Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Contents
1 Transport layer protocols 3
1.1 Introduction to the transport layer protocols 4
1.2 Ports and sockets 6
1.3 Client-server model 11
2 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) 15
2.1 TCP properties 16
2.2 TCP header and segment format 20
2.3 TCP connections 24
2.4 Three-way handshake 28
2.5 Exchanging Data 32
2.6 The Window Principle Applied to TCP 36
2.7 Closing a virtual circuit 42
2.8 TCP options 46
3 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) 48
3.1 UDP properties 48
3.2 UDP header and datagram format 56
4 Exercises 59
5 Solutions 71
1 Appendix 83
1.1 Abbreviations 83
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Fig. 1 Layer 4
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Multiplexing Services
For example, both UDP and TCP provide a multiplexing service to application
protocols by way of application-specific port numbers. Essentially, port numbers act
as virtual post office boxes for messages to be delivered to within a single host,
allowing multiple applications to run on a single host concurrently. When packets
arrive at destination system, they are handed off to the transport protocol specified in
the packet, which then delivers the transport-specific message data to the port
number specified in the header of the message. In this manner, many different
applications can run on the same host, using different port numbers to identify
themselves to the transport protocols.
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Mechanisms
Mechanisms for for
addressi
addressing
ng hi
higher
gher
llayer
ayer pr otocolls
protoco s
TCP: connecti on or iented
and r el iable
UDP: n ot con nection oriented,
not r eliable
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Port Numbers
IP IP
Physical Physical
S D
D S
BOOTP/
RLOGIN
BOOTP/
S MTP
CP
MP
M3UA
lnet
LDAP
DHCP
SNMP
POP3
M3UA
SMTP
HTTP
LDAP
TFTP
Telnet
POP3
IMAP
HTTP
TFTP
FTP
FTP
IMA
DH
SN
Te
44
Port Num be rs
(dec im al)
20/21 23 51 3 2 5 1 10 1 43 8 0 3 89 69 6 7/68 161 /1 62 29 05
33 TCP
TCP UD
UDPP SC
SCTP
TP
B
BGP
GP IC
ICMPv4
MPv4 OSPF
OSPF
17
06 Protocol
17 9 89 13 2
22 01 Numbe rs
AR (decim al)
ARPP IPv
IPv44 IPv6
IPv6 RA
RARP
RP
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Sockets
The socket interface is one of several application programming interfaces (APIs) to
the communication protocols. Designed to be a generic communication-programming
interface, APIs were first introduced by 4.2 BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution).
Although it has not been standardized, it has become a de facto industry standard.
Let us consider the following terminologies:
Term Description
Socket Special type of file handle, which is used by a process to request
network services from the operating system.
Socket Address The triple: <protocol, local-address, local-port_number>
For example, in the TCP/IP suite: <tcp, 193.44.234.3, 12345>
Conversation Communication link between two processes. (Interprocess
Communication)
Association The 5-tuple that completely specifies the two processes that
comprise a connection: <protocol, local-address, local-
port_number, foreign-address, foreign-port_number>
In the TCP/IP suite, the following could be a valid association:
<tcp, 193.44.234.3, 1500, 193.44.234.5, 21>
Half- Either <protocol, local-address, local-port_number> or
association <protocol, foreign-address, foreign-port_number> which
specify each half of a connection.
The half-association is also called a socket or a transport address. That is, a socket
is an endpoint for communication that can be named and addressed in a network.
Two processes communicate via TCP sockets. The socket model provides a process
with a full-duplex byte stream connection to another process. The application need
not concern itself with the management of this stream; these facilities are provided by
TCP.
SUMMARY
TCP uses the same port principle as UDP to provide multiplexing. Like UDP, TCP
uses well-known and ephemeral ports. Each side of a TCP connection has a socket
that can be identified by the triple <TCP, IP address, port number>. If two processes
are communicating over TCP, they have a logical connection that is uniquely
identifiable by the two sockets involved, that is, by the combination <TCP, local IP
address, local port, remote IP address, remote port>. Server processes are able to
manage multiple conversations through a single port.
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
TCP TCP
10.27.51.3:1127 10.27.51.2:1084
10.27.51.1:80 10.27.51.1:80
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Example
"Ports" are conceptually similar to the mailboxes used at your local post office. When
a letter comes in for recipient, it is placed into a known mailbox reserved for that
specific recipient. Whenever the recipient comes by, he will pick up any messages in
that mailbox and process the data at his convenience.
Reality
Similarly, ports provide TCP and UDP with a way to deliver data to higher-layer
application protocols. Every time an application protocol opens a connection to one of
the transport protocols, it will allocate a port from the transport protocol, and then use
that port for all network I/O. Any traffic that is destined for that particular application
will be routed to the appropriate port for the application to deal with.
Some servers wait for requests at a well-known port so their clients know to which
end point (IP socket, see chapter "The Transport Layer") to direct their requests. The
client uses an arbitrary port for its communication.
Some applications can open many simultaneous network connections, and in this
case, each instance would get its own port number.
TIP
For example an HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) server uses the well-known port
number 80. An HTTP client can choose the next available port number e.g. 1084
(another client e.g. 1127). Another client on another physical device can choose also
1084. These clients with the same port number are then distinguished with the help
of there different IP addresses.
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
IP Network
an arbitrary port well-known port
p p
IP Network
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
WAN
C lient
Server
Rou ter Ro uter
Switch Switch Switch
TCP is a co nnection -o rien ted , e nd-to -end reliable p ro to col d es igned to fit into a layered
hierarch y of protoco ls, wh ich su ppo rt m ulti-netwo rk app lication s.
The T CP pro vides fo r reliab le inter-pro ce ss c omm unication between pairs of pro cesses in
host com puters attach ed to d istinct bu t in tercon necte d com pu ter com mun icatio n netwo rks
Host A Host B
Inter - Process
Comm unication
Process x Process y
Unr el iable
IP Packets
IP IP
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Basic
Basic Data Transfer
(Full Duplex)
Reliability
TCP
TCP recovers
recovers from
from data that
that is
is damaged, lost,
lost,
duplicated,
duplicated, or
or delivered
delivered out ofof order
order
Flow
Flow control
by
by window
window size information
information
Multiplexing
Multiplexing / TCP Ports
Ports
(e.g.
(e.g. TELNET
TELNET -- port number
number 23)
23)
Connections
uniquely specified by
by a pair
pair of
of sockets
sockets
Optional Indication of
of Precedence and Security
TCP Flow 3
TCP Flow 2
TCP Flow 1
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
IIP
P HHeader
eader TCP
TCP Header
Head er TCP
T CP Data
D ata
TCP Segment
I P Packet
0 16 31
Data
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
0 16 31
Data
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
General
Applications communicate with each other using the virtual circuits provided by TCP.
These circuits are established on an as-needed basis, getting set up and torn down
as requested by the applications in use. Whenever an application needs to
communicate with another application somewhere on the network, it will ask the local
TCP module to establish a virtual circuit on its behalf.
There are two methods for requesting a virtual circuit to be opened: either an client
will request an "OPEN" so that data can be sent immediately, or a server will "OPEN"
a port in "listen" mode, waiting for a connection request to arrive from a client.
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Telnet Telnet
OPEN (local por t, foreign socket, passive, etc. ) local
connectio n name
l ocal port = 23
. . . foreig n socket =
. Port 23 .
unq ual ified/quali fi ed LISTEN
TCB
Unr el iable
IP Packets
IP IP
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Client Server
Inter - Process
Comm unication
Telnet Telnet
local
O PEN (local port, for eign socket, active, etc.)
connection nam e
local port = 1038
. Por t 1038 . foreig n socket = . Port 23 .
SYN _SENT qualified (IP:23) LISTEN
TCB TCB
Set up reliable
TCP Send Buffer TCP Connection Receive B uffer TCP
SYN Segment
Unr eliable
IP Packets
IP IP
TCB contains
Local socket number
Remote socket number
Security and precedence of the connection
Pointers to the user's send and receive buffers
Pointer to the retransmit queue
Pointer to the current segment
Variables relating to the send and receive sequence numbers
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
32 Bits
0 16 31
Sequence Numb er
U A P R S F
Data
Reserved R C S S Y I Windo w
Offset
G K H T N N
Telnet
Telnet Connect
Connect
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Inte rnet Pr
Internet otocoll
Protoco (IP):
(IP):
Sourc e Addre
S ource ss: 192.1
Add ress: 68.109.
1 92.168.10 143
9.143
Desti nationn Address:
D estinatio Addre ss: 192.168 .109.142
192.1 68.109. 142
Tran smissio
Transmiss ionn Control
Con trol Protoc ol
Prot ocol (TC P):
( TCP):
Sourc e Port:
S ource Por t: 1038
1038
Desti nationn Port:
D estinatio Port: 2323 (Teln et)
(Te lnet)
Seque nce Num
S equence ber: 5062
N umber: 506288
Ackno wledgem
A cknowledg ent Numbe
ement r: 1690
N umber: 4122911
16 9041229
Heade r Lengt
H eader h: 0x50
Len gth: 0x 50
010
01011 ....
... . 20
20 byt es -- Hea
bytes der Leng
Header th
Length
...
..... 0000
000 0 Not
Not Us ed
Used
Flags : 0x10
F lags: 0x1 0
00.
00... ....
... . Not
Not Us ed
Used
..0
..0.. ....
... . No
No URG
URG
...
...11 ....
... . Acknow ledgemen
Ack nowledge t
ment
...
..... 0...
0.. . No
No PSH
PSH
...
..... .0..
.0. . No
No RST
RST
...
..... ..0.
..0 . No
No SYN
SYN
...
..... ...0
... 0 No
No FIN
FIN
Windo w Size:
W indow Siz e: 8760
8760
Check Sum: 0x
C heckSum: 5D7F
0x5D7F (C orrect)
(Correc t)
Urgen t Point
U rgent er: 00
Poi nter:
[0
[0 byt es of
bytes of ddata]
ata]
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Application SEND
Unreliable
IP Packets
IP IP
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Application RECEIVE
Unreliable
IP Packets
IP IP
Exchanging Data
Receive Buffer
14144
SN=14144, DATA 100 byte 100 bytes
? 14244
ACK, ACK= 14244 100 bytes
Send Buffer
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Sender Receiver
Send packet 1
Receive packet 1 and
reply with an ACK 1
Receive ACK
Send packet 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 .. packets
window
Sender Receiver
Send packet 1
Send packet 2
Send packet 3
Send packet 4
Receive ACK for packet 1 ACK 1
Send packet 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 .. packets
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
TIP
Remember that TCP will block bytes into segments, and a TCP segment only carries
the sequence number of the first byte in the segment.
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
0 16 31
Data
Total Window size is minimum of senders buffer size and advertised r eceiver window size
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 .. bytes
A B
B C
C D
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Sender Receiver
Retransmission
Timer
RT O. . . R etransmission Timeout
Sender Receiver
Retransmission
Timer
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
TIP
This is an important feature, because delays can vary in IP network, depending on
multiple factors, such as the load of an intermediate low-speed network or the
saturation of an intermediate IP router.
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Sender Receiver
Retransmission
Timer
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Connection Termination
There are essentially three cases closing a virtual circuit:
Local application initiates the close
In this case, a Finish (FIN) segment can be constructed and placed on the
outgoing segment queue. No further data from the application will be accepted by
the TCP. Receiving data from the remote TCP is still allowed in this state. All
segments preceding and including FIN will be retransmitted until acknowledged.
When the other TCP has both acknowledged the FIN and sent a FIN of its own,
the local TCP can ACK this FIN. Note that a TCP receiving a FIN will ACK but not
send its own FIN until its application has closed the connection also.
Local TCP receives a FIN from the network
If an unsolicited FIN arrives from the network, the receiving TCP can ACK it and
tell the application that the connection is closing. The application will respond with
a "close", upon which the local TCP module can send a FIN to the other TCP after
sending any remaining data. The TCP then waits until its own FIN is
acknowledged whereupon it deletes the connection. If an ACK is not forthcoming,
after the user timeout the connection is aborted and the application gets informed.
Both users close simultaneously
A simultaneous "close" by users at both ends of a connection causes FIN
segments to be exchanged. When all segments preceding the FINs have been
processed and acknowledged, each TCP can ACK the FIN it has received. Both
will, upon receiving these ACKs, delete the connection.
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Connection Termination
Telnet
Telnet Disconnect
Disconnect
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Options may occupy space at the end of the TCP header and are a multiple of 8 bits
in length. All options are included in the checksum. An option may begin on any octet
boundary. There are two cases for the format of an option:
Case 1: A single octet of option-kind.
Case 2: An octet of option-kind, an octet of option-length, and the actual option-
data octets.
TIP
The option-length counts the two octets of option-kind and option-length as well as
the option-data octets. The list of options may be shorter than the data offset field
might imply. The content of the header beyond the End-of-Option option must be
header padding (i.e., zero).
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
TCP Options
0 End of Option List Used to mark the end of all the options.
3 Window Scale Allows TCP to use and publish window sizes that
are larger than the 64 kilobytes maximu m allowed
by the Window field of the T CP header.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
UDP Services
One may wonder why a UDP protocol exists, when it would seem that IP could serve
the same function. The reason is simple: IP doesn't do anything but get packets from
one host to another. IP doesn't provide any application interfaces or management
services. UDP does provide these services, and it provides a consistent environment
for developers to use when writing low-overhead network applications. UDP also
provides application-multiplexing services through the use of port numbers, allowing
many application protocols to be used on a single host.
TIP
RFC 3828 The Lightweight User Datagram Protocol (UDP-Lite), July 2004
UDP-Lite is similar to the UDP (RFC 768), but can also serve applications in error-
prone network environments that prefer to have partially damaged payloads delivered
rather than discarded. If this feature is not used, UDP-Lite is semantically identical to
UDP.
UDP-Lite has been allocated a separate IP protocol identifier: 136 (UDPLite), that
allows a receiver to identify whether UDP or UDP-Lite is used.
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
WAN
Server
Cl ient Rou ter Ro uter
Switch Switch Switch
UDP is a con necti onless, en d-to -end unreliab le protoco l desig ned to fit in to a layered
hierarch y of protoco ls, wh ich su ppo rt m ulti-netwo rk app lication s.
Host A Host B
Inter - Process
Comm unication
Process x Process y
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Lightweight-Protocol
Low Overhead
Limited Reliability
UDP does not recover from data that is damaged,
lost, duplicated, or delivered out of order
Message-centric
Multiplexing / UDP Ports
(e.g. TFTP - port number 69)
Connectionless
Broadcast and Multicast Capability
Datagram-centric Transport
Clien t Server
App licatio n
Ap plication Data
Data DData
ata Appl icatio nn
App licatio
UDP
UD P UDP Datagram UDP Data gram UDP
UDP
IP Packet IP Packet
IP
IP IP
IP
DData
ata LLink Fragm ented IP Pac kets F ragme nted IP Packets Data
ink Data Lin
Linkk
Physical
Physical Ph
Physical
ysical
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
UDP Checksum
Furthermore, UDP also provides a checksum service that allows a receiving UDP to
verify that whatever data has arrived is probably the same as that which was sent.
The use of UDP's checksum is optional but recommended, and not all of the
applications that use UDP also use the checksum service.
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Port Numbers
UDP UDP UD P
IP IP
Physical Physical
S D
D S
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
UDP
UDP
IP
IP Head er
Header UDP
UDP Data
Data
Head er
Header
UDP Datagram
IP Packet
32 Bits
0 16 31
Data
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
32 Bits
0 16 31
Data
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
4 Exercises
Fig. 45
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Exercise 1
Title: Transport Layer Protocols
2. Mark the correct statements below. The concepts of port and socket are needed
to determine which local process at a given host actually communicates with
which:
a) remote process
b) remote host
c) using which network layer protocol
d) using which transport layer protocol
4. Mark the correct statement below. Clients do not need well-known port numbers
because they initiate communication with servers and the port number they are
using is contained in the TCPsegments/UDP datagrams sent to the server.
a) True
b) False
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Exercise 2
Title: TCP Properties
2. Mark the characteristics listed below, which you associate with the Basic Data
Transfer capability of the Transmission Control Protocol:
a) transfer a continuous stream of octets in each direction between its users by
packaging some number of octets into segments for transmission through the
IP network
b) transfer a continuous stream of octets in one direction between a sending user
and a receiving user by packaging some number of octets into segments for
transmission through the IP network
c) TCP decides when to block and forward data
d) Application programs decide when to block and forward data
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
3. To achieve reliability, the TCP must recover from data that is damaged, lost,
duplicated, or delivered out of order by the IP network. Describe, how this is
achieved in principle.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. Mark the characteristics listed below, which you associate with the Flow Control
capability of the Transmission Control Protocol:
a) the receiver controls the amount of data sent by the sender
b) the sender controls the amount of data sent
c) the window indicates an allowed number of octets a sender may transmit
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Exercise 3
Title: TCP Header and Segment Format
Objectives: Delegates are able to name the TCP Header fields and
describe their tasks
Pre-requisite: None
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Exercise 4
Title: TCP Virtual Connections
Objectives: Delegates are able to explain the basic concept of TCP virtual
connections
Pre-requisite: None
___________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Telnet
Telnet Connect
Connect
Three-way Handshake"
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 .. bytes
A B
B C
C D
___________________________________________________________________
Which event advances the leading edge of the sliding window?
___________________________________________________________________
How is the total window size determined?
___________________________________________________________________
5. There are essentially three cases closing a virtual circuit: List them!
_______________________________ ______________________________
_______________________________
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Exercise 5
Title: User Datagram Protocol UDP
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
32 Bits
0 16 31
1
UDP
2 Header
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
5 Solutions
Fig. 50
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Solution 1
Title: Transport Layer Protocols
2. Mark the correct statements below. The concepts of port and socket are needed
to determine which local process at a given host actually communicates with
which:
a) remote process
b) remote host
c) using which network layer protocol
d) using which transport layer protocol
4. Mark the correct statement below. Clients do not need well-known port numbers
because they initiate communication with servers and the port number they are
using is contained in the TCPsegments/UDP datagrams sent to the server.
a) True
b) False
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Solution 2
Title: TCP Properties
2. Mark the characteristics listed below, which you associate with the Basic Data
Transfer capability of the Transmission Control Protocol:
a) transfer a continuous stream of octets in each direction between its users by
packaging some number of octets into segments for transmission through the
IP network
b) transfer a continuous stream of octets in one direction between a sending user
and a receiving user by packaging some number of octets into segments for
transmission through the IP network
c) TCP decides when to block and forward data
d) Application programs decide when to block and forward data
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
3. To achieve reliability, the TCP must recover from data that is damaged, lost,
duplicated, or delivered out of order by the IP network. Describe, how this is
achieved in principle.
It is achieved by assigning a sequence number to each octet transmitted,
and requiring a positive acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiving TCP. If
the ACK is not received within a timeout interval, the data is retransmitted.
At the receiver, the sequence numbers are used to correctly order segments
that may be received out of order and to eliminate duplicates. Damage is
handled by adding a checksum to each segment transmitted, checking it at
the receiver, and discarding damaged segments.
4. Mark the characteristics listed below, which you associate with the Flow Control
capability of the Transmission Control Protocol:
a) the receiver controls the amount of data sent by the sender
b) the sender controls the amount of data sent
c) the window indicates an allowed number of octets a sender may transmit
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Solution 3
Title: TCP Header and Segment Format
Objectives: Delegates are able to name the TCP Header fields and
describe their tasks
Pre-requisite: None
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Urgent 16 bits This field communicates the current value of the urgent pointer
Pointer as a positive offset from the sequence number in this segment.
The urgent pointer points to the sequence number of the last
octet in a sequence of urgent data. This field is only to be
interpreted in segments with the URG control bit set.
Options variable Options may occupy space at the end of the TCP header and
are a multiple of 8 bits in length. All options are included in the
checksum. An option may begin on any octet boundary.
Note that the list of options may be shorter than the data offset
field might imply. The content of the header beyond the End-of-
Option option must be header padding (i.e., zero).
TCP variable The data portion in a TCP segment is optional. That means,
Data there are TCP segments exchanged between hosts, which
contain only the TCP header and possible options but no data.
0 16 31
Sequence Numb er
Data
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Solution 4
Title: TCP Virtual Connections
Objectives: Delegates are able to explain the basic concept of TCP virtual
connections
Pre-requisite: None
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Telnet
Telnet Connect
Connect
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 .. bytes
A B
B C
C D
5. There are essentially three cases closing a virtual circuit: List them!
Local application initiates the close
Local TCP receives a FIN from the network
Both users close simultaneously
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
Solution 5
Title: User Datagram Protocol UDP
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
32 Bits
0 16 31
Data
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The Transport Layer & Appendix
6 Appendix
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6.1 Abbreviations
A
AAL5 ATM Adaptation Layer 5
AES Advanced Encryption Standard
AH Authentication Header
ALG Application Layer Gateway
Anycast Address A special IPv6 address.
is a special type of unicast address that is assigned to interfaces
on multiple hosts. Packets sent to such an address will be
delivered to the nearest interface with that address. Routers
determine the nearest interface based upon their definition of
distance.
AP Access point
API Application Programming Interface
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
AS Autonomous System
ASN.1 Abstract Syntax Notation 1
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
B
BGP Border Gateway Protocol
BOOTP Boot Protocol
BPDU Bridge Protocol Data Unit
broadcast Broadcast is a special case of multicast, and is the group of all
stations.
broadcast domain A broadcast domain is a domain in which a broadcast will be
forwarded.
A broadcast domain is limited with a router port. A broadcast
domain can consist of a lot of collision domains.
C
CCP Compression Control Protocol
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F
FHSS Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
FIB Forwarding Information Base (FIB)
flooding all ports The forwarding operation to all ports except the source port is
called flooding all ports.
FTP File Transfer Protocol
G
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
H
HDLC High-Level Data Link Control Protocol
HTML Hypertext Makeup Language
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
I
I/O Input/Output
IANA Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IEEE 802.1D The operation of bridges and switches is specified in the IEEE
802.1D standard, which provides rules for forwarding (switching)
an Ethernet frame from one port to another, based on the
destination address of the frame.
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force
IGMP Internet Group Management Protocol
IGP Interior Gateway Protocol
IHL Internet header length
IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol
INAP Intelligent Network Application Part
IP Internet Protocol
IPCP IP Network Control Protocol
IPng IP next Generation
IPSec IP Security Protocol
IPv4 IP version 4
IPv6 IP version 6
ISM Industrial Scientific Medical
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