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Geotextiles and Geomembranes 28 (2010) 238250

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Geotextiles and Geomembranes


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geotexmem

Fibre reinforced sands: Experiments and modelling


A. Diambra a, *, E. Ibraim a, D. Muir Wood a, A.R. Russell b
a
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
b
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Sand reinforced with short polypropylene bres has been tested in conventional triaxial compression
Received 15 May 2008 and extension. The contribution of bres to the strength was remarkable in compression while limited in
Received in revised form extension conrming that it depends primarily on their orientation with respect to tensile strains.
26 January 2009
A modelling approach is proposed for coupling the effects of bres with the stressstrain behaviour of
Accepted 18 May 2009
Available online 31 October 2009
unreinforced soil. It is necessary to dene a bre stiffness matrix and in this investigation it is assumed
that bres are working in their elastic domain. Any distribution of bre orientations can be accounted for.
The sand stiffness matrix is based on the Mohr Coulomb model although more elaborate models could be
Keywords: used. The constitutive model for the bre-sand composite is calibrated against the results of drained
Fibre reinforced soil triaxial compression and extension tests. Despite the simplistic nature of the Mohr-Coulomb assump-
Triaxial tests tions for the sand matrix, simulations show how the inuence of bre orientation with respect to the
Constitutive model strain conditions is captured and provide good agreement with experimental data.
Fibres orientation 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction particularly important (Jewell and Wroth, 1987; Palmeira and



Milligan, 1989; Micha1owski and Cerma k, 2002). Many published
Reinforcing soils using tension resisting elements is an attractive experimental studies implicitly assume that the bres are
means of improving the performance of soil in a cost effective randomly oriented throughout the soil mass. Such a distribution of
manner. The use of random discrete exible bres mimics the orientation would preserve the soil strength isotropy and eventu-
behaviour of plant roots and gives the possibility of improving the ally avoid or delay formation of localised deformation planes.
strength and the stability of near surface soil layers. Practising However, it has been found that the most common procedure for
engineers are employing this technique for the stabilisation of thin preparing reinforced specimens, moist tamping, leads to preferred
layers of soil, repairing failed slopes, soil strengthening around sub-horizontal orientation of bres (Diambra et al., 2007a). Similar
footings and earth retaining structures. However, more research is results have been found for vibrated bre reinforced specimens
needed to further understand the potential benets and limitations (Diambra et al., 2008). Since rotations of principal stress and strain
and to allow its application to more complex geotechnical struc- rate axes almost always occur within a soil mass, the consequence
tures (Park and Ann Tan, 2005; Yetimoglu et al., 2005; Consoli et al., of an assumed isotropy would be the overestimation of soil design
2009). strength for certain loadings. Any account of the bres must
Direct shear tests, unconned compression tests and conven- consider bre orientation.
tional triaxial compression tests have demonstrated that shear Most modelling approaches that have been proposed so far have
strength is increased and post-peak strength loss is reduced when concentrated on the prediction of the contribution of bres to shear
discrete bres are mixed with the soil (Al Refeai, 1991; Maher and strength increase. The various approaches to describe the shear
Ho, 1994; Yetimoglu and Salbas, 2003; Tang et al., 2007 among strength increase are based on force equilibrium (Gray and Ohashi,
others). The effectiveness of the reinforcement is inuenced by 1983; Jewell and Wroth, 1987; Maher and Gray, 1990; Ranjan et al.,
bre properties including type, volume fraction, length, aspect 1996) and energy dissipation (Micha1owski and Zhao, 1996;
ratio, modulus of elasticity, orientation and also soil characteristics 
Micha1owski and Cerma k, 2002; Micha1owski, 2008). More recently
including particle size, shape, and gradation, as well as stress level Zornberg (2002) proposed a framework to predict failure of
and density. It is not surprising that bre orientation is found to be different reinforced soil types based on the superposition of the
sand and bre effects.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 44 (0)117 331 7374; fax: 44 (0)117 928 7783. Fewer authors have tried to propose a general constitutive law
E-mail address: andrea.diambra@bristol.ac.uk (A. Diambra). for reinforced soils. Models based on a volumetric homogenisation

0266-1144/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geotexmem.2009.09.010
A. Diambra et al. / Geotextiles and Geomembranes 28 (2010) 238250 239

technique but limited to the description of non-linear elastic where v 1 e and e is the voids ratio. In an elastic-plastic
behaviour have been presented by Ding and Hargrove (2006) for framework, the elastic and plastic strain increments sum to give
monotonic loading and by Li and Ding (2002) in cyclic loading total strain increments:
conditions. A complete constitutive law for soils reinforced with " # " #
 
continuous thread (Texsol) was proposed by Villard et al. (1990) 3_ v 3_ ev 3_ pv
e (3)
and di Prisco and Nova (1993) employing the superposition of sand 3_ q 3_ q 3_ pq
and bre effects. The model proposed by Villard et al. (1990) is the
only one that recognises the importance of bre orientation as where the superscripts e and p denote the elastic and plastic
a parameter governing the effectiveness of bre inclusion. Recently, components respectively.
a two dimensional DEM (Distinct Element Method) has been
developed for the micromechanical analysis of mixtures of granular 3. Experimental work
materials and exible bres (Ibraim et al., 2006; Ibraim and Maeda,
2007). Numerical analysis with nite difference code has been 3.1. Materials
performed by Sivakumar Babu et al. (2008).
This paper presents a new modelling approach for predicting Hostun RF (S28) sand has been used in this study. Its properties
the constitutive behaviour of bre reinforced soils under triaxial can be found in Ibraim (1998). Loksand exible polypropylene
conditions. The model is based on the rule of mixtures of composite crimped bres of 35 mm length (three of which are shown in
materials and it considers that the bres behave linear elastically Fig. 1(a)) have also been used. These bres act predominately in
and the soil, when unreinforced, obeys the simple linear elastic tension and their properties as provided by the manufacturer
perfectly plastic Mohr-Coulomb model. The model is calibrated and together with the tensile strength obtained through a series of 15
tested using results from a series of triaxial compression and tension tests are reported in Table 1. The average tensile stress
extension tests, which are presented in the rst part of this paper. strain response is shown in Fig. 1(b).
Different bre contents and sand densities are considered. The
versatility of the model is highlighted by its ability to accommodate 3.2. Specimen preparation
any eventual bre orientation distribution so that the anisotropy of
strength observed experimentally between compression and Specimens were prepared using the moist tamping technique.
extension triaxial conditions can be reproduced. The technique has the advantage of a good control of specimen
density while preventing the segregation of bres and eventually
2. Notation produces a soil-bre fabric which resembles that of compacted
reinforced soils in the eld. Cylindrical specimens with diameter
We use the conventional stress and strain variables for 70 mm and height 70 mm were prepared in three layers of equal
axisymmetric triaxial conditions: p and q are respectively the mean height to achieve target densities. No visible over-compaction
and deviatoric stresses acting on the composite. The strain variables effects were observed during the formation of the subsequent
of the composite are the volumetric strain 3v and shear strain 3q. layers. Further details of the procedure have been described by
These stress and strain quantities are related to axial and radial Ibraim and Fourmont (2006). The specimen diameter is twice the
stresses and strains according to: length of bres and some localised non uniformities and concen-
trations in the bre distributions near the sample edges may have
sa 2sr 2 occurred. However, the effects of the sample boundary on the
p q sa  sr 3v 3a 23r 3q 3a  3r (1)
3 3 results have been assumed as negligible.
where subscripts a and r denote the axial and radial components The average concentration of bres included in a composite is
respectively. The pairs of stresses and strains are abbreviated in dened as a percentage of dry weight of sand:
vector form s p; qT and 3 3v ; 3q T . Compression is assumed
Wf
positive and rate effects are ignored. Volumetric strain is linked to wf  100% (4)
specic volume (v) according to: Ws
where Wf is the weight of bres and Ws is the weight of the dry
v_ sand. A weight ratio is conveniently used for sample preparation
3_ v  (2)
v purposes although the eventual modelling makes use of volume

a b 300

250

200
(MPa)

150

100

50 E = 900 MPa
f

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
(%)

Fig. 1. Specimen of individual Loksand crimped polypropylene bres (a) and average tensile stressstrain curve of 15 individual bres (b).
240 A. Diambra et al. / Geotextiles and Geomembranes 28 (2010) 238250

Table 1 Table 2
Characteristics of Loksand bres. List of the triaxial tests performed.

Length Diameter Weight Tensile Specic Elongation Moisture Test ec ID (%) wf (%) vf (%) sr (kPa) Test type C/E q=p20% jmax ( )
(mm) (mm) (Denier) strength gravity at break regain L030-00 1.000 0.0 0 0 30 C 1.441 2.5
(MPa) L030-03 0.982 4.7 0.3 0.437 30 C 2.014 1.5
35 0.1 50 225 0.91 160% <0.1% L030-06 0.957 11.3 0.6 0.878 30 C 2.336 3.5
L030-09 0.955 11.8 0.9 1.306 30 C 2.560 3.0
L060-00 0.999 0.3 0 0 60 C 1.389 1.8
L060-03 0.991 2.4 0.3 0.435 60 C 1.825 2.0
V
ratios: vf Vf where V and Vf are the volumes of the composite, L060-06 0.978 5.8 0.6 0.868 60 C 2.154 2.4
and bres, respectively. Nonetheless, the two ratios are directly L060-09 0.948 13.7 0.9 1.311 60 C 2.346 4.5
L100-00 0.991 2.4 0 0 100 C 1.360 1.5
related. There is a limit to the amount of bres that can be added to L100-03 0.966 8.9 0.3 0.441 100 C 1.736 0.5
the sand so that the moist tamped composite can be effectively L100-06 0.945 14.5 0.6 0.883 100 C 1.984 2.0
prepared (Ibraim and Fourmont, 2006). These maxima, which L100-09 0.936 16.8 0.9 1.319 100 C 2.260 2.1
depend on the target void ratio or density, are presented in Fig. 2, L200-00 0.980 5.3 0 0 200 C 1.329 1.0
L200-03 0.948 13.7 0.3 0.445 200 C 1.434 0.6
along with the minimum (emin) and maximum (emax) void ratios of
L200-06 0.935 17.1 0.6 0.888 200 C 1.808 0.7
Hostun RF sand. The void ratio must be carefully dened for L200-09 0.912 23.2 0.9 1.336 200 C 2.020
a reinforced specimen, since the volume occupied by bres can be M030-00 0.934 17.4 0 0 30 C 1.523 7.0
attached either to the solid sand particles or to the voids. This M030-03 0.926 19.5 0.3 0.450 30 C 2.094 9.4
distinction has not always been clear in literature: in this investi- M030-06 0.920 21.1 0.6 0.894 30 C 2.478 10.4
M100-00 0.914 22.6 0 0 100 C 1.435 3.5
gation the bres have been considered as part of the solid.
M100-03 0.895 27.6 0.3 0.457 100 C 1.778 4.5
M100-06 0.886 30.0 0.6 0.911 100 C 2.051 6.0
M200-00 0.915 22.4 0 0 200 C 1.360 2.1
M200-03 0.902 25.8 0.3 0.455 200 C 1.615 3.5
3.3. Triaxial tests M200-06 0.874 33.2 0.6 0.916 200 C 1.882 4.4
M300-00 0.928 18.9 0 0 300 C 1.315 1.1
M300-03 0.899 26.6 0.3 0.456 300 C 1.528 2.0
Conventional drained triaxial compression and extension tests
M300-06 0.895 27.6 0.6 0.906 300 C 1.773 3.5
were conducted on unreinforced and reinforced isotropically D030-00 0.804 51.6 0 0 30 C 1.602 23.5
consolidated specimens. A complete list of tests including bre D030-03 0.802 52.1 0.3 0.481 30 C 2.241 21.5
content (wf), bre volumetric concentration (vf), conning pressure D100-00 0.833 43.9 0 0 100 C 1.473 16.0
(sr ) and test type is given in Table 2. The void ratio at the end of D100-03 0.816 48.4 0.3 0.477 100 C 1.947 17.1
D200-00 0.798 53.2 0 0 200 C 1.463 11.2
consolidation (ec) and the corresponding density index,
D200-03 0.780 57.9 0.3 0.487 200 C 1.762 14.4
ID emax  ec =emax  emin , are also given. Saturation was ach- ExL100-00* 0.989 2.9 0 0 100 E 1.015 4.0
ieved using the CO2 method, ensuring B values of at least 0.97 for ExL100-03* 0.971 0.948 0.3 0.439 100 E 1.082 4.5
each specimen. Conventional axial and volumetric strain ExL100-06* 0.951 0.928 0.6 0.880 100 E 1.135 6.8
ExL200-00* 0.988 0.957 0 0 200 E 0.961 2.2
measurement systems have been used together with an internal
ExL200-03* 0.968 0.934 0.3 0.440 200 E 0.982 4.1
load cell. Further details are given by Diambra et al. (2007b). ExL200-06* 0.951 0.908 0.6 0.880 200 E 1.002 6.0
Enlarged lubricated ends consisting of silicone grease and latex ExM100-00* 0.886 0.874 0 0 100 E 1.045 6.3
rubber disks have been used at the bottom (two disks) and at the ExM100-03* 0.875 0.862 0.3 0.462 100 E 1.097 8.8
top (three disks). This ensured homogeneous sample shapes were ExM100-06* 0.859 0.843 0.6 0.924 100 E 1.171 13.8
ExD100-00* 0.798 53.1 0 0 100 E 1.042 12.6
preserved well beyond 20% of axial strain in compression whereas
ExD100-03* 0.776 58.9 0.3 0.488 100 E 1.01 17.2
in extension a necking of the sample was only visible after 15% of
*q/p at 15% for extension tests.
axial straining. Lubricated ends increase the bedding errors for the
strain response, but no corrections have been applied to the results
since the experimental small strain response is beyond the scope of
this study. Based on previous results by Ibraim (1998), no
membrane penetration correction was applied either.
Void ratio (e)

1.3
3.4. Typical results of triaxial tests
1.2
Typical results of drained triaxial tests are presented in Figs. 35
1.1
where the variations of q and 3v are plotted against 3a . Experimental
e 1 results for unreinforced specimens are in accord with the already
max published results for Hostun RF sand (Ibraim, 1998).
0.9 Heineck et al. (2005) suggest that the initial stiffness of the
composite soil is not inuenced by the presence of bres. Fibres
0.8 become more effective under medium and large strains and this
seems to be clearly shown by the triaxial compression results. The
0.7 deviatoric response of the composite is heavily dependent on the
e
min 0.6 bre content. Even though some tests were taken to 30% to 40%
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 axial strain, the reinforced specimens show a somewhat bilinear
stressstrain relationship. The deviatoric stress appears as though
wf (%)
it would continually increase even beyond the values reached at
Fig. 2. Maximum amount of bres that can be mixed with a xed amount of sand
these large axial strains. Similar patterns in triaxial compression
without leading to a change in specimen volume using moist tamping (after Ibraim tests and for polypropylene bres have been presented by Ranjan
and Fourmont, 2006). et al. (1996) and Sway and Bang (2007). These macro results
A. Diambra et al. / Geotextiles and Geomembranes 28 (2010) 238250 241

L100-w L100-w
f f
1000 -3
0%
800 0.3% -2
0.6%
600 0.9% -1

v (%)
q (kPa )

400 0

200 1

0 2

-200 3
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
a (m/m) a (m/m)

Fig. 3. Deviator stressaxial strain and volumetric behaviour for drained (L) tests series conned at 100 kPa cell pressure (legend gives the bre content used).

indicate that these particular bres maintain an ability to withstand dening failure to occur at a certain amount of radial strain (in
tension within the sand matrix. Furthermore, exhumed specimens Fig. 7(b) failure is said to occur at 15% radial strain). The data in this
revealed that no appreciable plastic deformations (or breakage) of plot then correspond to more or less constant mobilisation of the
the bres took place during the tests. The bonding between bres stress in the bres, and in this case the strength envelopes can be
and sand grains is unlikely to be complete: partial slippage will better grouped irrespective of specimen density.
occur even though bonding remains sufcient for bres to continue In triaxial extension, the contribution of bres to the deviatoric
to work in tension. response appears to be very limited: the stressstrain relationships
A serviceability failure criterion was dened as 20% axial strain for reinforced specimens are almost identical to those for unrein-
for compressive loading. Table 2 lists the failure stress ratios forced specimens and the response is mostly controlled by the sand
q=p20% for all specimens. As can be seen in Fig. 6, the at failure matrix (Figs. 35). In triaxial compression the net deviatoric
deviatoric strength envelopes for the loose (L) series of tests are strength increase for 0.6% bre content reaches 180% to 200%, but
almost linear for a given bre content. The shear strength param- only 8% to 10% net strength increase is recorded for the extension
eters for all series of tests are summarised in Table 3. The addition tests. As shown by Diambra et al. (2007a), the method of fabrication
of bres results in a signicant increase of the friction angle and leaves very few bres oriented in the vertical direction, which is the
cohesion intercept. The serviceability strength was also found to be direction of tensile strain in a triaxial extension test. Diambra et al.
dependent on the density of the specimen as shown in Fig. 7(a): (2007a) found that 97% of bres have an orientation that lies within
a loose specimen (L test) reinforced with 0.6% bre content has the p=4 of the horizontal plane. The macro results clearly conrm
same deviatoric strength as a denser specimen (D test) with 0.3% these ndings and point out the importance of bre orientation on
bre content. This particular characteristic is related to the defor- the performances of reinforced sands especially when rotation of
mation patterns of the specimens. Dense specimens tend to dilate principal stress and strain axes may occur.
more than loose ones, inducing a greater desire for radial strain and In both compression and extension, the volumetric response for
therefore greater potential tensile stresses in the bres which reinforced sand, as for the unreinforced sand, showed an initial
create an increased connement on the sand in the dense speci- compression followed by dilation. In triaxial compression, the
mens and hence a much larger increase in strength than observed addition of bres resulted in a decrease to the amount of
for loose specimens. compression followed by a tendency to exhibit more dilation, as
For compressive loading, the inuence of specimen density on also observed in the direct shear tests performed by Ibraim and
failure can largely be removed from an interpretation of the data by Fourmont (2006) on similar specimens. Even though the strength

M100-w M100-w
f f
1000 -3
0%
800 0.3% -2
0.6%
600
-1
q (kPa)

v (%)

400
0
200

1
0

-200 2
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
(m/m)
a
a (m/m)

Fig. 4. Deviator stressaxial strain and volumetric behaviour for drained (M) tests series conned at 100 kPa cell pressure (legend gives the bre content used).
242 A. Diambra et al. / Geotextiles and Geomembranes 28 (2010) 238250

D100-wf D100-wf
1000 -8
0%
800
-6
0.3%
600
-4
q (kPa )

v (%)
400
-2
200

0
0

-200 2
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
a (m/m) a (m/m)

Fig. 5. Deviator stressaxial strain and volumetric behaviour for drained (D) tests series conned at 100 kPa cell pressure (legend gives the bre content used).

increase is almost negligible in triaxial extension, the volumetric The best t with experimental data was obtained with:
behaviour is clearly affected by the addition of bres: dilation a0 0:3, Q 6:4 and g 0 and a corresponding three-dimen-
increases with the bre content. sional view of the surface dened by Eq. (6) is shown in Fig. 8. The
It is generally accepted that the angle of dilatancy depends on relationship is less accurate in triaxial extension condition as also
both density and stress level. Consideration of plastic dilatancy found by Vaid and Sasitharan (1992) but the approximation is still
forms a central role in elastic-plastic models for soils. Here the acceptable.
mobilised angle of dilatancy for triaxial conditions is dened from
the ratio of incremental volumetric and axial strains, and for
simplicity it has been assumed that the elastic components of the 4. Constitutive modelling framework
strain increments are small compared with the plastic components
(denoted with the superscript p), to give: 4.1. Rule of mixtures

3_ p 3_ v The rule of mixtures is used here for the development of a model


tan j  vp  z  (5) for the bre-reinforced soil. The usual axioms of the rule of
3_ a  j3_ a j
mixtures are:
A modication to the equation of Bolton (1986) for the
maximum angle of dilatancy (jmax ) ts the data well:  each component of a composite satises its own constitutive
law,
tan jmax a0 ID Q  lnpc  g (6)  each component is homogeneously distributed throughout the
where ID and pc are respectively the density index and the mean composite,
stress at the end of the consolidation, and a0 , Q and g are three  the individual contributions of each component to the overall
material parameters. The use of the consolidation mean stress was composite behaviour are scaled according to their volumetric
necessary as a distinct failure is not detectable. The deviation from fractions.
Boltons equation is considered acceptable provided only one stress
path caseq=_ p_ 3 is analysed. Further experimental research The rule of mixtures has been applied to a wide variety of
including a range of stress paths is needed for a more general composites, including a reinforced metal-matrix (Dvorak and
maximum dilatancy relationship for reinforced sands. Values of Bahei-El-Din, 1982; Dvorak and Bahei-El-Din, 1987; Voyadijs and
jmax for the tests performed are reported in Table 2. Thiagarajan, 1995), anisotropically bre reinforced materials at
large strains (Car et al., 2000), bre-reinforced laminates (Luccioni,
2006), concrete when treated as a composite of mortar and
1400
0%
1200 0.3%
Table 3
0.6% Angle of friction and cohesion intercept of all series of tests in compression at failure
1000 0.9% (3a 20%) and at xed radial strain 3r 15%.
q (kPa)

800 At failure 3a 20%

600 Test series Fibre content (%)

0 0.3 0.6 0.9


400   
c(kPa) 4( ) c(kPa) 4( ) c(kPa) 4( ) c(kPa) 4( )
200 (L) tests 4.8 33.5 21.4 36.2 46.3 38.5 68.9 42.7
(M) tests 8.5 33.1 38.2 34.5 77.4 36.9
0 (D) tests 2.4 35.9 40.7 38.9
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
3r 15%
p (kPa) (L) tests 4.8 33.5 35.7 39.2 59.4 43.7 79.3 49.4
(M) tests 8.5 33.1 36.9 38.6 84.0 41.5
Fig. 6. Deviatoric strength envelopes at 20% of axial strain for (L) tests series (legend (D) tests 2.4 35.9 43.1 38.7
gives the bre content used).
A. Diambra et al. / Geotextiles and Geomembranes 28 (2010) 238250 243

a a=20% b r=15%
2000 2000
(L) tests (L) tests
(M) tests (M) tests r=200 kPa
1500 (D) tests 1500 (D) tests
r=200 kPa
r=100 kPa
q (kPa)

q (kPa)
1000 1000
r=100 kPa r=30 kPa
500 500
r=30 kPa

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
wf wf

Fig. 7. Deviatoric strength at 20% axial strain (a) and at 15% radial strain (b) for ensemble of specimen densities and three different conning stresses, 30, 100, and 200 kPa.

aggregates (Ortiz and Popov, 1982), municipal soil waste (Machado former assumes that the strain elds in the composite and the
et al., 2002), cemented sands (Abdulla and Kiousis, 1997) and bre constituents are identical:
reinforced soils (Villard et al., 1990; di Prisco and Nova, 1993).
The stress state of a composite, s, is expressed in terms of the 3 3m 3f (9)
stress states of the soil matrix s0 p0 ; q0 T and bres
whereas the latter considers an equality of stresses:
sf pf ; qf T :
s s0 sf (10)
s s0 vm sf vf (7)
To maintain simplicity in the formulations presented here it is
The volumetric concentration factors vm and vf (for the soil
assumed that no sliding occurs between sand grains and bres, that
matrix and the bres, respectively) scale the individual compo-
bres only act in tension and elastically, and that Voigts hypothesis
nents and are dened as:
(of identity of strains) applies. However, an additional scale
Vs Vv V  Vf Vf parameter may be introduced, as demonstrated later, to reduce the
vm vf and vm vf 1 (8) contribution that bres have on the composite if the non sliding
V V V
hypothesis between bres and sand grains is relaxed. This approach
where V, Vv, Vs and Vf are the volumes of the composite, voids, sand does not violate Voigts rule. A violation would only be introduced if
and bres, respectively, so in this denition the volume fraction of an equivalent modulus of the entire composite was sought, found
the soil matrix does not consider only the volume occupied by the by scaling individual moduli of the components by volumetric
solid soil particles. For simplicity the approximation vm z 1 is made fractions, enabling the composite behaviour to be expressed in
here and is reasonable since the volume of the bres is very small terms of one stress and one strain tensor, but this is not attempted
compared to the volume of the composite. in the paper.
One of two main hypotheses must be assumed when using the The nal form of the stressstrain relationship for the reinforced
rule of mixtures: Voigts hypothesis or Reusss hypothesis. The soil, when expressed incrementally, is:

p c=30 kPa
1
tan m a x

0.5

1.5 0
0 0.5 I
D
1
p c=100 kPa
1 1
tan m a x

tan m a x

0.5 0.5

0
0 0 0.5 I 1
D
1
300 p c=200 kPa
0.5 200 1
100
tan m a x

I
D
0 0 p (kPa) 0.5
c

0
0 0.5 I 1
D

Fig. 8. Three-dimensional representation of the experimental ow rule and plane sections at three constant consolidation pressures, 30, 100 and 200 kPa.
244 A. Diambra et al. / Geotextiles and Geomembranes 28 (2010) 238250

2.5
Fibre orientation
dV distribution after
2 Diambra et al., 2007c

() cos()/ f
Isotropic fibre
1.5 orientation distribution

0.5
Fig. 9. Spherical coordinates used to dene orientation.

h i 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
s_ s_ 0 vf s_ f Mm 3_ vf Mf 3_ (11) (rad)
where Mm is the stiffness matrix for the sand and Mf is the stiffness Fig. 11. Representation of bre orientation distribution for the investigated specimens.
matrix for the bres.

 
4.2. The bre stiffness matrix 3_ a sin2 qcos2 q 3_ r cos4 q
s_ rf q Ef (17)
The deformation of a single bre embedded in the composite 2
depends on its orientation. For conventional triaxial conditions, When an agglomerate of bres has a non-uniform distribution of
the incremental relationship between the strain at any angle q from orientations, the bre orientations can be described by a general
the horizontal (3_ q ) and the axial and radial strains is given by the bre orientation distribution function rq (Fukuda and Choi, 1982;
following relationship: Zhu et al., 1994). rq represents the volumetric concentration of
bres in an innitesimal volume dV having an orientation of angle q
3_ q 3_ a sin2 q 3_ r cos2 q (12) above the horizontal plane (Fig. 9). rq also represents the volu-
metric concentration factor for the contribution of bres within the
Adopting Voigts rule along the direction of the bre, the stress
composite with an orientation q above the horizontal plane. The
carried by a bre (behaving elastically with an elastic modulus Ef)
overall contribution of bres within the composite in the directions
oriented at an angle q to the horizontal is then:
of the axial and radial stresses can then be obtained by integration
s_ qf Ef 3_ q (13) over a representative composite volume using the following
expressions:
and it is possible to decompose this into equivalent stresses acting Z
in the directions of the axial and radial stresses, s_ af q and s_ rf q: 1 rq
s_ af s_ af qdV (18)
V vf
2 V
s_ af q s_ qf sin q (14)
Z
1 rq
s_ rf q s_ qf cos2 q=2 (15) s_ rf
V
s_ rf qdV
vf
(19)
V
In expanded form, relations (14) and (15) can be rewritten as:
  For exible bres, only those bres acting in tension contribute to
s_ af q Ef 3_ a sin4 q 3_ r cos2 qsin2 q (16) the stresses of the composite. Therefore the integrations of (18) and
(19) should be performed within those limits of q for which 3_ q < 0.
If q0 is the direction of zero incremental strains which, according to
Mohrs circle for strain increment, is:
a b

contribution
of fibres yield
surface
composite
f

stress path
q , q' , q

sand matrix
stress path

p , p', pf
Fig. 10. Domains of tensile strain orientations for compression (a) and extension (b)
loadings. Fig. 12. Procedure for determination of the sliding function fb.
A. Diambra et al. / Geotextiles and Geomembranes 28 (2010) 238250 245

r = 30kPa r = 60kPa r = 100kPa r = 200kPa


1500 1500 1500 1500
exp.

simul.

1000 1000 1000 1000

q (kPa)

q (kPa)

q (kPa)

q (kPa)
500 500 500 500

0 0 0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4
a q b q c q d q

-0.1 0.9%
-0.1 -0.1 -0.1
0.6%
0.3%
-0.05 0% -0.05 -0.05 -0.05

0 0 0 0
v

v
0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1


0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4
q q q q

Fig. 13. Compression triaxial test results and model simulations for reinforced and unreinforced specimens of (L) test series.

s The stress in a single bre is not constant along its length it must
3_ reduce to zero at its two ends and assuming that a uniform
q0 arctan  r (20) mobilised tensile stress exists is therefore an approximation. The
3_ a
bonding between bres and sand grains is not perfect as some
and due to the symmetry of the deformation pattern, the limits of amount of relative sliding between the two constituents will
the integration in (18) and (19) must correspond to 0  q  q0 for almost certainly occur, with the amount of sliding being dependent
triaxial compression and q0  q  p=2 for triaxial extension, as on the mobilised stress along the length of individual bres. The
illustrated in Fig. 10. imperfect interfacial bond can be accounted for in the model with
The mechanical response of the composite depends not only on the introduction of a dimensionless sliding function fb , similar to
the individual characteristics of its components but also on the that used by Machado et al. (2002) and Brighenti (2004). fb can vary
interaction between them. The bond between bres and sand between 0 and 1 with fb 1 for perfect bonding and fb 0 for full
grains affects the transfer of stresses between the two components. sliding. Introducing fb means that the deformation of the bres is

r = 30kPa r = 100kPa r = 200kPa r = 300kPa


1500 1500 1500 1500
exp.

simul.

1000 1000 1000 1000


q (kPa)

q (kPa)

q (kPa)

q (kPa)

500 500 500 500

0 0 0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4
a q b q c q d q

-0.1 0.6%
-0.1 -0.1 -0.1
0.3%
0%
-0.05 -0.05 -0.05 -0.05

0 0 0 0
v

0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1


0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4
q q q q

Fig. 14. Compression triaxial test results and model simulations for reinforced and unreinforced specimens of (M) test series.
246 A. Diambra et al. / Geotextiles and Geomembranes 28 (2010) 238250

r = 30kPa r = 100kPa r = 200kPa


1500 1500 1500
exp.

simul.

1000 1000 1000

q (kPa)

q (kPa)

q (kPa)
500 500 500

0 0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4
q q q
a b c
-0.1 0.3%
-0.1 -0.1
0%
-0.05 -0.05 -0.05

0 0 0
v

v
0.05 0.05 0.05

0.1 0.1 0.1


0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4
q q q

Fig. 15. Compression triaxial test results and model simulations for reinforced and unreinforced specimens of (D) test series.

not coincident with the deformation of the specimen which is and the Fij terms represent the components of the matrix of Eq.
instead given by: (22) with the rst subscript being the column number and the
second subscript being the line number.
3_ f fb 3_ (21)

If the orientation distribution is symmetrical with respect to the 4.3. The sand stiffness matrix
horizontal plane, Eqs. (18) and (19) may now be expanded and
rearranged and Eq. (21) introduced to give: An appealing feature of the modelling framework presented
here is that any constitutive model for describing the stressstrain

2 3
Zl2 Zl2
6 rqcosqsin4 qdq rqcos3 qsin2 qdq 7
" # 6 7
6 7 
s_ af 6 l1 l1 7 3_ a
vf Ef fb 6
6 Zl2
7
7 3_ r (22)
s_ rf 6 Zl2 7
61 2 7
4 2 rqcos3 qsin qdq 1
2
rqcos qdq 5
5
l1 l1

behaviour of the sand may be used to obtain the stiffness matrix for
where the integration limits are l1 0 and l2 q0 for compres- an unreinforced sand. For the sake of simplicity, the elastic-
sion loading and l1 q0 and l2 p=2 for extension loading. perfectly plastic Mohr-Coulomb model has been used.
Returning to the conventional p and q triaxial notations, the In the elastic domain the increments of stresses are related to
contribution of bres to the stresses in the composite can be the increments of strains through the bulk modulus K and the shear
expressed as: modulus G:

    
h i _     p_ 0 K 0 3_ v
_ f Ef fb Mf 3v Ef fb A11 A12 3_ v (25)
vf s (23) q_ 0 0 3G 3_ q
3_ q A21 A22 3_ q
The elastic parameters are a function of the Youngs modulus, E,
where: and Poissons ratio, m, through:

E E
9 K and G (26)
A11 19F
 11 F12 2F21 2F22>
21  m 21 m
>
>
A12 13 F11  F212 2F21  F22 = Yielding occurs when the following relation is satised:
(24)
A21 13F11 F12  F21  F22 > >
>
;
A22 122F11  F12  2F21 F22 q0 Mp0 (27)
A. Diambra et al. / Geotextiles and Geomembranes 28 (2010) 238250 247

(L) test series (M) test series (D) test series


0 0 0
r = 100kPa r = 100kPa r = 100kPa

exp.
-50 simul. -50 -50

q (kPa)

q (kPa)

q (kPa)
-100 -100 -100

-0.2 -0.1 0 -0.2 -0.1 0 -0.2 -0.1 0


q q q
a b c
-0.04 -0.04 -0.04

-0.02 -0.02 -0.02

0 0 0
v

v
0.02 0.6%
0.02 0.02
0.3%
0.04 0%
0.04 0.04
-0.2 -0.1 0 -0.2 -0.1 0 -0.2 -0.1 0
q q q

Fig. 16. Extension triaxial test results and model simulations for reinforced and unreinforced specimens at 100 kPa conning cell pressure.

where M represents one of two properties Mc or Me, depending on with the scaling parameter k 36. Although a realistic description
whether triaxial compression or triaxial extension is occurring, of the elastic modulus would be a function of the instantaneous
linked to the friction angle f0 of the sand by the relationships: effective mean stress, for the simplicity of the model construction,
a constant elasticity sand matrix is adopted.
6 sinf0 6 sinf0 It is acknowledged that the mobilised peak angle of friction is
Mc and Me  (28)
3  sinf0 3 sinf0 stress level dependent, especially when conning stress is low, less
than 100 kPa. However, for the sake of simplicity a constant value of
When the soil yields the relationship between incremental
f0 34:5 was used here.
plastic strains is controlled by:
To obtain a reasonable simulation of the volumetric behaviour,
the dilatancy angle for the unreinforced specimen has been taken
3_ pv
M * (29) as being equal to the maximum dilatancy angle jmax as dened in
3_ pq Eq. (5). However, M* represents a ratio between increments of
where M * represents one of two properties Mc* or Me*, depending on plastic strains while tanjmax was computed from increments of
whether triaxial compression or triaxial extension is occurring, total strain. A correction is therefore needed to allow for the
linked to the dilation angle j of the sand: occurrence of elastic strains in reinforced specimen and details are
given in Appendix 1.
3tanj 3tanj The denition of the stiffness matrix for the bres requires only
Mc* and Me* (30) the denition of the elastic modulus of the bres, the sliding
3 tanj tanj  3
function and the bre orientation distribution. Diambra et al.
The dilation is formally expressed in terms of plastic increments of (2007a) determined the bre orientation distribution within
strain as dened in Eq. (5). specimens prepared using the moist tamping technique. The
orientation distribution of bres is axisymmetric with respect to
5. Model calibration the vertical axis of a specimen and spherical coordinates are
introduced (Fig. 9) to describe the general bre orientation distri-
5.1. Input parameters bution function r(q) of the form:

The model is calibrated using results of drained triaxial tests rq nf A Cjcosn qj (32)
performed on both unreinforced and reinforced specimens. Because
the model is based on the superposition of the effects of sand and where A 0, n 5 and C 2.04. However difculties have been
bres, the two stiffness matrices can be calibrated independently. encountered in the integration of the bre stiffness matrix when
Parameters governing the behaviour of the sand matrix were (32) was implemented so a slightly modied orientation
determined from the results of tests performed on unreinforced distribution function rq was proposed by Diambra et al.
specimens. The Mohr-Coulomb model requires the denition of (2007c):
two elastic and two plastic parameters. Here a typical value for
Poissons ratio m 0.3 was adopted and the elastic modulus, E, is 2ab2 jcosqj
rq nf   (33)
2
assumed to depend on the consolidation effective mean stress (di cosq b2  a2 a2
Prisco and Nova, 1993):
where a 1.02 and b 0.46 can be determined by forcing equality
E kp0c (31) in (32) and (33) at q 0 and by satisfying the requirement:
248 A. Diambra et al. / Geotextiles and Geomembranes 28 (2010) 238250

Z
1 strain increases, allowing the sand to support greater deviatoric
nf rqdV (34) stresses. The assumption that the bres are working within their
V
V elastic range seems correct for these bres and these test
The assumed bre orientation distribution function is shown in conditions. In fact, careful examination of the bres at the end of
Fig. 11 in the rqcosq=nf -q plane. An isotropic bre orientation the triaxial tests showed no signs of bre breakage or plastic
distribution is also shown as a reference. deformation.
The elastic modulus for bres can be easily determined from the The slightly curved shape of the experimentally measured
results of tension tests performed on the single bres. A reasonable stressstrain curves at low conning pressures (Figs. 1315) is also
t of the initial part of the tensile stressstrain response of a bre well reproduced by the model and this is attributed to the depen-
can be obtained by adopting Ef 900 MPa. dency of the sliding function fb on the mean stress in the sand
The sliding function, fb, which indirectly accounts for the matrix.
imperfect interfacial bond between bres and sand grains is one of The limited contribution of bres observed for extension
the most difcult model ingredients to establish. A procedure based loading is very satisfactorily simulated by the model (Fig. 16). In
on a back analysis of the experimental results was used here. The extension only very few bres are orientated in the direction of
extra strength of a composite is attributed to the articial tensile strains and this is taken into account by the bre orientation
connement provided by the reinforcement, which in turn affects distribution adopted.
the stress path of the sand matrix within the composite. The stress The volumetric behaviour is, in general, well simulated. The
path of the sand matrix is different from a conventional triaxial one addition of bres affects the deformation behaviour of the assembly
- only the stress path of the composite obeys q= _ p_ 3. The bre of sand grains, whose movements are inuenced by the physical
stresses can be computed from the strains of the specimens presence of bres. In the extension tests, the volumetric behaviour
employing Eq. (22) and they can be subtracted from the stresses in is not simulated as well as that for the compression tests because
the composite to obtain the stresses in the sand matrix as stated in the initial plastic volumetric strains have opposite magnitude to
Eq. (11). The resulting stresses in the sand matrix are then adjusted elastic volumetric strains and this can not be reproduced adopting
using fb so that they ultimately approach the yield surface, as a simple Mohr-Coulomb model.
schematically shown in Fig. 12. The direction of the stress path The difference between experimental results and model outputs
representing the bre contribution is automatically dened by the is mainly due to the simplistic nature of the elastic-perfectly plastic
stiffness matrix of the bres. Mohr-Coulomb model and its inability to account for the non-
A function for fb of the following form: linearity of unreinforced sand behaviour, especially at small strains.
The use of more complex models which capture this non-linearity
!!
would result in smoother simulated curves and a better match
p0
fb Ke 1  exp  cs (35) between experimental data and simulation.
pref

was introduced, where Ke is an efciency coefcient of the bre- 6. Conclusions


sand bonding and the bracketed component, which includes the
mean stress of the sand matrix p0 normalised with a reference An experimental programme was undertaken to investigate the
pressure, pref of 0.1 MPa, accounts for a conning pressure effect. effect of crimped polypropylene bres on the mechanical behav-
Values of Ke 0.6 and cs 0.75 apply here. The dependency of fb on iour of Hostun RF sand. A series of conventional triaxial tests in
p0 allows the simulation of an enhanced bonding between bres compression and extension were performed on unreinforced and
and sand matrix at higher conning stresses as observed in the reinforced sand.
experiments. In triaxial compression considerable increase of strength was
induced by the presence of bres, while in extension the benet of
bres is very limited. These results conrm the previous study on
5.2. Model simulation
bre orientation distribution which shows that the moist tamping
technique generates preferential near horizontal orientation of
Figs. 1316 compare model simulations with experimental
bres.
results for conventional drained triaxial tests in the qw3q and 3v w3q
A simple modelling approach for bre reinforced sand has been
planes. The model simulations are represented by the thick
presented, based on the rule of mixtures. Its application has been
continuous lines whereas the experimental data are represented
demonstrated using a simple sand model, and the simulations of
with thin dotted lines. Despite the simplicity of the model adopted
the composite exhibit key characteristics of the response observed
for the sand matrix, the model generally reproduces the main
in the experimental tests. Discrepancies between simulation and
features of the behaviour of unreinforced and reinforced
experimental results can be attributed to the simplicity of the basic
specimens.
sand model adopted but this can be improved by considering more
For compressive loading (Figs. 1315), the model captures well
complex model developments that capture the non-linear
the somewhat bilinear nature of the reinforced soil response
behaviour.
irrespective of bre content, density and conning stress. The
The modelling approach allows the use of any bre orientation
initial stressstrain responses generated by the model are not
distribution function and the importance of considering the bre
affected by the presence of bres. In these initial parts the bre
orientation relative to the strain conditions have been demon-
contribution to the composite behaviour is quite small, which is
strated for both triaxial extension and compression tests.
not surprising as 3r is also small, preventing the bres from
elongating and mobilising large tensile forces. At larger shear
strains, the shear stress supported by the composite increases, Acknowledgements
apparently without limit, and this can be successfully reproduced
by adopting a simple elastic model for the bres and an aniso- This work was possible with the nancial support of University
tropic bre orientation distribution. The presence of the bres of Bristol. The Loksand bres have been kindly provided by Drake
acts to increase the connement of the sand matrix as the shear Extrusion Ltd (UK).
A. Diambra et al. / Geotextiles and Geomembranes 28 (2010) 238250 249

Appendix 1. Relationship between M * and the angle of The constant cell pressure further simplies Eq. (A-7) which can
dilatancy jmax be expanded according to Eq. (22):

The relationship between the parameter M * and the angle of s_ 0r nf s_ rf Ef fb  F21 3a  F22 3r (A-8)
dilatancy j when dened in terms of total strains is derived here for
Substitution of Eq. (A-2) in Eq. (A-8) leads to:
triaxial conditions. In triaxial compression:
 
tanj 1 tanj 1
3_ v s_ 0r Ef fb F21 3a F22 3a Ef fb F21 F22 3a
tanj  (A-1) 2 2
3_ a
(A-9)
which can be rewritten as:
and nally the relationship in Eq. (A-4) can be rewritten as:
3_ r tanj 1
 (A-2)
3_ a 2 the relation between M * and the dilatancy angle j becomes:

  
Ef f0 tanj1
3_ pr 1 fE b 1sin
1sin f
0  2m F21 F22 2
  (A-10)
3_ pa tanj 1 Ef fb 1 sin f0 tanj 1
m 1  m F 21 F22
2 E 1  sin f0 2

If now we impose:
  
Ef f0
1 fE b 1sin
1sin f
0  2m F21 F22 tan2j1
mc   (A-11)
tanj 1 Ef fb 1 sin f0 tanj 1
m 1  m F21 F 22
2 E 1  sin f0 2

Also Eq. (29) can rewritten as:


3 mc 2
3_ pr 3  2M * M*
2 mc  1
(A-12)
p (A-3)
3_ a 6 2M *
A similar procedure can be applied to triaxial extension where
The ratio between axial and radial plastic strains can be the link between M * and the dilatancy angle j becomes
rewritten in terms of total and elastic strains:
3 me 2
3_ pr 3_ r  3_ er M* (A-13)
2 me  1
p _ (A-4)
3_ a 3a  3_ ea
where me is dened as:
and the elastic strains can be linked to the increment of stresses in

  
Ef f0
1 fE b 1sin
1sinf
0  2m F21 F22 tan2j1
me   (A-14)
tanj  1 Ef fb 1  sinf0 tanj  1
m 0 1  m F21 F22
2 E 1 sinf 2

the sand matrix by rearranging Eqs. (25) and (26):


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