Developmental ftychology Copyright 1990 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.

1990, Vol. 26, No. 4, 546-551 0O12-1649/9O/$O0.75

Pass the Sugar, Pass the Salt: Experience Dictates Preference

Susan A. Sullivan and Leann L. Birch
Child Development Laboratory
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

How children acquire preferences for added sugar and salt was examined by investigating the effects
of repeated exposure to 1 of 3 versions of a novel food (sweetened, salty, or plain tofu) on children's
preference for those and other similar foods. Participants were 39 4- and 5-year-olds assigned to taste
only 1 of the 3 flavored versions 15 times over several weeks. Preferences for all versions were ob-
tained before, during, and after the exposure series. Preference increased for the exposed version
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only. Experience with 1 flavored version did not produce generalized liking for all 3 versions of the
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food. Experience with 1 version (flavored or plain) actually produced a decline in preference for the
other version. This was true whether children had experience with plain orflavoredversions of the
food. The acquired preference was restricted to the particular food/flavor complex; through expo-
sure, children seemed to learn whether it was appropriate to add salt or sugar to a particular food.

Concern regarding the high levels of consumption of sugar
and salt by Americans has led to recent dietary recommenda-
tions to decrease intake of these two substances. Excessive salt
intake is of concern because it is associated with hypertension,
at least among susceptible individuals (Dahl, 1972; U.S. De-
partment of Health and Human Services [DHHS], 1988). The
current recommendation is to reduce sodium intake to 1,100-
3,300 mg (National Academy of Science, 1980); on average,
current intakes are 2,300-6,900 mg (Dahl, 1972). Recent con-
cern over the high levels of consumption of refined and pro-
cessed sugars has led to a suggested decrease in intake of refined
sugars to nearly one half of the current level (U.S. Senate, 1977;
DHHS, 1988). Research on the etiology of preferences for levels
of added sugar and salt in foods could aid in implementing these
guidelines.
Food andflavorpreferences are major determinants of con-
sumption patterns, particularly during childhood, when factors
such as cost, availability, and ease of preparation are not yet
salient. Excessive consumption of sugar and salt is at least in
part a result of preferences for high levels of these tastes in
foods. Individual differences in such preferences are attribut-
able in large part to differences in experiential history. A num-
ber of acquisition processes have been implicated in the devel-
opment of food preferences: mere exposure (Birch & Marlin,
1982; Pliner, 1982), social learning (Birch, 1980; Michela &
Contento, 1986), and associative conditioning (Birch, Zimmer-
man, & Hind, 1980; Zellner, Rozin, Aron, & Kulish, 1983).
Previous research has indicated that repeated exposure to ini-
tially novel foods andflavorstends to lead to enhanced prefer-
ences. The research reported in the present article deals with
how repeated experience with an initially novel food, served
either plain or with added sugar or salt, influenced children's
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Leann
L. Birch, School of Human Resources and Family Studies, 1105 West
Nevada Street, Urbana, Illinois 61801.
preferences for this food and for similar foods with and without
the added sugar or salt.
Several studies with adult subjects have revealed that a reduc-
tion or an increase in total dietary sodium intake over a period
of weeks or months can alter the individual's preferred level of
salt in familiar foods. The consumption of a diet low in sodium
led to increased preference for less salty preparations and to
decreased preference for salty foods (Blais et al., 1986). When
a diet with a level of salt higher than baseline is consumed,
adults show an increased preference for higher levels of salt in
food (Bertino, Beauchamp, & Engleman, 1986). These results
are consistent with the hypothesis that the preferred level of
salt in a familiar food is directly influenced by prior dietary
experience. However, this research does not provide informa-
tion on how these preferred levels are acquired initially. A re-
lated question that remains unanswered by the existing studies
is whether acquired preferences for particular levels of sugar or
salt are specific to particular familiar foods or will lead to a
sweet or a salty tooth (i.e., a generalized liking for sweet or salty
tastes across many foods).
There is some evidence that there may be a developmental
shift in the specificity of preferences for sweet and salty tastes
(see also Beauchamp & Cowart, 1990; Harris, Thomas, &
Booth, 1990). However, it is important to note that this does
not mean that the developmental patterns in the acceptance of
sweet and salty tastes are the same (Beauchamp & Cowart,
1985; Desor, Mailer, & Turner, 1973). Although the preference
for the sweet taste seems to be innate, evidence suggests that
the perceptual system in humans for detecting salt continues
to develop postnatally (Beauchamp, Cowart, & Moran, 1986).
Preferences for both sweet and salty tastes are soon modified by
experience, and preferences seem to become increasingly con-
text specific in both cases. It is our view that repeated experi-
ence with a food with the sweet or salty taste added causes that
particular preparation of the food to become familiar, accepted,
and appropriate. For example, although very young infants
show a preference for sweetened water, this preference was only
maintained several months later among infants whose mothers

546
 SPECIAL SECTION: EXPERIENCE AND PREFERENCE
continued to feed them sweetened water during this time, and
their preference for sweetened water was not related to their
preferred level of sweetness in fruit drinks (Beauchamp & Cow-
art, 1985).
Infants are initially indifferent to salty tastes, and they begin
to preferentially ingest salty water at about 4 months. However,
although infants will prefer salted water to plain water, by the
time they are between 2 and 3 years of age, they have acquired
the adultlike rejection of salt water. At about the same age, chil-
dren prefer salted soup to unsalted soup. Harris and Booth
(1985) reported that for 6-month-old infants, preference for
salted cereal was directly related to the child's intake of sodium
from all food sources during the previous week; the preference
for salty cereal was not dependent on specific experience with
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salted cereal. However, the evidence presented in this volume
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suggests that prior experience may have much more specific
effects on preference for foods later in infancy and early child-
hood. Taken together, thesefindingssuggest that the preference
for the sweet or salty taste is becoming increasingly focused and
context specific. Children are learning through repeated experi-
ence which foods provide appropriate contexts for sweet and
salty tastes.
The purpose of the present experiment was to explore the
role of experience with a novel food, eaten either sweetened,
salty, or plain, on the development of a preference for those
three versions of that food. Cowart and Beauchamp (1986) sug-
gested that what becomes familiar with repeated experience is
the context for the sweet or salty taste. We predicted that re-
peated experience with eating one version of the food would
be very specific to that preparation and would not produce a
generalized enhanced liking for all three versions of the exposed
food. We also hypothesized that it is the a X b interactive com-
plex of the food and the sweet or salty taste that becomes famil-
iar and liked with repeated exposure, not some simple additive
combination of the food and the flavor. We proposed to test this
hypothesis by also looking for generalization of mere exposure
effects on preference for other versions of the same food and on
preference for other, similar novel foods prepared with the same
flavors added. Only the specific food/taste complex would be-
come familiar and preferred with repeated exposure, and no
generalization was expected: Neither another version of the
same food nor another food with the same added taste would
become more preferred as a result of experience with the com-
plex.
Method
Subjects
Participants in the study were 39 preschool children, 21 boys and 18
girls. The children ranged in age from 44 months to 71 months, with a
mean age of 55 months. The children had repeated experience with only
one of three initially novel food preparations: tofu, either with added
salt or sugar or plain, without added sugar or salt. The three exposure
groups were balanced for sex and initial group mean preference for the
foods and were randomly assigned to experience one of the three ver-
sions. The 11 children exposed to the salty version of the novel food
were 5 boys and 6 girls with a mean age of 54.4 months. The 14 children
exposed to the sweet version of the novel food included 8 boys and 6
girls with a mean age of 55.7 months. A third group of 14 children were
547
exposed to a plain version of the novel food without added sugar or salt.
The mean age of these 8 boys and 6 girls was 59.4 months.
Materials
Three initially novel foods were chosen as contexts for the added
sugar and salt because of their similarity in physical appearance, tex-
ture, and neutrality of flavor; they were tofu (Azumaya), ricotta cheese
(Sargento, 25-mg/oz), and jicama. Food history data obtained from the
parents of the children confirmed that these foods were novel to the
children.
The amount of salt and sugar (sucrose) added to the foods was deter-
mined on the basis of the results of pilot work with an adult sample. On
the basis of the pilot data, one level of saltiness and one level of sweetness
was selected that was palatable for each of the foods yet was distinctly
salty or sweet in taste. The levels of salt and sucrose added differed for
the three food stimuli because of differences in the intrinsic sweetness
and saltiness of the three foods. Through variation of the ratios of fla-
vorant to food, an attempt was made to match the perceived level of
sweetness and saltiness across the foods. Those levels included salty tofu
prepared with 2 g NaCl (salt)/100 g tofu, and sweetened tofu with 14 g
sucrose (sugar)/100 g tofu; salty ricotta cheese prepared with 1.6 g
NaCl/100 g ricotta cheese, and sweetened ricotta with 12 g sucrose/100
g ricotta cheese; and salty jicama prepared with 1.6 g NaCl/100 g
jicama, and sweetened jicama with 12.5 g sucrose/100 g jicama.
In an attempt to match the textural characteristics of the tofu and
the ricotta cheese, the foods were processed to a smooth consistency,
incorporating the added sugar or salt. The foods in the plain version
were also processed to match the consistency of the flavored stimuli.
The tofu was first drained, rinsed, and then blotted to remove excess
moisture. This procedure enabled the consistency of the tofu to match
nearly identically that of the ricotta cheese.
Jicama was prepared to match the tofu in appearance (color) and
neutrality offlavoronly. This food stimulus was shredded in a food
processor then thoroughly blended with the added flavorant while main-
taining afinelyshredded texture.
To maintain freshness, all of the foods were purchased the same week
they were to be consumed and were stored at 6.5 C. Preparation was
done no more than 36 hr before use. The 1 -tsp food samples were always
presented to the children in separate 4-oz clear plastic cups.
Procedure
The children had repeated exposure to one of the three versions of
tofu. Each exposure involved taking a small taste, which was typically
swallowed. To assess the effects of this exposure, preference was mea-
sured at several points before, during, and after the exposure period.
Training period. Prior to the beginning of the exposure period, the
children were familiarized with the tasting procedure. During this time
the children were asked to taste small samples of familiar foods. The
procedures used in training were the same as those used throughout
the study. Children had also been trained in the preference assessment
procedure (discussed later) as part of another study.
Preexposure assessment. To evaluate changes in preference resulting
from increased exposure, we assessed preferences for the test foods be-
fore the exposure series began. First, an assessment was made of the
initial preferences of six foods, including all three versions of both tofu
and ricotta cheese. In the preference assessment procedure each child
was interviewed individually by a familiar adult. Each child took one
food sample at a time from a tray containing all six foods and tasted it
with a small spoon. The child then placed the cup containing the re-
mainder of the sample in front of one of three faces: a smiling face
signifying like, a neutral face signifying just okay, and the third face,
signifying dislike. Within each category, the child then ranked the foods
 548 SUSAN A. SULLIVAN AND LEANN L. BIRCH
from most liked to most disliked. These data formed the basis for the
analyses. Such data have been shown to be reliable and valid predictors
of children's consumption in a self-selection setting (Birch, 1979).
Exposure period. Experience with the novel food-flavor combina-
tion was provided during the exposure period. Each child tasted one of
the threeflavoredversions of the tofu twice per week for 9 weeks, for a
total of 15 exposures. The children tasted the foods in the preschool
classroom during their free-play period. A special area, blocked from
direct view of the rest of the room, was reserved for the "tasting game"
on days the tasting was to occur.
Prompts to encourage the child to taste the sample, although usually
not necessary, involved simply telling the child to "take a taste." An
exposure, or tasting, was recorded as touching the food to the tongue or
placing the food in the mouth and either swallowing or spitting out.
Throughout the experiment, the adults refrained from commenting in
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any positive or negative manner about the food or the situation.
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Postassessments. Preferences for the six foods (three versions of tofu
and ricotta cheese) were assessed three times during the exposure pe-
riod: immediately following the completion of the eighth exposure to
the taste stimuli (Postassessment 1), one week after thefirstpostassess-
ment with no further exposures (Postassessment 2), and again immedi-
ately following an additional seven exposures to the taste stimuli (Post-
assessment 3). The procedures followed during the administration of
these assessments were identical to the procedures for the initial prefer-
ence assessment.
Finally, an additional preference ranking assessment was adminis-
tered to a subset of subjects comparing sweet, salty, and plain tofu with
the same three versions of jicama, a completely novel food. The same
procedures as used in previous preference ranking assessments were
followed in this postassessment.
Results
The preference data for the exposed version of the food across
preference assessments provided evidence regarding the effects
of exposure on preference. Potential generalization of this ac-
quired preference to other similar preparations was also exam-
ined. "Similar" preparations included (a) differently flavored
versions of the same food (tofu) and (b) a different novel food
(ricotta cheese and jicama) with the sameflavorantadded.
Effects ofExposure on Preferencefor Exposed Food
The pattern of preference change for the exposed food con-
firms results of previous research on mere exposure effects. As
shown in Figure 1, with repeated exposure, the preference for
the initially novel food increases, regardless of whether it was
sweetened, salty, or plain. When the data for the exposed food
were combined across all three exposure groups, a one-way re-
peated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that
with increasing exposure, preferences for the initially novel
food increased, F(3,114) = 3.49, p < .05. With respect to gener-
alization, distinctive patterns emerged for the children exposed
to the flavored or to the plain preparations, and the data for
these groups are presented separately later.
Exposure to flavored version. As was indicated, preference
for the exposed food increased with exposure across all three
groups. With respect to generalization of enhanced preference
to the other versions of the same food for the children who had
experience with the sweet and salty versions, the pattern of re-
sults was similar: There was no effect on the preference for the
other, unexposedflavoredversion, and an apparent decrease in
more 1 -
less 6
8 8+ 15
one week
Exposure Frequency
Figure 1. Mean tofu preference for exposed version of tofu,
all groups combined (sweet, salt, and plain).
preference for the plain version as exposure to either flavored
version increased. This observation was confirmed by the re-
sults of a preliminary ANOVA, and therefore the sweet and salty
groups were combined for subsequent analysis: Results of a 4 X
2 X 2 (Exposure Level X Flavor [sweet and salty] X Group
[sweet or salty exposed]) repeated measures ANOVA revealed
that the main effect of neither group, F(l, 23) = 0.28, p = .60,
Group X Exposures, F(3, 69) = 0.40, p = .75, nor Group X
Flavor, F( 1,23) = 2.90, p = . 10, interactions were significant.
As shown in Figure 2, for the children exposed to the sweet
or saltyflavoredversions, preference for that version increased,
whereas preference for the unflavored, plain version of tofu ac-
tually decreased steadily from the initial preexposure means.
A 4 X 2 (Exposure Level X Exposed Flavor vs. Plain Version)
repeated measures ANOVA was performed on these data. The
Exposure X Flavor Version interaction was highly significant,
F{3, 72) = 8.21, p < .0001, reflecting the differing direction of
change in the children's preference for the flavored versus the
plain versions. Although the magnitude of the interaction
makes the interpretation of main effects problematic, only the
main effect offlavorwas significant, F{3, 72) = 9.10, p = .01.
After exposure, the flavored versions were preferred over the
plain version, as shown in Figure 2. Results of t tests indicated
that prior to exposure, the initial difference between the means
of the plain and experienced versions combined was not sig-
nificant, r(24) = 1.14, p < .30, whereas following exposure, the
differences were significant, f(24) = 3.62, p < .002.
With increasing exposure to a flavored version, preference
for the exposed version increased. A one-way ANOVA revealed
that the main effect of exposure was significant, F(3,72) = 4.67,
p < .01. Also, as exposure to the flavored version increased,
preference for the plain version declined, and a one-way re-
peated measures ANOVA on the preference data for the plain
version confirmed a significant decline with exposure, F(3,
72) = 4.48, p < .01. These data provide strong evidence against
generalization of exposure effects to the other version of the
food.
 SPECIAL SECTION: EXPERIENCE AND PREFERENCE
more l
' more
Flavor
Plain
less
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This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
Exposure Frequency
Figure 2. Mean tofu preference for exposed flavor version (sweetened
or salty) versus plain,flavorexposed groups only (sweet and salt).
Exposure to plain version. A preliminary examination of the
data for this group of children revealed a pattern similar in gen-
eral form to that observed for the sweet and salty groups. The
preference rankings of the plain exposure group for both fla-
vored versions were collapsed, yielding two variables, plain and
flavored (sweetened combined with salty). The preference data
for the children exposed to plain tofu are shown in Figure 3.
Again, although preference for the exposed version increased,
their preference for the flavored versions declined, providing
strong evidence against generalization.
A 4 X 2 (Exposure Level X Flavor Version) repeated mea-
sures ANOVA was performed, comparing the change in prefer-
ence of the plain exposed group for the plain version with the
same group's change in preference for theflavoredversions. The
interaction between exposure and flavor was again significant,
Fif>, 78) = 4.18, p<. 001, indicating again that the direction of
preference change differed for the plain and flavored versions.
Although this interaction makes the interpretation of main
effects problematic, the main effect of exposure, F\3, 39) =
Plain
Flavored
less 6 Figure 4, indicated that regardless of how much exposure the
8 8+
one week
Exposure Frequency
Figure 3. Mean tofu preference for plain versus combined
flavor versions, plain exposed group only.
549
1
-\
sweel
2 " 0 sail
plain
-o
CD 3 -
5 -
less
8 8 + 15
one week
exposure frequency
Figure 4. Mean ricotta cheese preference for sweetened, salty, and plain
versions of ricotta, data from all subjects combined.
3.54, p < .05, was significant, whereas that for flavor was not.
The initial difference between the preference means for the
plain and flavored versions was not significant, i(13) = -1.29,
p = .22, whereas the difference following exposure was signifi-
cant, i(13) = -3.20, p < .01.
As exposure to the plain tofu increased, preference also in-
creased. Although the main effect of exposure in a one-way AN-
OVA did not reach significance, F\7>, 39) = 1.78, p = .17, the
difference between assessments of preference made after 8 and
15 exposures was significant, f\\, 13) = 6.79, p < .05. In con-
trast, exposure to the plain version decreased preference for the
flavored versions of the same novel food. Although the main
effect of exposure in the one-way ANOVA only approached sig-
nificance, F{3, 39) = 2.27, p < .10, changes in preference be-
tween specific preference assessments were significant. For the
flavored versions, the decrease in preference after 15 exposures
from the assessed preference following 8 exposures was signifi-
cant, F( 1,13) = 7.18, p < .05, as was the decrease from 8 expo-
sures, with a one-week delay, to following 15 exposures, F{1,
13) = 8.55, p< .01. The overall pattern of results was therefore
similar for all exposure groups, whether they were exposed to
the plain or flavored versions: Preference for the exposed ver-
sion increased with exposure, whereas preference for the unfa-
miliarflavoredversions actually declined.
Effect of exposure to one food on preference for another food.
The effect of exposure to one novel food with a particular added
flavor on the preference for another similar novel food was ex-
amined. The results of a 4 X 3 (Exposure Level X Flavor Ver-
sion) repeated measures ANOVA indicated a significant main
effect of flavor for the three versions of ricotta cheese (sweet,
salty, and plain), 7=1(2, 72) = 11.97, p < .0001, for all groups
combined. However, neither the main effect of exposure group,
F(2, 36) = 0.34, p = .71, nor the main effect of exposure, F(3,
108) = 0.48, p = .70, were significant. The results, shown in
children had to tofu or whether the tofu was sweet, salty, or
plain, it had no effect on preference for ricotta: Sweetened ri-
cotta cheese was preferred over salted ricotta cheese, F( 1,38) =
6.33, p < .02, which in turn was preferred over plain ricotta
cheese, 7^1, 38) = 6.02, p < .02.
 550 SUSAN A. SULLIVAN AND LEANN L. BIRCH
To determine whether the effects of exposure to a flavored
version of one novel food would generalize to another com-
pletely novel food, afinalassessment was made. A single prefer-
ence assessment including tofu and jicama was administered to
22 subjects. No child had any prior experience with jicama. All
of the children preferred the now-familiar tofu to the corre-
sponding version ofjicama, t(21) = 4.15, p < .0005. The sweet
version of jicama was the most preferred of the various flavors
of jicama for all of the subjects combined, and sweetened tofu
was significantly preferred to sweetened jicama, t{21) = -4.31,
p < .0005. However, the flavor of jicama that corresponded to
the child's exposed version of tofu was not preferred to the other
version ofjicama, /(14) = -0.49, p < .65. There was no evidence
that experience with oneflavoredversion of a novel food pro-
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duced a generalized preference for another, similarly flavored
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novel food.
Discussion
These results confirm previousfindingsthat mere exposure
effects can be obtained with novel foods: Repeated exposure to
the initially novel food led to increased acceptance of that food
(Birch & Marlin, 1982; Birch, McPhee, Shoba, Pirok, & Stein-
berg, 1987; Pliner, 1982). This was true regardless of whether
the novel food was sweetened, salty, or presented without added
sugar or salt.
In accord with the previous research, these results also indi-
cated that 8 to 15 exposures were necessary to see this effect.
We also noted a significant enhancement in preference that oc-
curred following a 1-week delay after the initial 8 exposures.
During this delay period the children received no additional
experience with the food. This finding, consistent with results
reported by Zellner et al. (1983), is currently without explana-
tion and requires further investigation.
The major focus of this research was on how children acquire
preferences for sweetened and salty food. In particular, we in-
vestigated the patterns of generalization that resulted from ex-
perience with one version of an initially novel food (sweetened,
salty, or plain). First, was there any generalization across the
differentlyflavoredversions of the same food? Did repeated ex-
perience produce an enhanced liking for all versions of the ini-
tially novel food, regardless of whether sugar or salt had been
added? An additional question concerned whether repeated ex-
perience with oneflavoredversion of a novel food would facili-
tate acceptance of other similar novel foods prepared with the
sameflavorsadded. Was the repeated experience with one food
sufficient to produce generalized acceptance of the sweet or
salty taste in other food systems, suggesting a mechanism for
the development of the sweet or salty tooth?
There was no evidence for generalization of the exposure
effect to preference for the otherflavoredversions of the same
food. Not only did we see no evidence of generalization, but
repeated experience with either the plain or flavored versions
was sufficient to produce a significant decrease in preference for
the other version of the food. For children in both the plain and
flavored exposure conditions, there was a significant interaction
of Exposure X Flavor Preparation, with increases in liking for
the exposed food accompanied by declines in acceptance of the
other version. The nonexperienced version was actually less
preferred at the end of the exposure series than it was when it
was completely novel. This unexpected result was noted sepa-
rately both in the data of the children exposed to sweet or salty
tofu and in the data of the children exposed to plain tofu.
The absence of generalization of enhanced preference is at
least consistent with Kalat and Rozin's (1973) idea that food
neophobia has an adaptive function: It protects the organism
from ingesting novel and potentially toxic substances. Exposure
that is not followed by negative physiological consequences re-
sults in "learned safety" and enhanced acceptance. This inter-
pretation of mere exposure effects implies that such exposure
effects should be specific to foods actually ingested and should
not generalize to other similar but untried and potentially dan-
gerous substances. However, this interpretation does not ac-
count for the observed decreases in preference we noted for the
unexposed, differentlyflavoredversions of the same food.
The pattern of changes in preference revealed that repeated
experience with one version of the food not only made that ver-
sion seem more acceptable and appropriate but made the other
version even less acceptable than when it was novel, possibly
because the children came to view the unexposed versions as
inappropriate food-flavor combinations. Unfortunately, we do
not have any direct evidence on how children develop concep-
tual rules regarding when it is appropriate to add sugar or salt
to foods. However, it has been suggested elsewhere (Birch, in
press; Rozin, 1990) that much of the acquisition of rules of cui-
sine occurs in the absence of explicit instruction by adults.
Rules regarding what food-flavor combinations are appropri-
ate in the culture and about what foods are appropriate at par-
ticular mealtimes are probably inferred by the child from re-
peated experience with particular flavor-food context combi-
nations. Children know that spaghetti is not for breakfast not
necessarily because their parents have told them so, but because
they don't eat it then. Similarly, salt becomes appropriate and
accepted in soup but not in water because it is routinely served
in one liquid but not the other.
The familiar becomes preferred and appropriate. Such infor-
mation is acquired early and does have clear effects on prefer-
ence. We have shown that 3- and 4-year-olds know rules of cui-
sine regarding the appropriate time of day at which familiar
foods are served in their culture and that this knowledge is re-
lated to their preferences. When we asked young children and
adults to categorize foods (cheerios, macaroni and cheese, and
pizza) as for breakfast or for dinner and to give us preference
data on these foods at breakfast and at dinner time, both groups
categorized the foods similarly. Even these young children
showed the adultlike pattern of showing a higher preference for
a food at the time of day when it is appropriate than at a time
when it is inappropriate (Birch, Billman, & Richards, 1984).
Thefindingsindicate that with exposure, children can come
to show increased preference for a food, regardless of whether
it is served with or without added sugar or salt. However, the
pattern of results implies that adults should serve food to the
child prepared in the way they would ultimately like the child
to accept it. The tactic of adding sugar (or salt) to a food to
encourage the child to eat it initially could actually make it less
likely that the food would subsequently be accepted without
added sugar or salt.
We also failed to note any generalization of enhanced accep-
 SPECIAL SECTION: EXPERIENCE AND PREFERENCE
tance to another novel food with the same flavor added. This
finding fails to provide any support for the suggestion that a
sweet or salty tooth might be the result of a generalized prefer-
ence for sweetened or salty food based on extensive experience
with one or few sweetened or salty foods.
References
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factors in the development of human flavor preferences. Appetite, 6,
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Beauchamp, G. K., & Cowart, B. J. (1990). Preference for high salt
concentrations among children. Developmental Psychology, 26, 339-
345.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Beauchamp, G. K., Cowart, B. J., & Moran, M. (1986). Developmental
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
changes in salt acceptability in human infants. Developmental Psy-
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ReceivedMarchl0,1989
Revision received July 18,1989
Accepted October 5,1989