Running head: ANXIETY AND L2 WRITTEN PRODUCTION 1

Addressing Anxiety and L2 Written Production

in the Language Classroom

Sarah van Nostrand

Yuanyuan Sun

Hanan Alqarni

Colorado State University

ANXIETY AND L2 WRITTEN PRODUCTION 2

Introduction

This paper aims to shed light on the relationship between anxiety and L2 written

production. With a clearer understanding of the correlation between the two, L2 writing anxiety

in the classroom can begin to be better addressed. In order to target specific changes in the

classroom that will reduce anxiety in L2 learners, and therefore improve written production,

there must be theoretical justifications to support these claims. The following section is a review

of past and current research on the topic of anxiety and L2 written production, as well as L2

production as a whole. This is followed by a brief summary of that research. Lastly, this paper

concludes with an implications section that discusses how the findings of this research can be

used to influence future language teaching.

Literature Review

Anxiety

It is widely accepted that when learners experience high levels of anxiety, their academic

performance correspondingly drops (Gass, 2013). In other words, the more anxious a student

feels, the more poorly they are likely to perform. However, evidence is needed to substantiate

this claim, and the statement remains too broad. There are a variety of types of anxiety that can

be caused by multiple factors. Additionally, one could ask what specific aspects of a students

performance was adversely affected by anxiety: written production, oral production, or both.

This paper will narrow the focus to anxiety that stems only from L2 written production.

Anxiety can be defined as a subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness,

and worry (Horwitz, 1986, p. 125). Anxiety can also be associated with feelings of self-doubt,

uneasiness, frustration and worry, and other various individual, non-linguistically based

differences such as motivation and personality. More specifically, looking through a socio-
ANXIETY AND L2 WRITTEN PRODUCTION 3

psychological lens, anxiety is broken down into three possible categories: state anxiety, trait

anxiety, and situation-specific anxiety. Foreign language anxiety falls within the situation-

specific category of anxiety (Horwitz, 2001). Situation-specific anxiety differs from the general

feeling of anxiousness that people experience in a variety of everyday situations. This is known

as trait anxiety. As its name suggests, trait anxiety is caused by specific factors, in this case

foreign language learning. This means that people who may not generally experience anxiety in

their day-to-day lives can still experience high levels of anxiety when learning a second or

foreign language.

Situation-specific foreign language anxiety can then be contrasted with writing anxiety,

which, according to Thompson (1980), is having a fear of the writing process that outweighs the

projected gain from the ability to write. This fear in the writing process is thought to exist in part

because writing requires individual work and is product-oriented. When L2 learners write, they

do not always receive the encouragement or support that they feel they need from their peers or

language instructors. This lack of support can then manifest itself into a feeling of helplessness,

which in turn can lead to students disliking the writing process as a whole (Tsui, 1996).

Cheng (2002), carried out a study comparing second language classroom anxiety with

second language writing-specific anxiety in order to examine whether or not the two types of

anxiety can justifiably fall into different categories. The results, obtained through the use of the

Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) and a modified Writing Apprehension Test

(WAT), indicated that second language classroom anxiety and second language writing anxiety,

although sharing many similarities, are in fact two separate constructs. Therefore, they should be

treated as such when developing pedagogical interventions to target anxiety.

ANXIETY AND L2 WRITTEN PRODUCTION 4

The FLCAS is an important scale used in measuring anxiety in second language learners

and deserves further attention. Developed by Horwitz and Cope (1986), the FLCAS is a 33-

question survey where students are asked questions ranging from their fears of evaluation, test

apprehension and anxiety, and fears of communicating orally in front of peers or language

teachers in their L2. Students answer these questions independently using a Likert scale, (see

Appendix A for an example of the FLCAS). This scale was developed with the understanding

that second language anxiety can be split into three categories: fear of negative evaluation, test

anxiety, and fear of communication (Horwitz, 1986). These categories that helped develop the

FLCAS show that within a situation-specific anxiety construct, there are many specific factors

that can induce anxiety. The FLCAS does not specifically address second language writing

anxiety, however, and so an offshoot of the FLCAS was developed to target and test L2 writing-

specific anxiety, called the Second Language Writing Apprehension Test (SLWAT). SLWAT is an

adaptation to Daly and Millers (1975s) development of the WAT, which is similar to the

FLCAS with its multi-question survey that students answer independently through the use of a

Likert scale, (see Appendix B for an example of the SLWAT).

Writing Apprehension

The term writing apprehension, coined by the developers of the WAT, Daly and Miller

(1975), varies slightly from the term anxiety, as it deals primarily more with avoidance behavior.

The results of a recent study by Kirmizi (2015), which looked at foreign language students at a

Turkish university, indicated that low writing apprehension correlates strongly with higher test

scores of writing skills. In another study, Zheng (2011) focused on writing anxiety among

Chinese English majors. She used correlation analysis that suggested a strong negative

relationship between ESL writing anxiety and ESL writing performance. She identified, through
ANXIETY AND L2 WRITTEN PRODUCTION 5

the use of the SLWAT, that low self-confidence, insufficient writing practice, fear of test-taking,

and an overall lack of writing knowledge as the main contributors to the students writing

anxiety.

According to Cheng (2002), while there has been ample research in the field of foreign

and second language anxiety in relation to oral production, there has been little research in the

field of anxiety in relation to L2 written production. This is because oral communication in the

L2 is thought to produce the most fear, apprehension, and anxiousness in students. Written

production, on the other hand, is generally completed quietly and independently and therefore is

assumed to be the cause of little anxiety. What research has been done in this field is

inconclusive, according to Atay (2006). With discussions primarily focusing on speaking-

induced anxieties, it was suggested by that oral production was the largest factor in L2 anxiety.

However, more recent studies have helped to validate writing anxiety as its own type of anxiety,

specific to the language skill of writing. It is now supported that writing apprehension is a strong

indicator of academic performance (Atay, 2006).

Most of the inconclusive data regarding L2 writing anxiety stems from research

suggesting that L2 learners actually need to experience some levels of anxiety in order to

perform well and boost motivation to learn. Negari (2012) suggests that in a low-stress, low-

anxiety, and low-pressure environments, students may not take the content being taught in class

seriously. With this view, some level of stress and feelings of anxiousness can be productive and

actually push students to perform better and concentrate more on the task at hand. Contrary to

studies done by Kirmizi (2015) and Zheng (2011) that strongly suggest a negative relationship

between writing anxiety and writing performance, Negaris data suggests that students
ANXIETY AND L2 WRITTEN PRODUCTION 6

experiencing higher levels of anxiety will perform better on L2 written tests than those who

experienced lower anxiety.

Interestingly, there have been several studies looking at the relationship between

language teachers own writing anxieties and how those effect their students in the language

classroom. Claypools (1980) study, for example, assessed how high school teachers own levels

of anxiety correlated with the frequency of writing tasks assigned to students. The study revealed

a negative relationship between the two, indicating that teachers with high levels of writing

anxiety assigned far fewer writing tasks to students, putting them at a disadvantage by limiting

their opportunities for production practice. In regards to language processing and automaticity, as

explained by Gass (2013), practice, or output, is critical to determining future language use and

success in second or foreign language learning. Students need ample practice in order for their

explicit writing knowledge to become implicit. When this knowledge of particular writing skills

or structures become second nature to students, their writing anxieties lessen while writing

performance and production correspondingly improve (Gass, 2013). Therefore, it is imperative

that foreign or second language instructors, particularly those teaching writing, not let their own

fears or feelings of anxiousness toward writing affect their students.

Another reason it is vital that L2 writing students receiving ample practice is to look at

some of the theories regarding input and output. Early beliefs stemming from behaviorist views

suggested that input alone was sufficient in acquiring a language. Gass (2013) believes, however,

that comprehensible output, or the language that is produced by the learner, is critical to language

learning success. Input alone will never be enough for acquisition. To support this claim, Swain

(1995) writes that it is critical for language students to be presented with the opportunity to

practice comprehensible output, whether oral or written, for various reasons. These include
ANXIETY AND L2 WRITTEN PRODUCTION 7

measuring the progress and success of the student, and allowing them to gain confidence in their

own writing abilities, ultimately lowering anxiety levels.

Summary

Despite the presence of suggesting the academic benefits of experiencing anxiety in a

language classroom, the overwhelming majority of research supports the claim that anxiety

experienced on any level negatively correlates with students L2 writing production.

Additionally, developing activities that increase students writing output will help students gain

confidence, lower anxiety, and ultimately improve their L2 writing production.

Implications

As a future ESL teacher, this review of literature has given me excellent insight into

anxiety and L2 written production. It is clear from these findings that anxiety is prevalent among

L2 writers, and that this anxiety is disadvantageous. In order to reduce anxiety levels in L2

writing students, Cohen (2002) believes that students learn the most when they

are actively participating in low-stakes collaborative tasks. One of the

greatest misnomers in language education is that writing must be a solitary

act. It is necessary to create positive social environments for English writing

classes to reduce stress and anxiety among the students, which then

translates to lower anxiety levels in their written production. There are a

number of activities that can achieve this goal of communicative and

cooperative writing. Some might include group compositions, relay the

message, surveys and reports, timelines, and letter exchanges. To view these

specific activities in more detail, see Nations (2008) book titled Teaching

ESL/EFL reading and writing.

ANXIETY AND L2 WRITTEN PRODUCTION 8

Zhang (2011) points out that process-writing, such as using a diary to

record thoughts, can help learners work through negative feelings towards

writing which can then reduce their writing anxiety. Process-writing activities

also allow the teacher to gain better insight into how students are feeling

and can influence what types of future activities are implemented. Other

types of process-writing activities (where focus is on meaning over structure)

include brainstorming, drafting, and revising. I will implement as much

process-writing as possible because when the goal is to reduce L2 written

anxiety, I will want the focus of student writing to be more on conveying a

message than adhering to strict grammatical forms. I love to write in my L1,

however I do experience a certain level of anxiety writing in my L2 (Spanish),

particularly if I am expected to share my written work with others. This is

also why, as a future language teacher, I believe it is important to

incorporate as many low-stakes, collaborative writing tasks as possible to

encourage sharing and the exchange of positively-constructed feedback.

ANXIETY AND L2 WRITTEN PRODUCTION 9

References

Atay,D.,&Kurt,G.(2006).ProspectiveTeachersandL2WritingAnxiety.AsianEFLJournal,

8(4),100118.

Carson,J.(2001).SecondLanguageWritingandSecondLanguageAcquisition.Onsecond

languagewriting,191200.

Cheng,Y.S.(2002).FactorsAssociatedwithForeignLanguageWritingAnxiety.Foreign

languageannals,35(6),647656.

Cheng,Y.S.,Horwitz,E.K.,&Schallert,D.L.(1999).LanguageAnxiety:Differentiating

WritingandSpeakingComponents.Languagelearning,49(3),417446.

Choi,S.(2013).LanguageAnxietyinSecondLanguageWriting:IsitReallyaStumblingBlock?

SecondLanguageStudies,31(2),142.

Elizabeth,G.(2002).CooperativeLearningandtheEquitableClassroominaMulticultural

Society.JournalofCooperativeStudies,35(2),105.

Kirmizi, O. (2015). An Investigation of L2 Learners Writing Self-Efficacy, Writing Anxiety and

Its Causes at Higher Education in Turkey. International Journal of Higher Education, 4(2).

Nation, I. S. P. (2008). Teaching ESL/EFL reading and writing. Routledge.

Negari,G.M.,&Rezaabadi,O.T.(2012).TooNervoustoWrite?TheRelationshipbetween

AnxietyandEFLWriting.TheoryandPracticeinLanguageStudies,2(12),25782586.
ANXIETY AND L2 WRITTEN PRODUCTION 10

Sun,C.,&Feng,G.(2009).ProcessApproachtoTeachingWritingAppliedinDifferent

TeachingModels.EnglishLanguageTeaching,2(1),p150.

Tangkiengsirisin,S.(2012).ApproachestoTeachingSecondLanguageWriting.LEARN

Journal:LanguageEducationandAcquisitionResearchNetwork,3,126.

Zamel,V.(1987).RecentResearchonWritingPedagogy.TesolQuarterly,697715.

Zhang,H.(2011).AStudyonESLWritingAnxietyamongChineseEnglishMajorsCauses,

EffectsandCopingStrategiesforESLwritinganxiety.
ANXIETY AND L2 WRITTEN PRODUCTION 11

Appendix A

Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS)

Each question is rated using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from Strongly Agree to
Strongly Disagree.

1. I feel nervous using the foreign language outside of the college or class.
2. I am not nervous speaking the foreign language in front of my classmates.
3. I get nervous when I arrive late to class or the day following my absence.
4. I get anxious when there are too many foreign language students registered in my class.
5. I feel anxious when I see classmates better than me in my foreign language class.
6. I feel comfortable in speaking with my foreign language teacher.
7. I feel anxious in reading/writing and grammar class.
8. I get upset due to the method of testing in the foreign language class.
9. I get anxious when I feel that I can't speak well in front of other language students not in
my class.
10. I get nervous when looking at my grades.
11. I get nervous and confused when I am speaking in my language class.
12. During language class, I find myself thinking about things that have nothing to do with
the course.
13. I tremble when I know that I'm going to be called on in language class.
14. I feel nervous when talking in the foreign language to someone I just met.
15. I get nervous when the language teacher gives us a lot of things to do in so little time.
16. I feel overwhelmed by the number of grammatical rules I have to learn in the foreign
language.
17. I fear pronouncing words incorrectly in my foreign language class.
18. I fear failing my foreign language class.
19. I feel low self-confidence about speaking the foreign language in front of the class.
20. I feel anxious about speaking the foreign language in front of other students.
21. I feel nervous when I am around more experienced foreign language users.
22. I don't feel anxious when learning a foreign language.
23. In language class, I can get so nervous I forget things I know.
24. I feel anxious when I don't understand what the teacher is saying in the foreign language.
25. I feel anxious when I want to volunteer to say something but can't find the proper words
ANXIETY AND L2 WRITTEN PRODUCTION 12

to say it in my foreign language class.

26. I feel nervous at English exam time.
27. I feel nervous when standing or giving a presentation in front of the class.
28. I don't feel anxious when learning a foreign language.
29. In language class, I can get so nervous I forget things I know.
30. I feel anxious when I don't understand what the teacher is saying in the foreign language.
31. I feel anxious when I want to volunteer to say something but can't find the proper words
to say it in my foreign language class.
32. I feel nervous at English exam time.
33. I feel nervous when standing or giving a presentation in front of the class.

Appendix B

Second Language Writing Apprehension Test (SLWAT) Example

Below are a series of statements about English writing. There is no right or wrong answers to
these statements. Please indicate the degree to which each statement applies to you by circling
whether you (1) Strongly Disagree, (2) Disagree, (3) are Uncertain, (4) Agree, or (5) Strongly
Agree with the statement.

1. I avoid writing.

2. I have no fear of my writing being evaluated.

ANXIETY AND L2 WRITTEN PRODUCTION 13

3. I look forward to writing down my ideas.

4. I am afraid of writing essays when I know they will be evaluated.

5. Handing in a composition makes me feel good.

6. My mind seems to go blank when I start to work on a composition.

7. Expressing ideas through writing seems like a waste of time.

8. I like writing my ideas down.

9. I feel confident in my ability to clearly express my ideas in writing

10. I like to have my friends read what I have written.

11. Im nervous about writing.

12. People seem to enjoy what I write.

13. I enjoy writing.

14. I never seem to be able to clearly write down my ideas.

15. Writing is a lot of fun.