General Physiology Significance:
The sodium potassium pumps controls cell
Introduction
What is physiology?
Human physiology
Importance of physiology
Body composition
Major and minor elements in the body
Homeostasis
Maintenance of homeostasis in the body
Regulatory systems of the body
Control systems of the body
Components of control system
Types of control
Positive feedback can sometimes cause
vicious cycles and death
Automaticity of the body
Cell
Protoplasm - composition
Hydrophilic, and Hydrophobic parts of
cell membrane.
Components of the plasma membrane
Mitochondria content, number per cell,
structure, function:
Endoplasmic reticulum structure, types
and functions
Centrosome
Golgi apparatus- function
Lysosomes - function
Major classes of intermediate filaments
Cell adhesion molecules types, functions
Cell differentiation
Apoptosis
Differences between extracellular and
intracellular fluids
Membrane transport
Diffusion- define, example, factors that
affect the rate of diffusion, importance of
diffusion
Osmosis- definition, importance:
Active transport- criteria of active
transport, examples of primary active
transport:
Mechanism of primary active transport
Co-transport- examples, processes of
glucose transport across cell membrane
Counter transport - examples:
Na+-k+ pump-
Carrier protein of na+-k+ pump
Mechanism of na+-k+ pump:
volume, explain it.
Electrogenic pump
Regulation of na+-k+ atpase
Specialized transport across the capillary
wall
Ion channels Types, Biological role
Membrane potential
The importance of the membrane
potential
Causes of rmp
Why rmp is negative?
Source of rmp
Why k+ permeability s greater than Na+
permeability in the resting state
Spike potential
Negative after potential
Positive after potential (hyperpolarization)
Electrolytes concerned with action
potential
Stabilizer (membrane-stabilizing factors)
Muscle physiology
Characteristics of muscle:
Functions of muscle:
Actin filament composition, affinity:
I bands
A bands
Sarcomere.
Sarcotubular system
Role of calcium in muscle contraction
Types of muscle contractions:
Excitation-contraction (ec) coupling
Properties of skeletal muscle
Rigor mortis
Blood
Why blood is called connective tissue?
Differences between plasma and serum
Bone marrow- type, relation to age
Hematopoietic stem cells (hscs)
Terms associated with total blood cells
numbers
Plasma proteins
Properties of plasma proteins
Isoelectric point.
Origin of plasma proteins
Regeneration of plasma proteins Hemolytic anemia - causes
Hypoproteinemia Effects of anemia on function of the
Functions of plasma proteins circulatory system
What is normal a/g ratio? Lab tests for anemia
Advantage of bi-concave shape of rbc
Advantage of having no nucleus WBC
In spite of having no nucleus, why rbc is Definition
called cell? General characteristics
Enzymes in rbc Changes in white cell count in disease
Factors that influence esr Properties of wbc
Rouleaux formation Phagocytosis
Sites of rbc formation in the children and Steps of phagocytosis
adult Granulopoiesis
Steps of erythropoiesis Leukemias
Changes during erythropoiesis Lymphocytes
Reticulocyte Types
Factors promoting erythropoiesis Functions
Factors influencing ep production Macrophage
Maturation factors for rbc
Intrinsic factor in absorption of vitamin b12
Types of jaundice Immunity
Define immunity
Types
Iron Antibody
Body iron content Antigens
Absorption of fe
Iron transport Inflammation
Blood iron Definition
Storage forms of iron Characteristics
Functions of iron Triple response

Hemoglobin
Definition Platelets
Normal value Morphology
Factors for hemoglobin formation Functional characteristics
Derivatives of haemoglobin Chemistry and metabolism
Variations of hb under different Functions
physiological conditions Steps of aggregation of platelets
Varieties of hemoglobin The platelet production and survival
Haemoglobinopathies. Bleeding time
Thalassaemia
Fetal hemoglobin Hemostasis: blood coagulation
Red cell indices Definition
Mechanism of hemostasis
Anemia Importance of the platelet plug
Definition Blood coagulation- Definition
Classification of anemia Primary/essential factors of blood clotting
Iron deficiency anemia Vitamin k dependent coagulation factors
Megaloblastic anemia Physiology of clotting process
Why does anemia occur in vit-b12 Compare the intrinsic and extrinsic
deficiency? pathway of blood coagulation
How the cells become megaloblastic? Vicious circle of clot formation
Pernicious anemia Clot retraction
Aplastic anemia Fibrinolysis
Blood loss anemia Fibrinolytic activity in the body
Natural anticoagulant Why does heart work more than the right
Artificial anticoagulant heart?
Acd (acid citrate dextrose) solution Tell the time for blood traversing in
circulation.
The excitability of cardiac muscle depends
Bleeding disorders on
Classification of bleeding disorders explain Frank Starling law of heart
Importance of Frank Starlings law
Disorder of platelets
Refractory period
Hemophilia- types, inheritance of
reasons why cardiac muscle does not get
hemophilia
fatigued
Why factor viii is called anti-hemophilhic
Tell the source of Ca2+ ions for contraction
factor?
of cardiac muscle.
Thromboembolic conditions in the human
What are the difference of refractory
being
period of atrial and ventricular muscle?
Disseminated intravascular coagulation
Major types of cardiac muscle
Purpura
Functions of the conducting system
Conditions that cause excessive bleeding
Pace maker of the heart:
in human beings
AV nodal delay
Tests for bleeding disorders
Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome
Why dose the SA node control the hearts
rhythmicity rather than AV node or
Blood groups
Purkinje fiber?
Immunologic properties of red blood cell
STOKES ADAMS SYNDROME
membrane
NON-PACEMAKER ACTION POTENTIALS
Blood group systems
What is plateau?
Landsteiner's law
PACEMAKER POTENTIAL
Why abo system is called classical blood
EFFECT OF POTASSIUM AND CALCIUM
group.
IONS ON HEART FUNCTION
Rh factor
what is the main difference in heart
Rh incompabillity
muscle and skeletal muscle contraction?
Importance of blood grouping
what is the role of calcium in heart muscle
and skeletal muscle contraction?
Blood transfusion
Cardiac cycle
Definition
DEFINITION
Indications of blood transfusions
DURATION
Universal donors and universal
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Receivers
EVENTS
Effects of incompatible (mismatched)
isometric contraction phase
blood transfusions
Heart Sounds
Dangers/hazards of blood transfusion
CAUSES OF HEART SOUND
Effects of storage of blood on rbcs
TYPES:
CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT
HEART SOUNDS
CVS
SIGNIFICANCE OF 1ST HEART
SOUND
SIGNIFICANCE OF 2ND HEART
CHRONOTROPIC ACTION SOUND
INOTROPIC ACTION Why 1st heart sound is longer
CARDIAC MUSCLES-Special features duration than 2nd heart sound?
VENTRICULAR ESCAPE SIGNIFICANCE OF 3RD HEART
Differences Between Pulmonary and SOUND
Systemic Circulations SIGNIFICANCE OF 4TH HEART
Basic Principles of Circulatory Function SOUND

Venous return
DEFINITION
FACTOR
Explain how venous return is
affected in exercise
STROKE VOLUME
Clinical Importance
Factors affecting stroke volume:
END DIASTOLIC VOLUME (EDV)
Definition
Factors affecting EDV
How EDV influence stroke volume?
END SYSTOLE VOLUME (ESV)
Cardiac Output
DEFINITION
FACTORS REGULATING CARDIAC
OUTPUT
FACTORS INFLUENCING CARDIAC
OUTPUT
EJECTION FRACTION
CARDIAC INDEX
PRELOAD
Heart rate increases cardiac output.
Can excessive heart rate decrease
cardiac output? Explain
AFTERLOAD
Cardiovascular Reflexes
CLASSIFICATION
Intrinsic Cardiovascular Reflexes
Baroreceptor LOCATION,
MECHANISM OF ACTION,
Circulatory Reflex Initiated by the
Baroreceptors
Chemoreceptors- LOCATION,
RELAY, MECHANISM OF ACTION,
RESPONSE OF THE
CHEMORECEPTORS TO BLOOD
PRESSURE
What is brain-bridge reflex?
J-receptors
Heart Rate
FACTORS AFFECTING HEART RATE
REFLEXES THAT REGULATE HEART
RATE
TACHYCARDIA
BRADYCARDIA , Explain -
Bradycardia in Athletes
Why does heart rate increase in a
raced even before the beginning of
the race?
What is the relationship between
heart rate & respiration?
ECG
DEFINITION
Duration
Amplitude
Speed of the paper
ECG Waves
ECG Complexes
ECG intervals:
Importance of ECG
CALCULATION OF HEART RATE
FROM ECG
EFFECTS OF HYPERKALEMIA OR
HYPOKALEMIA ON ECG
Why is the P wave of a normal ECG
always smaller than the QRS
complex?
Heart Block
DEFINITION
SITES OF HEART BLOCK
Mention the effect 2 degree heart
block on EGG.
What is idoventricular rhythm?
What is arrhythmia?
What is dropped beat?
Blood pressure
Definition
Importance of blood pressure
List the different types of blood
pressure with their normal values
Calculation of mean blood pressure
Significance of different types of BP
Factors influencing blood pressure
Vasomotor center (VMC)
Different types of blood pressure
regulation mechanisms
Response of the Baroreceptors to
different level of blood pressure
Can baroreceptors perform Long-
term regulation of blood pressure?
Why baroreceptors are called
buffer nerves?
How is sodium balance and arterial
blood pressure physiologically
connected?
Pulse
Normal pulse rate
DESCRIPTION OF NORMAL PULSE
Clinical importance of examination
of pulse
CLASSIFICATION PULSE
Blood vessels
 Functional classification of vessels
Windkessel effect:
VASOMOTOR TONE
Regional Circulation
Coronary circulation
Pulmonary circulation
Blood Flow
Definition
Equation
Factors related to rate of blood flow
Types of blood flow
Peripheral Resistance
Shock
DEFINITION
TYPES OF SHOCK
Features of Hypovolemic Shock
compensatory mechanism of
hypovolumic shock
A six years old has passed loose
watery stool 12 times during last
24 hours. He is thirsty and his
tongue is dry and eyes are sunken.
a. What changes in his pulse
do you expect? Answer: Pulse is
rapid & thready
b. What changes in his BP do
you expect?
CVS changes in exercise
CVS changes after moderate
exercise
Mechanism of increase in heart
rate in moderate exercise
Why does the diastolic blood
pressure (DBP) change less than
the systolic during exercise?
Why is the diastolic pressure
decreased during severe exercise?
How will cardiac output be affected
during exercise?
Respiratory System
Respiration
DEFINITION
TYPES OF RESPIRATION
EVENTS OF RESPIRATION
Ventilation
Define pulmonary and alveolar
ventilation
Differences between inspiration
and expiration
PRESSURES RELATED TO
RESPIRATION
PULMONARY SURFACTANT
Definition
Function of pulmonary surfactant:
Mechanism of action
Factors that prevent the collapse of
the lungs:
RESPIRATORY DISTRESS
SYNDROME
LUNG COMPLIANCE
Lung Volumes and Lung Capacities
List the lung volumes with their
normal values
Importance of residual volume
Define lung capacities with their
normal values
Factors that affect vital capacity:
Importance of vital capacity
Why is vital capacity usually more
in case of male?
Why do patients with asthma
frequently have their forced vital
capacity measured?
A person has an alveolar
ventilation of 5 L/min, respiratory
rate of 10 breaths/min and tidal
volume of 700 mL. What is the
person's dead space volume?
A person has a tidal volume of 500
mL, respiratory rate of 14
breaths/min and a dead space
volume of 150 mL. What is the
person's alvelolar ventilation?
alveolar air is slowly renewed by
atmospheric air
Gas Exchange through the Respiratory
Membrane
Structure of respiratory membrane
Factors those affect gaseous
exchange through the respiratory
membrane
Diffusing Capacity of the
Respiratory Membrane
"Diffusing capacity of CO2 is more
than that of O2"-Why?
Transport of Respiratory Gases
List the forms in which O2 are
transported in the blood
Shunt Flow
Utilization coefficient
What the utility is of
dissolved from of oxygen?
State of chemical
combination with hemoglobin
VENTILATION-PERFUSION
RATIO
CONTENT OF OXYGEN IN
BLOOD
OXYHEMOGLOBIN
DISSOCIATION CURVE
Oxygen hemoglobin affinity
Explanation of the sigmoid
shape 02-Hemoglobin curves.
Forms in which carbon
dioxide is transported in
blood
Content of carbon dioxide in
blood :
State why most CO2 in the
blood is transported in the
bicarbonate ion form?
What is reverse chloride
shift?
Tell the O2 content in arterial
and venous blood.
What is the effect of O2-Hb
dissociation curve in anemia
and why?
Control of Respiration
NERVOUS CONTROL OF RHYTHMIC
RESPIRATION
Chemical regulation of respiration
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
DURING EXERCISE
Hypoxia
DEFINITION
TYPES
Effect of hypoxia
Respiratory insufficiency
PERIODIC BREATHING
DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS
Lung (Pulmonary) Function Tests
Name the lung function tests
State the timed vital capacity
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
NERVOUS REGULATION OF GUT
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Types of digestive reflex processes
BASIC ELECTRICAL RHYTHM (BER)
Stomach
FUNCTIONS OF STOMACH
Receptors present on the Parietal
cells:
Stimulation of gastric hydrochloric
acid secretion
Post Prandial Alkaline Tide
Peptic ulcer
Regulation of Stomach Emptying
PYLORIC PUMP
RECEPTIVE RELAXATION OF THE
STOMACH
Local hormones
Name the local hormones of GIT
with functions of any two of them..
What is the relation of gastrin to
that of gastric pH?
Movements of Alimentary Tract
FUNCTIONAL TYPES OF
MOVEMENTS IN THE GIT
PERISTALSIS
Organ other than GIT where
Peristalsis occurs
Law of Gut
The chewing cycle
GASTROCOLIC REFLEX
Defecation reflex
Diarrhea
Constipation
Vomiting