Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Dirac Notation
1 Vectors
1.1 Inner product
Recall from linear algebra: we can represent a vector V as a column vector; then V = (V T )
is a row vector, and the inner product (another name for dot product) between two vectors
is written as
A B = A1 B1 + A2 B2 + . (1)
which is a non-negative real number. (In conventional vector notation, this is |V~ |, which
is the length of V~ ).
ei ej = ij (orthonormality), (3)
ei ei = I
X
(completeness), (4)
i
where I is the unit matrix. (note that a column vector ei times a row vector ei is a square
matrix, following the usual definition of matrix multiplication).
Assuming we have a complete orthonormal basis, we can write
ei ei V ei V ) .
X X
V = IV = Vi ei , Vi ( (5)
i i
The Vi are complex numbers; we say that Vi are the components of V in the {
ei } basis.
1
1.3 Eigenvectors as basis vectors
Sometimes it is convenient to choose as basis vectors the eigenvectors of a particular
matrix. In quantum mechanics, measurable quantities correspond to hermitian operators;
so here we will look at hermitian matrices. A hermitian matrix is one satisfying
This just means that the components of a hermitian matrix satisfy Mij = Mji .
We say that the vector vn is an eigenvector of the matrix M if it satisfies
Mvn = n vn , (7)
So we can take the vn to be our basis vectors, and write an arbitrary vector A in this basis
as
X
A= An v n . (9)
n
where the An are in general complex numbers. This is a convenient choice if we wish to
know what is the action of the hermitian matrix M when it multiplies the vector A:
X X
MA = An Mvn = An n v n . (10)
n n
V |V i , V hV | , A B hA|Bi . (11)
Suppose we have basis vector |ii, analogous to the ei , which form a complete orthonormal
set:
hi|ji = ij (orthonormality)
(12)
|iihi| = 1
P
i (completeness) ,
where 1 is the identity operator; it has the property 1|i = |i for any |i.
Then any vector |V i may be expanded in this basis as
X X
|V i = 1 |V i = |iihi|V i Vi |ii , Vi hi|V i . (13)
i i
2
Note that hV |ii = Vi .
As before, we can use the eigenvectors of a hermitian operator for our basis vectors.
Matrices become operators in this language, M M . Then the eigenvalue equation
becomes
|ni = n |ni ,
M (14)
where the n are real and we can take the |ni kets to be orthonormal: hm|ni = mn . Then
we can write
|V i = M |ni =
X X X
M Vn |ni = Vn M Vn n |ni . (15)
n n n
3
The states |xi form a complete basis for our space and
Z
dx |xihx| = 1 (completeness) (18)
Note that the sum over discrete basis vectors in eq. (12) has been replaced by an integral.
Also, the unit operator 1 has replaced the unit matrix I. Therefore we can expand our
state |i in terms of the |xi basis vectors:
Z Z
|i = 1 |i = dx |xihx|i = dx (x)|xi , (19)
where we have defined (x) hx|i. This (x) is nothing but our familiar wavefunction.
In the present language, (x) are the coordinates of the our state |i in the |xi basis.
Note that in eq. (19) we inserted the unit operator in the guise of a integral over |xihx|
this technique is very powerful, and is called inserting a complete set of states.
If we have normalized |i so that h|i = 1, it follows that
Z Z
1 = h|i = h|1|i = dx h|xihx|i = dx (x)(x) . (20)
xn i = Zh|
h xn |i
= dx h| xn |xihx|i
Z
= dx xn h|xihx|i
Z
= dx xn (x)(x) . (21)
We see that (p) is just the wavefunction in the momentum basis. As in the above section,
we can easily compute expectation values such as hpn i using this basis.
4
It is interesting to ask how we can translate between the |xi and the |pi bases. For this,
we need to know the quantity hx|pi. We can get this by knowing that (x) and (p) are
Fourier transforms of each other:
Z
dp
(x) = (p)eipx/h . (24)
2
h
We can rewrite this as
Z
dp
(x) = hx|i = hp|ieipx/h . (25)
2
h
Inserting a complete set of states on the left hand side of the above equation we get
Z Z
dp
dp hx|pihp|i = hp|ieipx/h , (26)
2
h
implying that
eipx/h
hx|pi = . (27)
2h
Using this result we can also compute (here |yi is an eigenvector of x with eigenvalue y):
Z
hy|
p|xi = dp hy|
p|pihp|xi
Z
= dp p hy|pihp|xi
Z
p ip(yx)/h
= dp e
2h
Z dp ip(yx)/h
= i e
x 2
h (x y) .
= i (28)
x
Therefore if we know (x) but not (p), we can still compute h
pi as
Z Z
h
pi = h|
p|i = dy dx h|yihy|
p|xihx|i
!
Z Z
= dy dx (y) i
h (x y) (x) . (29)
x
Integrating by parts with respect to x (ignoring the boundary terms at x = , which
vanish) we get
!
Z Z
h
pi = = dy dx (y)(x y) i h (x)
!
x
Z
= dx (x) i
h (x) (30)
x
So we see that in the x representation, p i
h x .
5
3.3 Energy eigenstates: |ni
which gives the energy. Up to
Finally, another operator of interest is the Hamiltonian H
now, the Hamiltonians we have seen take the form
2
= p + V (
H x) . (31)
2m
The time dependent Schrodinger equation can be written as
i
h |, ti = H|, ti . (32)
t
You can think of |, ti as a vector moving around in our vector space as a function of time,
and the above equation governs how it moves.
is also hermitian, provided that the potential V (x)
Since p and x are hermitian, then H
is a real function. Therefore we can use eigenstates |ni of H as basis vectors:
|nihn| = 1 .
X
H|ni = En |ni , hm|ni = mn , (33)
n
Note that this eigenvalue equation is simply the time-independent Schrodinger equation,
and that since H is hermitian, the eigenvalues En are real numbers. (Here I have assumed
that the energy eigenvalues En are discrete; this is correct for bound states but not scat-
tering states.
R
For states with continuous eigenvalue, replace the mn by (m n), and the
P
n by dn.)
Then we can expand |, ti in this basis, with time-dependent coefficients:
X
|, ti = cn (t)|ni . (34)
n
X dcn (t) X
n (t)|ni =
X
i
h |, ti = i
h |ni = Hc En cn (t)|ni (35)
t n dt n n
Since the |ni form an orthonormal basis, it is easy to show that the above equation implies
dcn (t)
i
h = En cn (t) = cn (t) = eiEn t/h cn (0) . (36)
dt
Therefore the solution for |, ti is
So all we need to know is what are cn (0) (the initial conditions at t = 0), and the solutions
|ni, En to the time-independent Schrodinger equation, eq. (33). Note that
6
If |, ti is normalized, it follows that
where
2 d2
" #
h
+ V (x) un (x) = En un (x) . (41)
2m dx2
Solving this sort of equation for different potentials V (x) (and generaliztions in 3 dimen-
sions) what we will be doing for the rest of this quarter.
3.4 Comments
Why are these bases we have discussed necessarily different from each other? For example,
cant we find a basis in which both p and x are simple? No. If we had a state |x, pi which
was simultaneously an eigenstate of x (with eigenvalue x) and p (with eigenvalue p) it
would follow that
since x and p are ordinary numbers, and commute both with each other and with operators
p and x. But we know that
[ h1
x, p] = i (43)
(we dont normally write the 1) which is inconsistent with the previous result, and so there
cannot be such as state as |x, pi.
The result is that a state |i cannot simultaneously be an eigenstate of two
operators that do not commute.
For the hydrogen atom, we will find that we can find basis sates which are simultaneously
L
eigenstates of H, L,
and L z , where L refers to the angular momentum vector. We will
discuss a normalized basis of angular momentum states later in the course.