viscosities of reservoir oils
o Above bubble point, viscosity decreases with decreasing pressure.
o Below bubble point, viscosity increases with pressure owing to the
release of solution gas.
• Correlations have been developed for both above and below the bub-
ble-point pressure.

17
 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 3 Single-Phase Gas Reservoirs

3.1 Introduction

Reservoirs − single-phase gas reservoirs

Reservoir fluid − natural gas
Dry gas reservoir – no condensate formed in the reservoir, but
condensate may form in the wells and on the surface

3.2. Gas in place by volumetric method

The gas pore volume Vg is related to the bulk, or total, reservoir volume
Vb by the average porosity and the average connate water Sw.
Vg = Vb φ (1 − S w )

The standard cubic feet of gas in a reservoir:

V
G= g
Bg
If Vb of the reservoir is in acre-feet, and the standard cubic feet of gas in
place, G, is given by:

43,560Vbφ (1 − S w )
G= (3.1)
Bg

Example (Bell Field):

Area = 1500 acres

Thickness = 40 ft
Vb = 60,000 ac-ft
Porosity = 22%

1
Sw = 23%
Bg (@3250 psia) = 0.00533 cu ft/SCF

G = 43,560 x 60,000 x 0.22 x (1-0.23)/0.00533 = 83.1 MMM SCF

Bulk productive volume of reservoirs:

The volumetric method uses subsurface and, isopachous maps based on

the data from electric logs, cores, and drill-stem and production tests.

Subsurface contour map - lines of equal elevations on the top of a bed

Net isopachous map - lines connecting points of equal net formation thickness
Isopach lines - lines of equal thickness

Equations used to determine the approximate volume of the productive

zone:
h
ΔVb = ( An + An +1 + An An +1 ) (3.2)
3

ΔVb the bulk volume between n and n+1 isopach lines (acre-feet)
An the area enclosed by the lower isopach line (acre)
An+1 the area enclosed by the upper lsopach line (acre)
h the interval between the lsopach lines (feet)

The volume between successive isopach lines, and the total volume is the
sum of these separate volumes.

h
Or use the trapezoid equation: ΔVb = ( An + An+1 )
2
For a series of successive trapezoids:

2
 h
Vb = ( A0 + 2 A1 + 2 A2 + ... + 2 An−1 + An ) +tavg An (3.3)
2

A0 the area enclosed by the zero isopach line

A1, A2, …An the areas enclosed by successive isopach lines
tavg the average thickness above the top isopach line
h the isopach interval.

Connate (Intersticial) water in gas reservoirs:

• takes the amount of pore space available to gas
• affects gas recovery
• not uniformly distributed in the reservoir
• varies with the permeability, lithology, the height above water table

Calculation of average reservoir pressure after initial production

n

∑p i
Well average pressure = 0
(3.4)
n
n

∑p A i i
Areal average pressure = 0
n
(3.5)
∑A 0
i

∑ p Ah i i i
Volumetric average pressure = 0
n
(3.6)
∑Ah 0
i i

Notes:
n is the number of wells in (3.4) and of reservoir units in (3.5) and (3.6).
Volumetric average is used in the volumetric and material balance calculations.

3
3. Recovery from Volumetric Gas Reservoirs

Gas-in-place in one unit (1 ac-ft) of bulk reservoir rock:

Vb = 1 ac-ft, Eq. 3.1 becomes:

43,560 φ (1 − S w )
G= (SCF/ac-ft) (3.7)
Bg

Gas at abandonment pressure:

43,560 φ (1 − S w )
Ga = (SCF/ac-ft) (3.8)
Bga

Bga the gas volume factor at the abandonment pressure.

For a reservoir under volumetric control, no change in the interstitial
(connate) water.

Unit recovery (Gas produced at abandonment pressure):

⎡ 1 1 ⎤
Unit recovery = 43,560φ (1 − S w ) ⎢ B − B ⎥ SCF/ac-ft (3.9)
⎣⎢ gi ⎥
ga ⎦

(G − Ga ) Bgi
Recovery factor =
= 1 − (3.10)
G Bga

4
4. Recovery under Water Drive

Under water drive, after an initial decline, water enters the reservoir at a
rate to equal the production, and the pressure stabilizes. In this case the
stabilized pressure is the abandonment pressure.

At the abandonment pressure, a unit (1 ac-ft) contains:

Volume of water: 43,560 φ (1 − S gr ) ft3
Volume of residual gas in reservoir: 43,560 φ S gr ft3
43,560 φ S gr
Gas volume at surface: Bga
SCF
Sgr residual gas saturation

⎡1 − S wi S gr ⎤
Unit recovery = 43,560φ ⎢ B − B ⎥ SCF/ac-ft (3.11)
⎣⎢ gi ⎥
ga ⎦

(G − Ga ) S gr Bgi
Recovery factor =
= 1 − (3.12)
G 1 − S wi Bga

If the water drive is very active so that there is essentially no decline in

pressure, Eqs (3.11) and (3.12) become:

⎡1 − S wi − S gr ⎤
Unit Recovery = 43,560 x φ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ Bgi ⎥⎦

⎡1 − S wi − S gr ⎤
Recovery Factor = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ B gi ⎥⎦

5
Discussion:
• For the same residual gas saturation (or the same gas volume),
higher abandonment pressure will retain more mass of gas, or the
recovery will be greater for the lower stabilization pressure.
• Generally gas recoveries by water drive are lower than by
volumetric depletion (the same conclusion does not apply to oil
recovery).

3.5 Material Balance

Derivation of Equation 3.15:

Material balance is used to find the gas in place for the reservoir as a
whole from production and PVT data.
For most gas reservoirs, the formation and water compressibilities are
negligible.

Assume: the pore space volume is constant

Vp = Vg + Vw (all are initial)

= GBgi + Wi

Vp = [gas volume] + [Initial water + water influx – water produced]

Vp = (G – Gp)Bg + Wi + We – WpBw

G (Bg – Bgi ) + We = GpBg + WpBw (3.15)

6
If We = 0 and Wp = 0 Eq. (3.15) reduces to:

G (Bg – Bgi ) = GpBg (3.16)

p sc zT
From Eq. (1.16), Bg =
Tsc p
p sc zT p zT
We have Bg = and Bgi = sc i i . Substituting Bg and Bgi gives:
Tsc p Tsc pi

psc zT p zT psc zT
G − G sc i i = Gp (3.17)
Tsc p Tsc pi Tsc p

If the reservoir temperature is constant, T = Ti

z z z
G − G i = Gp
p pi p
or
p pi p
=− Gp + i (3.18)
z zi G zi

Eq (3.18):

• pi, zi, and G are constants

• p/z vs. Gp a straight line
pi pi
• Slope = − , y intercept =
zi
zi G
• At any p, Gp known, G can be found.

7
Discussion of Fig. 3.6:
1) If p/z is set equal to zero, Gp = G
2) The plot could be extrapolated to any abandonment p/z to find the
initial reserve.
3) A plot of Gp versus p is not linear (why?)
4) In water-drive reservoirs, Gp vs. p/z is not linear. The pressure drops
less rapidly than in volumetric reservoirs.

If Eq (3.16) is expressed in terms of the initial gas pore volume, Vi

Vi = GBg,
psc zT
Bg =
Tsc p
p zT
Bgi = sc i
Tsc pi
We have Eq (3.20)

pscG p piVi pV
= − i (3.20)
Tsc ziT zT
pscG p
Tsc
Vi =
Or pi p (3.20-1)
− f
z iT zfT

8
3.6. Gas Equivalent of Produced Condensate and Water

• To modify Gp to include the condensate liquid production at

surface
• To find gas and GE volume produced from low pressure separators
using correlations

GE of 1stock tank barrel (STB) condensate liquid:

n R'TSC
GE (1STB ) = VSC = (3.21)
pSC
mass 350 γ o
n = = (1bbl of water = 350.5 lb)
M wo M wo

For a three-stage separation system:

Gp = Gp(surf) + GE(Np) = Gps + Gss + GSt + GE(Np) (3.23)

For a two-stage separation system:

Gp = Gp(surf) + GE(Np) = Gps + Gst + GE(Np) (3.24)

Two correlations (diagrams) for the amount of gas and in low pressure
separators:
Gp = Gps + Veq (Np) (3.25)

9
 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 4 Material Balance for Gas-Condensate

Reservoirs above Dew Point
1. Introduction

Gas-condensate reservoirs generally produce:

Liquids with gravities above 45oAPI (light color or colorless)
Gas-oil ratios in the range of 5,000 to 100,000 SCF/bbl

2. Calculation of Initial Gas and Condensate

To calculate initial gas and condensate from generally available field

data collected at pressures above dew point pressure

Derivation of Equation (4.1):

On the basis of 1STB and (R1 + R3) SCF gas, the mass of the well fluid
is:

Mass of the well fluid = Mass of the gas + Mass of the liquid

( R1 γ 1 + R3 γ 3 ) x 29
mW = + 350γ o = 0.0764( R1 γ 1 + R3 γ 3 ) + 350γ o
380

Total moles

( R1 + R3 ) 350γ o
nt = + = 0.00264( R1 + R3 ) + 350γ o / M wo
380 Mo

1
The molecular weight of the total well fluid

mW 0.0764 ( R1 γ 1 + R2 γ 2 ) + 350 γ o
MW = =
nt 0.00264 ( R1 + R3 ) + 350γ o / M wo

The specific gravity of the well fluid is Mw/29, then

MW ( R1 γ 1 + R3 γ 3 ) + 4600 γ o
γW = = (4.1)
29 ( R1 + R3 ) + 133,000γ o / M wo

The molecular weight of the stock tank oil is given by the following
correlation:
5954 42.43γ o
M wo = = (3.22)
ρo , API − 8.811 1.008 − γ o

2
3
4
3. Recombination of surface fluids – composition known

The surface liquid and gases must be recombined in order to determine

the properties of the gas in the reservoir. Once the composition of the
reservoir gas has been calculated, its PVT properties can be predicted.

Known:
• Compositions of the stock tank liquid, separator gas, and stock
tank gas
• The producing gas –oil ratios
Steps:
• Convert gas-oil ratios in SCF/STB to lb-mole gas/lb-mole stock
tank liquid (the density and molecular weight of the liquid must be
calculated).
• The gas-oil ratios of lb-moles are used to combine the
compositions of separator gas, stock tank gas and stock tank oil in
the proper ratios.

Example 4.2 A gas-condensate reservoir produces through a

separator at 250 psia and 70 oF to a stock tank. The separator produces
86,000 SCF/STB and the stock tank produces 550 SCF/STB. The stock
tank liquid gravity is 56 oAPI. Compositions of the separator gas, stock
tank gas and stock tank liquid is given below. Calculate the composition
of the reservoir gas.

Component SP gas composition ST gas composition ST liquid composition

C1 0.852 0.323 0.001
C2 0.085 0.184 0.006
C3 0.043 0.262 0.036
i-C4 0.005 0.046 0.068
n-C4 0.008 0.082 0.042
i-C5 0.003 0.032 0.048
n-C5 0.002 0.036 0.035
C6 0.001 0.029 0.011
C7+ 0.001 0.006 0.753
1.000 1.000 1.000
Properties of C7+:
Specific gravity = 0.812
MW = 124 lb/lb mole

5
Solutions:

MSTO = 108.5 lb/lb-mole

γSTO = 0.755
ρSTO = 264.1 lb/STB

Mole ratios:
93.0 lb mole SP gas/lb-mole STO
0.595 lb mole SP gas/lb-mole STO

Composition of combined reservoir gas:

Calculation Results based on 1 lb-mole STO

SP gas lb mole ST gas lb mole ST ST liquid Total lb Composition of
Component composition SP gas composition gas composition moles recombined gas
C1 0.852 79.236 0.323 0.192 0.001 79.429 0.840
C2 0.085 7.905 0.184 0.109 0.006 8.020 0.085
C3 0.043 3.999 0.262 0.156 0.036 4.191 0.044
i-C4 0.005 0.465 0.046 0.027 0.068 0.560 0.006
n-C4 0.008 0.744 0.082 0.049 0.042 0.835 0.009
i-C5 0.003 0.279 0.032 0.019 0.048 0.346 0.004
n-C5 0.002 0.186 0.036 0.021 0.035 0.242 0.003
C6 0.001 0.093 0.029 0.017 0.011 0.121 0.001
C7+ 0.001 0.093 0.006 0.004 0.753 0.850 0.009
1.000 93.000 1.000 0.595 1.000 94.595 1.000

6
 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 5 Undersaturated Oil Reservoirs

1. Introduction

Undersaturated oil reservoirs:

• Initial reservoir pressure is higher than the bubble point pressure
of the oil (no gas cap).
• Free gas develops after p < pb.
• There may be water influx.

2. Oil in Place and Oil Recoveries

Under initial conditions a unit (1 ac-ft) oil reservoir contains:

Interstitial Water 7,758φ S w

Reservoir oil 7,758φ (1 − S w )
7,758φ (1 − S w )
Stock tank oil
Boi
(1 ac-ft = 7758 barrels)

For oil reservoirs without water influx, at abandonment conditions 1 ac-

ft of bulk rock contains:

Interstitial water 7,758φ S w

Reservoir gas 7,758φ S g
Reservoir oil 7,758φ (1 − S w − S g )
7,758φ (1 − S w − S g )
Stock tank oil
Bo
Sg = the gas saturation
Bo = oil volume factor at abandonment

1
Recovery per ac-ft (in STB):

⎡ (1 − S w ) (1 − S w − S g ) ⎤
Recovery = 7 , 758 φ ⎢ − ⎥ (5.1)
⎣ B oi Bo ⎦
(1 − S w − S g ) Boi
Recovery factor = 1 − (5.2)
(1 − S w ) Bo

For reservoirs under hydraulic control (no appreciable pressure decline),

the oil remaining at abandonment in barrel per acre-foot, is:

Reservoir oil 7,758φ S or

7,758φ S or
Stock tank oil
Boi
Sor = residual oil saturation after water displacement

7,758φ (1 − S w − S or )
Recovery = (5.3)
Boi
(1 − S w − S or )
Recovery factor = (5.4)
(1 − S w )

Correlation of oil recovery by water-drive recovery (residual oil

saturation) in sandstone reservoirs:

RF = 0.114+0.272log k+0.256 Sw -0.136 log μo-1.538 φ -0.00035 h (5.5)

2
3. Material Balance
@ p > pb
1) Neglecting change in porosity of rocks with the change of internal
fluid pressure
2) Zero or negligible water influx
3) Initially undersaturated (initially only connate water and oil, with
their solution gas)
4) Solubility of gas in reservoir water negligible
5) Water production small and negligible
6) From Pi to Pb, the reservoir oil volume constant, and oil produced
by liquid expansion.

Incorporating the above assumptions and considering volume balance,

Eq (5.7) can be derived as follows:

Reservoir oil volume = Constant

[Initial reservoir oil volume] = [Reservoir oil volume @ p > pb]

NBoi = (N – Np)Bo
@ p > pb, Bt = Bo and Boi = Bti (see Fig. 5.2), rearranging the above
equation gives:

N(Bt – Bti) = NpBt (5.7) (textbook)

N(Bo – Boi) = NpBo (5.7)
Fractional recovery:

Np Bo − Boi Bt − Bti
RF = = = (5.8)
N Bo Bt

3
@ p < pb
Below bubble point pressure, a free gas phase develops. The
hydrocarbon pore volume remains constant, that is

Voi = Vo + Vg (5.9)

Terms in Eq (5.9):

Voi = NBoi
Vo = (N – Np)Bo
Vg = [Initial total gas] - [solution gas in res.] – [produced gas]
= [NRsoi − (N - Np) Rso − NpRp]Bg

Eq (5.9) can be expanded to:

NBoi = (N – Np)Bo + N(Rsoi – Rso)Bg + Np(Rso – Rp)Bg

4
Adding and subtracting the term NpRsoiBg on the right side hand of the
above equation, applying Bt = Bo +(Rsoi –Rso)Bg, and rearranging it give
Eq (5.6) of the textbook:

N(Bt − Bti ) = Np[Bt + (Rp – Rsoi)Bg] (5.6)

From Eq (5.6), N and RF can be solved:

N = Np[Bt + (Rp – Rsoi)Bg]/ (Bt − Bti ) (5.10)

RF = Np/N = (Bt − Bti )/[Bt + (Rp – Rsoi)Bg] (5.11)

Discussion:
• Rp - net cumulative produced gas-oil ratio of the produced from the
reservoir (Gp) and all the oil produced (Np)
• RF is fixed by the PVT properties and the produced gas-oil ratio
(see 5.11)
• Large produced gas-oil ratios give low recoveries and vice versa.

5
4. Calculations Including Formation and Water Compressibilities

The effect of compressibilities on calculations for N is examined.

@ p > pb

Derivation of Equation (5.21)

1. Recall the derivation of Eq. (5.7):

Reservoir oil volume = Constant

[Initial reservoir oil volume] = [Reservoir oil volume @ p > pb]

NBoi = (N – Np)Bo
2. Consider the water influx and water production (without considering
compressibility of water and formation):

Reservoir volume = Constant @ p > pb

NBoi + W = (N – Np)Bo + (W + We –WpBw)

Oil Water Oil Water

3. Consider the compressibilities of water and formation

NBoi
Volume of pore space decreases V f c f Δp = c f Δp
1 − S wi

NBoi
Expansion of water Wcw Δp = V f S wi cw Δp = S wi cw Δp
1 − S wi

6
NBoi + W – V f c f Δp = (N – Np)Bo + (W + We –WpBw) + Wcw Δp

Then

⎡ cw S wi + c f ⎤
N ( Bo − Boi ) + NBoi ⎢ ⎥ Δ p + We = N p Bo + BwW p (5.21)
⎣ 1 − S wi ⎦

Solve for N:
N p Bo − We + BwW p
N=
⎡c S + c ⎤ (5.22)
Bo − Boi + Boi ⎢ w wi f ⎥ Δp
⎣ 1 − S wi ⎦

Oil compressibility, co, is often used with the following definition:

vo − voi B − Boi
co = = o
voi ( pi − p ) Boi Δp

Therefore,
Bo = Boi + Boi co Δp (5.23)

NBoi
Expansion of oil NBoi co Δp = V f S o co Δp = S o co Δp
1 − S wi
(Above the bubble point, Bo = Bt, and Boi = Bti)

7
Substituting (5.23) into (5.21) and rearranging gives:

⎡ co S o + cw S wi + c f
⎤
NBoi ⎢ ⎥ Δp = N p Bo − We + BwW p (5.25)
⎣ 1 − S wi ⎦
co S o + cw S wi + c f
Effective fluid compressibility, ce, is defined as: ce = 1 − S wi

Eq. (5.25) can be written as

NBoi ce Δp = N p Bo − We + BwW p (5.27)

For volumetric reservoir, We =0, and Wp is negligible, and from (5.27):

N p Bo
N= (5.28)
ce Δp Boi

If cf = cw = 0, ce = co, and co Boi Δp = Bo − Boi , then (5.28) reduces to

(5.8):

Np Bo − Boi Bt − Bti
= = (5.8)
N Bo Bt

@ p < pb ,

N=
[ ]
N p Bt + ( R p − Rsoi ) Bg − We + BwW p
⎡c S + c ⎤ (5.29)
Bt − Bti + Bti ⎢ w wi f ⎥ Δp
⎣ 1 − S wi ⎦

8
Part I The General Material Balance Equation

1. Introduction

• General material balance equation can be applied to all

reservoir types.
• General material balance equation can provide insight for
different reservoir drives.

Purpose of material balance: to predict how these fluids behave in

the reservoir as reservoir pressure declines.

2. Derivative of Material Equation

Major changes in fluids:

• Oil, gas, and water production
• Remaining oil and gas expansion
• Water influx

Water and formation compressibilities:

• Water and formation compressibilities are less significant in

o gas reservoirs
o gas cap reservoirs
o undersaturated oil reservoirs below Pb (there is
appreciable gas saturation)
• Water and formation compressibilities generally neglected in
above reservoirs, except in undersaturated reservoirs
producing above the bubble point.

1
Change in Oil Volume:

Change in Initial reservoir Oil volume

= = -
oil volume oil volume at p
-

Oil volume change = NBoi − (N−Np)Bo (2.1)

Change in Free Gas Volume:

Define:
Initial reservoir free gas volume GBgi
m= =
Initial reservoir oil volume NBoi

Initial free gas volume = GBgi = mNBoi

Free gas in the reservoir at t =

Initial gas Gas Gas remaining

free + dissolved − produced − in solution (in SCF)

⎡ mNBoi ⎤
Free gas at time t = ⎢ + NRsoi ⎥ − N p R p − (N − N p )Rso (in SCF)
⎣ Boi ⎦
⎡ mNBoi ⎤
Re servoir free gas volume at time t = ⎢ + NRsoi − N p R p − (N − N p )Rso ⎥ Bg
⎣ Boi ⎦
⎡ mNBoi ⎤
Change in free gas volume = mNBoi − ⎢ + NRsoi − N p R p − (N − N p )Rso ⎥ Bg (2.2)
⎣ Boi ⎦

2
Change in Water Volume:

Change in water volume =

Water Water Water
influx
− + (all in SCF)
produced expansion

Change in water volume = We − W p Bw − Wcw Δp (in bbls) (2.3)

Change in the Void Space Volume:

Change in pore space = V f c f Δp (2.4)

NBoi + mNBoi
Initial void space can be expressed as: Vf =
1 − S wi
NBoi + mNBoi
Initial water reservoir volume: W = V f S wi = S wi
1 − S wi

Combination of the changes in water and rock volumes:

Change in Change in
water pore
volume + volume

NBoi + mNBoi NBoi + mNBoi

= We − W p Bw + S wi cw Δp + c f Δp
1 − S wi 1 − S wi

⎡ cw S wi + c f ⎤
= W − W B + (1 + m ) NBoi ⎢ ⎥ Δp (2.5)
⎣ 1 − S wi
e p w
⎦

3
Equating the changes in the oil and free gas volumes to the negative of the changes in the
water and rock volumes:

Change in + Change in = Change in+ + Change in

oil volume free ga s water pore space
volume volume volume

⎡ mNBoi Bg ⎤
NBoi − NBo + N p Bo + mNBoi − ⎢ ⎥ − NRsoi Bg + N p R p Bg + NBg Rso − N p Bg Rso
⎢⎣ Bgi ⎥⎦

⎡ cw S wi + c f ⎤
= W − W B + (1 + m ) NBoi ⎢ ⎥ Δp
⎣ 1 − S wi
e p w
⎦

Bt = Bo + ( Rsoi − Rso ) Bg
And Boi = Bti

⎛ Bg ⎞
[ ]
N ( Bti − Bt ) + N p Bt + ( R p − Rsoi ) Bg + mNBti ⎜1 −
⎜ B ⎟
⎟
⎝ gi ⎠

⎡ cw S wi + c f ⎤
= We − W p Bw + (1 + m) NBti ⎢ ⎥ Δp (2.6)
⎣ 1 − S wi ⎦

Rearranging Equation 2.6 gives:

mNBti ⎡ cw S wi + c f ⎤
N ( Bt − Bti ) + ( Bg − Bgi ) + (1 + m) NBti ⎢ ⎥ Δp + We
Bgi ⎣ 1 − S wi ⎦

= N p [Bt + ( R p − Rsoi ) Bg ] + W p Bw (2.7)

4
Discussion of Eq. (2.7):

On the left-hand side:

• The first two terms account for the expansion of any oil
and/or gas zones.
• The third term accounts for the change in pore volume, which
includes pore space decrease and expansion of the connate
water.
• The fourth term is the amount of water influx that has
occurred into the reservoir.

On the right-hand side:

• The first term represents the production of oil and gas.

• The second term represents the water production.

5
 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 6 Saturated Oil Reservoirs

1. Introduction

Reservoirs with an initial gas cap:

• The oil is initially saturated.
• The energy stored in solution gas is supplemented by that in the gas
cap.
• Recoveries from gas cap reservoirs are generally higher than from
those without caps, other things remaining equal.
• Gas cap retards pressure decline and t herefore the l iberation of
solution gas within the oil zone.
• Expansion of gas cap displaces oil downward toward the wells and,
therefore, vertical component of fluid flow is important for
gravitational segregation.
• Recoveries from volumetric gas cap reservoirs could range from
the recoveries for unders aturated reservoirs up to 70 to 80% of the
initial stock tank oil in place.
• Good gravitational segregation characteristics include: pronounced
formation structure, low oil visc osity, high permeability, and low
oil velocity.

Water drive/hydraulic controlled recovery process:

• The vol ume of t he r eservoir i s constantl y reduced by t he wat er
influx.
• The re servoir p ressure is re lated to th e ra tio o f wate r in flux to
voidage.
• Under favorable conditions, the o il recoveries are high and range
from 60 to 80% of the oil in place.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
4. Laboratory PVT Studies (Reservoir Fluid Studies, PVT Studies, Phase
Behavior Studies)

Reservoir fl uid s tudies pr ovide values of physi cal properti es of oi l

required in material balance calculation and reservoir simulation.

Physical properties of oil and gas

• Bubble point pressure
• Formation volume factor of oil
• Solution gas-oil ratio
• Total formation volume factor
• Coefficient of isothermal compressibility of oil
• Oil viscosity
• Z factor of gas
• Formation volume factor of gas
• Gas viscosity
• Solubility of gas in oil as a function of pressure

The five major tests

• Composition measurement
• Flash liberation
• Differential liberation
• Separator tests
• Oil viscosity measurement

Flash liberation process: (Constant composition expansion) All the gas

evolved during a reducti on i n pres sure re mains in con tact a nd in
equilibrium with the liquid phase from which it is liberated.

Differential process: T he gas evol ved duri ng a pressure reduction is

removed from contact with the liquid phase as rapidly as it is liberated.

Separator test: Simulation of a separation process.

9
10
11
12
 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 7 Single Phase Flow in Reservoirs

1. Introduction
• Flow of fluids in reservoirs and the models that are used to relate
reservoir pressure to flow rate.
• Introduction to well testing.
• Discussion limited to single-phase flow.

2. Darcy’s law of single phase flow

kA ΔP
q=
Darcy's law (1856): μ s
k = permeability, darcy (D)
μ = fluid viscosity, cp
A = cross-sectional area of the porous medium sample, cm2
p = pressure, atm
s = Length of the porous medium sample, cm

Definition of the permeability of a porous medium:

If a fluid of 1 cp flow through a porous medium of a cross-sectional area
of 1 cm2 and a length of 1 cm at a flow rate of 1 cm3/sec under a
pressure gradient of 1 atm/cm, the permeability of the porous medium is
1 darcy.

1 D = 1000 millidarcies (md)

1
3. The classification of reservoir flow system

Three types of reservoir fluids:

1) incompressible
• Simplifies many equations and sufficiently accurate for many
purposes
• No true incompressible fluids

2) slightly compressible

Describes nearly all liquids by the following equation (c is constant):

V = VR ec ( p R − p ) (7.2)
R = reference conditions

Equ (7.2) can be approximate as:

V = VR [1 + c( pR − p)] (7.3)

3) compressible

All gases are in this category.

znR 'T
Volume change with pressure as V= (1.7)
p
1 1 dz
cg change with pressure as cg = − (1.19)
p z dp

2
4. Steady-state flow

4.1 Liner flow of incompressible fluids

kA ( p1 − p2 )
q = 0.001127 (bbl/d)
μ L
or
kA ( p1 − p2 )
q = 0.001127 (STB/day) (7.7)
μB L

Example:
pressure differential = 100 psi
permeability = 250 md
viscosity = 2.5 cp
formation volume factor = 1.127 bbl/STB
length = 450 ft
cross-sectional area = 45 sq ft

q = 1.0 STB/day

3
4.2 Linear flow of slightly compressible fluids

Recall Eq (7.3) V = VR [1 + c( pR − p )]
There is: q = q R [1 + c( p R − p )]

Darcy’s Law is written as:

q q k dp
υ = = R [1 + c( pR − p)] = − 0.001127
A A μ dx

Separating variables and integrating give Eq (7.9):

4.3 Linear flow of compressible fluids

Units: For gas flow rate, we want to use SCF/day; In Darcy’s law under
field unit system, flow rate is in bbl/day.
pSCTz
Recall Eq (1.17): Bg = (bbl/SCF)
5.615TSC p
q (SCF/day) x Bg (bbl/SCF) = qBg (bbl/day)

qpSCTz
qBg = (q in SCF/day)
5.615TSC p

Darcy’s law:

4
Variation of viscosity and z-factor:

Fig. 7.4 Isothermal variation of μz with pressure

Variation of μz vs. pressure of a real gas:
For p < 2000 psia, nearly constant
For p > 2000 psia, μz/p is nearly constant

For T, k, μz or μz/p are constant, there is Eq (7.10):

(7.10)

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 7 Single Phase Flow in Reservoirs II

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Chapter 8
Water Influx

1. Introduction
• Many reservoirs are bounded on a portion or all their perimeters by
water bearing rocks – aquifers.
• As reservoir fluids are produced, a pressure differential develops
between the surrounding aquifer and the reservoir. The aquifer
reacts by encroaching across the original hydrocarbon-water
contact.
• Aquifers retard pressure decline in reservoirs by providing a source
of water influx We.
• We is a function of time (production).
• We is dependent on the size of aquifer and the pressure drop from
the aquifer to the reservoir.

2. Steady-state method
Schilthuis Steady-state method is the simplest model for water influx.
Water influx is proportional to the pressure drawdown (pi – p):

dWe
= k ′ ( pi − p) (8.1)
dt
Integrating Eq (8.1) gives

t
We = k ′∫ ( pi − p)dt (8.2)
0
Where k ′ = water flux constant, bbl/day-psi
p = pressure at the original oil-water contact
pi = initial pressure at the external boundary of the aquifer.

1
Calculation of k ′ and We from production data:

In a reasonably long period, if the production rate and reservoir pressure

remain substantially constant, there is:

Reservoir voidage rate = Water influx rate

(Volumetric withdraw rate)

dWe dN p dN p dW p
= Bo + ( R − Rso ) Bg + Bw (8.3)
dt dt dt dt
where
dN p
= daily oil production rate, STB/day
dt
dN
( R − Rso ) p = daily free gas production rate, SCF/day
dt
dW p
= daily water production rate, STB/day
dt

Equation (8.3) can be rearranged to:

dN
(by adding and subtracting Rsoi Bg p )
dt

dWe dN p dN p dW p
= Bt + ( R − Rsoi ) Bg + Bw (8.4)
dt dt dt dt

k ′ can be found from Equation (8.1)

dWe 1
k′ = (8.5)
dt ( pi − p)

2
If the pressure stabilizes and the withdraw rates are not reasonably
constant, water influx in the pressure stabilized period Δt can be
calculated from the total productions of oil, gas and water within Δt:

ΔWe = Bt ΔN p + (ΔG p − Rsoi ΔN p ) Bg + Bw ΔW p (8.6)

Then k ′ can be found from the following equation:
ΔWe
k′ = (8.7)
Δt ( pi − p )

For an under-saturated oil reservoir and at pressures higher than the

bubble point pressure, Equation can be simplified to:

dWe dN p dW p
= Bt + Bw (8.8)
dt dt dt

3
4
3. VEH unsteady-state method
• Van Everdingen and Hurst solutions to the single-phase unsteady-
state flow equation is used to calculate water influx.
• The hydrocarbon reservoir is the inner boundary condition and is
analogous to the well in Chapter 7 and the aquifer is the flow
medium analogous to the reservoir in Chapter 7.
• Properties of aquifer are assumed homogeneous and constant.
• Reservoir and aquifer are assumed cylindrical in shape.

re

rR

Water flux is calculated by the following equations:

n
We = B′ ∑ WeDj Δp j (8.9)
j =1

In Where WeD is given as a function of dimensionless time t D and

dimensionless radius rD (see Tables 8.2 and 8.2 and Figures 8.7-8.10):

WeD = f ( rD , t D ) (8.10)
and
θ
B′ = 1.119φ ct rR2 h (8.11)
360

5
The dimensionless time and dimensionless radius are defined as
kt
t D = 0.0002637
φμ ct rR2
(8.12)
re
r D=
rR (8.13)

In Equations (8.9) and (8.11), θ is the angle subtended by a pie-shaped

cylindrical reservoir. For example:
For a circle, θ = 360o
For a half circle, θ = 180o.

6
7
8
WeD as a function of tD and rD.

9
Values for Δpj are determined from measure pressures. The pressure
changes are calculated as follows to approximate the pressure-time
curve:
1
Δp1 = ( pi − p1 ) (8.14)
2
1
Δp2 = ( pi − p2 ) (8.15)
2
1
Δp3 = ( pi − p3 ) (8.16)
2
1
and Δp j = ( p j − 2 − p j ) (8.17)
2

Pressure steps used to approximate the pressure-time curve.

10
4. Fetkovich Pseudosteady-state method

• The size of the aquifer is known-finite aquifer.

• Any water influx from the aquifer depletes the pressure according
to the material balance equation.

Steps of calculation of water influx by using Fetkovich Pseudosteady-

state method:
1. Calculate the initial encroachable water, Wei(in bbls), in the aquifer
pi ct π (re2 − rR2 )hφ θ
Wei = (8.18)
5.615 360
Where pi is the initial reservoir pressure.

2. Calculate the productivity index, J, for flow from the aquifer to the
reservoir
For finite aquifer with no flow at the outer boundary:
0.007082kh θ
J= (8.19)
r
μ (ln e − 0.75) 360
rR
For finite aquifer with constant pressure the outer boundary:
0.007082kh θ
J= (8.20)
r
μ ln e 360
rR

3. Calculate the average reservoir pressure during a time step:

p + prn
p Rn = Rn −1 (8.21)
2
where
pRn = reservoir pressure at the end of the nth time step
p Rn = average reservoir pressure during the nth time step

11
4. Calculate the water influx during a time step
Wei ⎛ jpi Δt n
⎞
ΔWe = ⎜
( pn −1 − p Rn ) 1 − e Wei ⎟

pi ⎜ ⎟ (2.22)
⎝ ⎠
pn−1 = average aquifer pressure at the end of (n-1)th time step

5. Calculate the total cumulative water influx at the current time

n
We = ∑ ΔWej (2.23)
j =1

6. Calculate the average aquifer pressure at the end of the current

timestep
⎛ W ⎞
pn = pi ⎜⎜1 − e ⎟⎟ (2.24)
⎝ Wei ⎠

7. Repeat Steps 3 to 6 for next time step.

12
 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Chapter 9
Decline Analysis

1. Introduction
• The most widely used method of forecasting future production
form oil and gas fields since Arps developed the technique in 1945.
• The technique has few fundamental theoretical foundations.
• The simplicity and success of its forecasts responsible for its
general acceptance and use.
• Decline analysis involves the use of curves of flow rate versus time
of the well.

2. Arps’ Decline Model

Arps’ decline model relates the production rate with time:

qi
qt = (9.1)
(1 + nd i t )1 / n
Where qi = initial oil production rate
qt = production rate at time t
di = initial decline rate
n= hyperbolic decline exponent

The decline rate is defined as the rate of change of the natural logarithm
of the production rate with respect to time:

1 dq d (ln q)
d =− =− (9.2)
q dt dt

The minus sign has been added because dq and dt have opposite signs
and it is convenient to have d always positive.

1
Arps recognized the following three types of rate decline behaviour:

1. Exponential decline, n = 0
qt = qi e − d i t (9.3)
The cumulative production at time t is given by
qi − qt
Np = (9.4)
di

2. Hyperbolic decline, 0 < n < 1

qi
qt = (9.5)
(1 + nd i t )1 / n
and

Np =
qin
(1 − n)
(
qi1− n − qt1− n ) (9.6)

3. Harmonic decline, n = 1
qi
qt =
(1 + d i t ) (9.7)
and
qi ⎛ qi ⎞
Np = ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (9.8)
di ⎝ qt ⎠

Example 9.1 -- Production forecasting

Using the following production data of a well to determine the
production rate and cumulative production at t = 3 years using (1)
exponential decline, (2) hyperbolic decline (n = 0.6), and (3) harmonic
decline:
qi = 500 STB/d , di = 1.8% /month

2
3. Parameter Estimation for Decline Analysis

1. Exponential decline
The most widely used of the three methods, primarily because it is easy
to determined the parameters and gives a more conservative estimation
of the future reservoirs for given parameters.

If n = 0, the decline is exponential.

qi and di need to be determined.

Taking the natural log of both sides of the equation (9.3) gives:

ln qt = ln qi − d it (9.9)

A plot of lnqt vs. t gives a straight line:

slope m = -di,
y-intercept b = lnqt
6.4

6.2

6
lnq (STB/d)

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
t (month)

Figure 1. Exponential decline curve: lnqt vs. t (from examples 1)

3
2. Harmonic decline

If n =1, the decline is harmonic. Equation (9.8) can be rearranged to

di
ln qt = ln qi − Np (9.10)
qi
A plot of lnqt vs. Np gives a straight line:
slope m = -di/qi,
y-intercept b = lnqi

6.4

6.2 y = -0.00004x + 6.21461

2
R = 1.00000
6
lnqt

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.2
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
Np

Figure 2. Harmonic decline curve: lnqt vs. Np (from examples 1)

Harmonic decline is also linear if 1/qt is plotted as a function of t:

1 / qt = 1 / qi + (d i / qi )t (9.11)
slope m = di/qi,
y-intercept b = 1/qi

4
3. Hyperbolic decline
• All real wells have hyperbolic decline.
• Approaches to calculation of parameters of hyperbolic decline
include trial-and-error methods, type-curve overlays, graphical
methods, mathematical or statistical analysis.

Hypobolic decline-curve analysis using linear regression (Towler and

Bansal, J. Petroleum Science and Engineering, 8, 257, 1993)

Method 1: Using Equation (9.5)

Equation (9.5) can be rearranged to:

logqt =logqi – 1/n x log (1+ndit) (9.12)

1) Assume a value of ndi;

2) Plot logqt vs. log (1+ndit);
3) Try ndi to obtain a straight line or a maximum regression
coefficient (R2).
Slope m = 1/n
y-intercept b = logqi
di = (ndi)/n
2.8

y = -1.6667x + 2.699
2
R =1
log qt

2.6

2.4
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
Log (1+ndit)

Figure 3. Linear regression of hyperbolic decline data, ndi = 0.0108

(month-1)

5
Method 2: Using Equation (9.6)

Equation (9.6) can be rearranged to:

(1 − n)d i
qt1− n = qi1− n −
Np (9.13)
qin
1) Assume a value of n;
1− n
2) Plot qt vs. N p ;
3) Try n to obtain a straight line or a maximum regression coefficient
(R2).
(1 − n)d i
Slope m = −
qin
y-intercept b = qi1−n

12

y = -0.0002x + 12.011
11.5 2
R =1

11
qt^(1-n)

10.5

.
10

9.5

9
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
Np

Figure 4. Linear regression of hyperbolic decline data, n = 0.6