Exhaust Gas Recirculation [subscription] Page 1 of 15

DieselNet Technology Guide Engine Design for Low Emissions

www.DieselNet.com. Copyright Ecopoint Inc. Revision 2006.11a

Exhaust Gas Recirculation

Magdi K. Khair

Abstract: Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is an effective strategy to control NOx emissions from diesel engines. The EGR reduces NOx through lowering the oxygen concentration in the
combustion chamber, as well as through heat absorption. Several configurations have been proposed, including high- and low-pressure loop EGR, as well as hybrid systems. NOx
emissions may be further reduced by cooled EGR, in which recirculated exhaust gas is cooled in an EGR cooler. Drawbacks of EGR include increased PM emissions and fuel consumption.

Introduction

Principle of Operation

EGR Configurations

Effects on Combustion and Emissions

Low NO x and PM Demonstrations

Introduction
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is an emission control technology allowing significant NO x emission reductions from light- and heavy-duty diesel engines. EGR is not a new
technologyit has been used since the mid-1970s in gasoline fueled passenger car engines. Following the gasoline application, EGR was also introduced to diesel passenger
cars andfrom the early 2000sto heavy-duty diesel engines [Hawley 1999]. It was the heavy-duty application that attracted the most attention to EGR, due to the more
difficult technical challenges with introducing the technology in heavy-duty engines. With time, advanced EGR systems in modern diesel cars also adopted electronic control,
EGR cooling, and became highly sophisticated.
The NOx emission benefit of EGR comes at a certain cost: increased PM, HC, and CO emissions, fuel economy penalty, and potential engine wear and durability issues. Thus,
commercial applications of EGR have been forced by regulatory emission standards or low emission incentive programs. More than one technical route exists to meet a given
NOx limit, and EGR can sometimes be used as one of several alternative technologies. Such competition exists, for example, between cooled EGR and urea-SCR technology in
heavy-duty Euro IV diesel engines. However, to meet more stringent NOx emission limits, it may be necessary to use EGR in combination with NOx reduction catalysts. The
history of the commercial application of EGR systems on diesel engines is summarized in the following table. On several occasions, small scale EGR application occurred
earlier than indicated in the table, driven by incentives such as by the voluntary low emission vehicle certification program in the USA.

Table 1
Commercial Application of EGR Systems on Diesel Engines
Emission
NOx Limit Areas of EGR Application
Legislation
NOx+HC = 0.97- Introduced in DI and larger IDI Euro 1 engines, EGR became the main NOx reduction strategy in nearly all Euro 2 and later
Euro 1-2 (1992-96)
0.7 g/km diesel passenger cars and light trucks.
Cooled EGR introduced on heavy-duty truck and bus engines by most manufacturers (Cummins, Volvo/Mack, DDC,
US 2004 (2002-04) NOx 2 g/bhp-hr
International).
EGR introduced by some manufacturers of heavy-duty truck and bus engines (Scania, MAN); used in competition to urea-
Euro IV (2005) NOx = 3.5 g/kWh
SCR technology.
EGR introduced by some manufacturers of heavy-duty truck and bus engines (Hino, Isuzu); used in competition to urea-SCR
Japan 2005 NOx = 2.0 g/kWh
technology.
US 2007 NOx 1 g/bhp-hr EGR used on heavy-duty truck and bus engines by all manufacturers.

The introduction of EGR technology to passenger cars went almost unnoticed. Indeed the introduction of EGR technology in automobile engines was not considered a major
breakthrough for several reasons. The system allowed very little EGR back into the cylinder since the required NOx reduction was quite modest. Controlling EGR was
achieved through a fixed orifice, without active and modulated control through an electrically controlled valve. There was no need for EGR cooling since the needed NOx
reductions were small. In addition, typical passenger car engines operate mostly at part load conditions where temperatures and engine wear rates are relatively low. It was
only the Euro 3/4 legislationwith NOx limits of 0.50 and 0.25 g/km, respectivelythat created higher demands on passenger car EGR systems. Cooled EGR was introduced
in larger size engines at the Euro 3 stage (2000), and became the standard in Euro 4 passenger cars (2005).

The application of EGR technology to the heavy-duty class of engines drew a lot more of attention. This momentous introduction was in part triggered by the Consent Decrees
and the political upheaval that surrounded the issue of dual-mapping that led to the 1998 settlement between the US EPA, the Department of Justice and the heavy-duty
diesel engine manufacturers [EPA 1999b]. The Consent Decrees accelerated the implementation of the 2004 NO x limit and pulled it ahead to 2002 putting most of the heavy-duty
engine manufacturers under extreme pressure to quickly select a technology capable of achieving the mandated NOx limits. The limit for NOx + NMHC was 2.4 g/bhp-hr (2.5
if NMHC is < 0.5 g/bhp-hr). To achieve this limit, high pressure loop cooled EGR was the most expedient in-cylinder NOx reduction technology [Dennis 1999]. In October 2002
several heavy-duty engine manufacturers introduced their new EPA-certified engines equipped with EGR systems. There was, understandably, considerable apprehension in
the field regarding the performance, fuel economy, and the durability of these new engines. While initial statements from fleet managers appeared to praise the new technology
[DDC 2003], some users have complained of the increase in fuel consumption.

In this paper, we cover the theoretical background of the EGR technique, configurations, and effects on combustion parameters and emissions. Commercial implementations of
EGR, system components, engine wear effects, and other practical issues are discussed in the EGR Systems paper.

Principle of Operation

Overview
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is a method by which a portion of engines exhaust gas is returned to its combustion chambers via the inlet system in order to reduce NOx
emissions. A schematic of an exhaust gas recirculation system is shown in Figure 1.

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Figure 1. Schematic Representation of EGR System

In general, the most important factor contributing to the NOx reduction effect of EGR is a decrease in the peak temperature of the diesel combustion flame. The effects leading
to the lower peak temperature can be broken down into (1) a dilution effect, (2) a thermal effect, (3) a chemical effect, and (4) an added-mass effect.

The dilution effect describes the flame temperature and NOx emission reductions resulting solely from a reduction in oxygen mass fraction resulting from the displacement of
some of the oxygen in the fresh intake air charge by an inert gas. The dilution effect is the most significant contributor to the NOx reduction achievable with EGR [Hawley 1998]
[Mellow 1999]. The impact of the dilution effect, which will be discussed in more detail later, is primarily through a reduction in the local flame temperature from a broadening
of the flame due to the reduction in the oxygen molar fraction. An increased proportion of non-oxygen molecules in the broadened flame zone absorb heat from the flame and
lower the temperature. It should be noted that any impact of EGR on the oxygen availability for the chemical reactions responsible for NOx formation is considered minor.

The thermal effect is due solely to an increase in the average specific heat capacity of the gases available in the combustion zone. The added-mass effect accounts for any
additional mass resulting from adding a diluent to the intake air. These two effects are best described by their effect on the change in heat absorption of the non-reacting gases
in the combustion chamber [Mellow 1999]. The increase in heat absorption of the non-reacting gases (Q) is proportional to the product of the increased mass in the cylinder
(m0), the average specific heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp), and the temperature differential between combustion temperature and that of the EGR (T). It can be
expressed as follows:
Q = m0 Cp (Tcombustion - TEGR) (1)
Combustion products consists mostly of CO2 and H 2O with specific heats higher than those of air. The change in the average specific heat capacity in Equation (1) resulting
from charge dilution is the thermal effect. The change in mass (m0) is the added-mass effect.

At standard temperature & pressure (STP) conditions, the specific heat capacity (Cp) of CO2, H 2O, and N 2 are 36.0, 33.5, and 29.2 kJ/kmolK, respectively [Reid 1987] (it is
customary to express EGR ratios volumetrically; assuming ideal gases, volumetric and mole units are proportional). Gases of higher Cp can absorb more heat and can be more
effective at achieving NOx reductions. As an example, Figure 2 illustrates the effect of using the above mentioned pure gases as intake air diluents. Cooling EGR would also
increase the temperature differential term in Equation (1), increase the heat absorbing capacity and further reduce NOx.

Figure 2. Effect of Various Diluents on NO Reduction

The chemical effect is a reduction in the combustion temperature due to chemical reactions with the participation of gases introduced through EGR. For instance, heat is
consumed during endothermic reactions such as the dissociation of CO2 and H 2O.

It may be noted that the different NOx reduction effectiveness of various exhaust gas components inspired the idea of selective EGR [Fukuda 1998], where either CO2 or H2O
was extracted from the exhaust gas and selectively recirculated into the intake air. Higher NOx reductions were observed using CO2 selective recirculation, compared to H2O
selective recirculation.

Role of EGR Effects in NOx Reduction

Adding EGR to the intake air of an engine results in a combination of the four effects mentioned above. Separating the effects is useful to better understand the overall impact
of charge dilution with EGR. At the same time, separating the impact of the various effects is very difficult and requires careful planning of any engine experiments. As a
starting point, it is useful to carefully define these effects and consider how they can be isolated in engine experiments to avoid possible confusion. Some working definitions
used by various researchers combine several of the above effects without explicitly stating so.

A significant body of work was carried out by Ladommatos and co-workers in the late 1990s to clarify the effect of EGR on diesel combustion and emissions by examining the
above mentioned effects separately [Ladommatos 1996][Ladommatos 1996a][Ladommatos 1997][Ladommatos 1997a]. Definitions for the different effects will be based on this body of
work.

i. Dilution Effect. The dilution of the intake charge with EGR reduces the mass fraction of oxygen. This reduction in oxygen mass fraction is the dilution effect. Adding
EGR to the intake air flow will also affect average properties of the intake charge such as the specific heat capacity and molecular mass, possibly introducing other
effects. In experimental work intended to isolate the dilution effect, it is necessary to use an inert diluent having a specific heat capacity matched to that of air. This can
be achieved by using a mixture of nitrogen and argon [Ladommatos 1996]. The mass flow of intake charge and fuel must also be the same for experiments with and without
charge dilution.
ii. Thermal Effect. EGR contains significant amounts of water and CO2, both of which have significantly higher specific heat capacities than air. The effect of increased

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specific heat capacity is the thermal effect. As already mentioned, intake air dilution with EGR can simultaneously introduce the dilution and thermal effects. In order to
study the thermal effect of gases with higher specific heat capacities, in isolation, the oxygen mass fraction in the intake air needs to be held constant to avoid
interference from the dilution effect. The nitrogen in the air needs to be replaced with an inert gas, such as helium, that has a heat capacity higher than that of nitrogen.
Nitrogen replacement with the inert gas should achieve a similar average specific heat capacity of the intake charge to that achieved with the diluent of interest while
keeping the intake charge and fuel flows constant.
iii. Chemical Effect. Some of the diluent gases may dissociate or actively participate in chemical reactions during the combustion process. This is the chemical effect. One
way to isolate the chemical effect is to replace nitrogen in the air with argon while the diluent is present. This will maintain a constant average specific heat capacity and
oxygen concentration in the intake charge relative to the undiluted case while maintaining constant inlet charge and fuel mass flows. This will avoid interference from
the thermal and dilution effects.
iv. Added-Mass Effect. If adding a diluent to the intake charge results in an increased mass flow rate, an additional effect is introduced. This added flow has an additional
heat capacity due to its mass. This is different from the thermal effect due to any specific heat capacity differences that may exist.

While in practice it is common to express EGR rates in % volume, in order to account for the effect of different molecular masses on heat absorption, % mass is used for the
rest of the discussion in this section.
Figure 3 illustrates the effect of charge dilution on the oxygen mass fraction and the product of intake charge mass and specific heat capacity (mCp) as might occur in an
engine with EGR. All effects may occur simultaneously making it difficult to ascertain which are most important. The dilution effect only accounts for the reduction in oxygen
mass fraction; the thermal effect for differences in average specific heat capacity and the added-mass effect for differences in intake charge mass. The chemical effect may also
be present.

Figure 3. Conceptual View of EGR Effects

By using the experimental techniques to isolate the impact of the different effects on NOx emissions and by using different combinations of the diluents CO2 and water vapor,
it is possible to illustrate the relative importance of the particular effects in achieving NOx reductions.

Figure 4 shows the relative NOx reductions for the thermal, chemical, and dilution effects in isolation and for the combined NOx reduction for these three effects when charge
dilution is with pure CO 2 [Ladommatos 1996a]. Intake charge and fuel mass flows were fixed so there is no added-mass effect. It is apparent that most of the NOx reduction
from CO2 is through the dilution effect with a small additional contribution due to a chemical effect. The thermal effect was found to be insignificant at dilution levels up to
7% even though CO2 has a considerably higher specific heat capacity than air (1.24 kJ/kg and 1.16 kJ/kg at 1000 K, respectively). This is hardly surprising since adding 6%
CO2the amount present with ~50% EGRto air increases the specific heat capacity by less than 0.5%.

Figure 4. EGR Effects with Pure CO2 Charge Dilution

Figure 5 shows the result of charge dilution with water vapor [Ladommatos 1997]. As with CO2, most of the NOx reduction is through the dilution effect. The chemical effect is
essentially negligible to the level of 3% water. While the experimental technique did not allow its verification, the thermal effect was thought to account for the additional NOx
reduction over that achieved by the dilution effect. Water vapor has a considerably higher specific heat capacity than air (2.56 kJ/kg and 1.16 kJ/kg at 1000 K respectively).
Adding 3% water vaporthe amount present with ~50% EGRto air increases the specific heat capacity of the mixture by about 3.6%.

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Figure 5. EGR Effects with Pure H2O Vapor Charge Dilution

The difference between dilution and total effects explained by the thermal effect.

Figure 6 shows the effect of blends of CO2 and water vapor at levels that would be encountered at the indicated EGR levels [Ladommatos 1997a]. As with the case for CO 2 and
water vapor only, the dilution effect is responsible for most of the NOx emission reductions. The combined thermal effect of water and CO2 (predominantly water as shown in
Figure 4 and Figure 5) and the chemical effect of CO2 provide additional small but measurable reductions.

Figure 6. EGR EffectsCharge Dilution with Blend of CO 2 and H 2O Vapor

Figure 7 shows the additional NOx reduction available when dilution results in additional mass in the intake charge [Ladommatos 1997a]. The baseline condition is the undiluted
intake charge. The oxygen replacement condition has the same intake charge and fuel mass flows as the baseline but with some of the oxygen replaced by CO 2, and NO x
reduction includes the combined dilution and chemical effects. The added-mass condition maintains the same fuel flow and intake air flow as the baseline condition but has
an additional amount of CO2 introduced to the intake flow intake flow that increases the intake charge mass flow by 10%. The oxygen concentration (% mass) is the same as
for the oxygen replacement condition to maintain the same dilution effect. It is clear than the additional heat capacity (mC p) of the extra mass in the intake charge produces
an additional reduction in NOx. The chemical effect for the added-mass case is not known and may differ from the oxygen-replacement case.

Figure 7. Effect of Adding Additional Mass to Intake Charge

Remarks on EGR Mechanisms

The main impact of the dilution effect is to reduce local flame temperatures [Zhao 2000][Jacobs 2003]. Lower flame temperatures provide a significant reduction in NOx formation
in the flame zone. The reduction in temperature is a result of the changes in the flame zone that result from differences in oxygen concentration relative to the concentration of
the non-oxygen gases. Figure 8 shows a simplified representation of a diesel diffusion flame with and without EGR [Ladommatos 1997a]. The main reaction zone occurs in a
region where the local oxygen and fuel ratio is essentially stoichiometric ( ~ 1). As some of the oxygen in the inlet charge is displaced with other gases, more inert gas will be
present in the combustion zone relative to oxygen and because the amount of fuel added will remain constant, the fuel will have to diffuse further and the shape and size of the
flame will adjust to maintain the stoichiometric conditions in the flame zone. The added mass of non-reacting gas in the combustion zone absorbs heat and lowers the
temperature. Others have visualized the broadening out of the diesel combustion flame with increased dilution [Idicheria 2005].

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Figure 8. Diesel Diffusion Flame With And Without EGR

It is important to realize that by far the most important impact of the dilution effect is to lower the peak flame temperatures. The secondary and far less important effect is the
reduction in the amount of oxygen available for the chemical reactions involved in NO x formation. The relative importance of these influences is shown in Figure 9 and Table
2 [Zhao 2000]. Figure 9 shows there is a strong correlation between the observed peak flame temperature and the final exhaust NOx concentration as a result of adding a non-
reacting gas to the intake air to lower the oxygen concentration in the flame zone. As explained above, this non-reacting mass absorbs heat in the combustion zone and lowers
the temperature.

Figure 9. Correlation Between NOx and Flame Temperature

Table 2
Estimated NO Formation Rates For Data of Figure 12
Relative to 23.3% O2 Condition
O2=23.3% T=2280 K
O2, % Peak Temp, K d[NO]/dt d[NO]/dt d[NO]/dt
23.3 2280 1.00 1.00 1.00
22.1 2220 0.44 0.45 0.97
19.8 2160 0.18 0.19 0.92
17.5 2035 0.02 0.03 0.87

Table 2 demonstrates that the impact of lower availability of oxygen for chemical reactions for the data of Figure 9 is relatively insignificant. The first two columns show the
mass concentration of oxygen and the peak flame temperatures for the different conditions. The third column shows the NO formation rate relative to the 23.3% (m/m) O 2
condition estimated from [Heywood 1988]:

d[NO]/dt = [61016/T0.5] exp(-69090/T) [O2]0.5 [N2] (2)

The fourth column shows the relative NO formation rate at the temperatures in column 2 but with the oxygen concentration of 23.3% (m/m). Column five shows the relative
NO formation rate at temperature of 2280 K but the oxygen concentrations of column 1. By comparing the NO formation rate estimates in columns 3 with those in column 4
and 5, it is clear that the impact of reduced oxygen availability for chemical reactions is almost negligible compared to the effect of the temperature decrease resulting from the
broadening of the diffusion flame.
The chemical effect of the CO2 and H 2O components of EGR on NOx deserves brief mention. In the case of CO2, the chemical effect results in an additional flame
temperature reduction over and above that resulting from any dilution and thermal effects [Liu 2001][Park 2003]. This leads to further reductions in NO x as illustrated in Figure 4.
In the case of H2O, the chemical effect is opposite, and when considered in isolation would lead to a slight increase in the flame temperature [Kim 2002]. At the level of water
vapor normally encountered in a diesel engine with EGR, any chemical effect of water vapor on NOx emissions is imperceptible and, for practical purposes, negligible.

EGR Configurations

High Pressure Loop EGR

From Figure 1, it is implied that a pressure differential exists between the exhaust and intake manifold without which EGR could not flow from the former to the latter. In
turbocharged heavy-duty diesel engines it is often difficult to introduce EGR into the intake manifold. The problem is that intake manifold pressures are usually greater than
exhaust system pressures. To circumvent this dilemma exhaust is intercepted at a point upstream of the turbocharger (see Figure 10) where exhaust pressure is higher than that
of the intake manifold [Psaras 1997]. A portion of the exhaust flow is returned to the engine cylinders through an electronically-controlled EGR valve after being cooled as
shown in Figure 10. This approach is commonly referred to as high pressure loop (HPL) EGR [Khair 1997].

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Figure 10. HPL EGR Configuration Schematic

High pressure loop EGR applied to several production heavy-duty diesel engines has enabled NOx reduction to the US 2002/04 FTP level of 2.0 g/bhp-hr. The potential
penalty associated with such a system, however, is an increase in fuel consumption and an associated increase in particulate matter emissions. In HPL EGR implementations,
turbocharger matching is usually revised to compensate for losing turbocharging effectiveness when a portion of the exhaust is intercepted and its energy rerouted away from
the turbine wheel.

Figure 11 shows a turbocharger cutaway with its component details. In this figure, the turbocharger installation interface with the exhaust manifold is also shown. An EGR
source pipe is illustrated on one end of the exhaust manifold. EGR extracted from such a location is usually routed through an EGR cooler, an EGR control valve, then
introduced in the intake manifold, as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 11. Turbocharger Cutaway with HPL EGR Pipe

(Courtesy of Garrett)

Various strategies have been utilized to increase the pressure difference between the exhaust and intake manifolds to facilitate more EGR flow into the engine inlet duct. Intake
throttling (as commonly used in light-duty diesel engines) or exhaust restriction are examples of possible techniques. Another approach, more common in heavy-duty engines,
is to utilize a venturi [Baert 1999], as shown in Figure 12. Using such design normally increases the kinetic energy of EGR allowing more of it to flow with lower pumping
losses. Indeed, some studies confirmed that the use of venturi is more efficient (less fuel economy penalty) compared to exhaust throttling [Yokomura 2003]. Proper design of the
venturi device can also enhance mixing of EGR with the fresh air, resulting in better EGR distribution between engine cylinders.

Figure 12. HPL EGR Configuration with Venturi

Low Pressure Loop EGR

Another scheme for EGR implementation in heavy-duty diesel engines is the low pressure loop system (LPL EGR). This system is often employed in conjunction with
particulate filter-based aftertreatment systems, where several benefits may accrue. Rather than sourcing EGR from a pre-turbine location (as in the HPL EGR case), LPL EGR
systems use exhaust that has been filtered through diesel particulate filters. Figure 13 shows a schematic representation of a LPL EGR system where EGR was recirculated
from a point downstream from the DPF. This alternate configuration sought to preserve turbocharger performance by supplying exhaust gas from a point downstream of the
trap (see Figure 13) thus allowing all the exhaust to be utilized in the turbine. At this location, exhaust gas pressure is at a lower level than that of the intake manifold. To
promote flow, EGR is introduced back in the engine just upstream of the turbocharger compressor. The pressure difference between points downstream of the trap and
upstream of the turbocharger is generally adequate for EGR flow rates needed to reduce US FTP NOx to at least the 2.0 g/bhp-hr level, for heavy-duty diesel engines.

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Figure 13. Low Pressure Loop EGR System for Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines

Advantages of the LPL EGR system include:

1. Potential for lower fuel consumption than that of the HPL configuration as a result of better turbocharger performance than that of the HPL configuration. However, if
the HPL EGR system is properly executed, the turbocharger would have to be revised to account for the loss of exhaust energy resulting from rerouting some exhaust to
the EGR circuit, in which case the HPL configuration should recover its fuel economy loss.
2. With the presence of a particulate filter, the LPL EGR supplies predominantly filtered exhaust to the inlet of the engine through the turbocharger compressor. Therefore,
engine durability can be better preserved.
3. Exhaust gas downstream of the particulate filter is cooler than that provided from upstream of the turbocharger (as in the HPL case). Therefore, LPL EGR would have a
higher heat absorbing capacity for flow rates similar to those of the HPL EGR.
4. Due to the higher heat absorbing capacity of LPL an opportunity exists to reduce EGR cooling requirements (reduced size EGR cooler) and provide a more compact
unit. In addition, the EGR cooler would have less heat rejected in the engine water jacket and therefore, less cooling load for the radiator to handle.
5. Reducing the amount of EGR cooling may help prevent exhaust system condensation and potential erosion of the EGR cooler, EGR valve, EGR piping, and
turbocharger compressor wheel.
6. Better EGR and fresh charge air mixing resulting from introducing the mixture upstream of the turbocharger compressor.

With as many advantages as were mentioned, the LPL EGR system has not been favored over the HPL system for a number of reasons described as follows:

1. Even though LPL EGR is sourced downstream from the particulate filter, it is not entirely free from carbonaceous material, since the filter trapping efficiency is less
than 100%. With carbonaceous material still remaining in the recirculated exhaust stream, its impaction on the compressor wheel as it turns at a high rate of speed may
potentially erode the wheel.
2. In cases where air-to-air intercoolers are used, as shown in Figure 13, carbonaceous and other unfiltered matter flowing through the compressor would likely be trapped
in the narrow cooler passages. If left to accumulate over time, air flow to the engine would be reduced, leading to performance as well as emission and fuel economy
deterioration and requiring additional service or replacement of the air-to-air intercooler.
3. Unburned oil vapors as well as any unburned fuel adsorbed on the surface of carbonaceous particles accumulating in the inlet system may emit carbon monoxide (CO)
gas when exposed to higher temperatures. When this happens, fresh and cooled air to the engine would be displaced by CO that is detrimental to combustion efficiency.
4. Plumbing for the LPL EGR arrangement is often awkward and cumbersome.
5. As EGR temperature drops, condensate develops which is acidic in nature. This problem appears to be more pronounced in the case of LPL than HPL EGR.

Hybrid EGR System

Some engines may be equipped with waste-gated turbochargers , where some of the exhaust gas bypass the turbine at high engine speed conditions. Bypassing exhaust around
turbochargers generally reduces exhaust manifold pressure as well as the pressure differential between exhaust and intake manifolds above peak torque speed. In such cases, a
hybrid EGR system combining features of HPL and LPL is often used, as shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14. Schematic of a Hybrid HPL/LPL EGR Configuration

In the schematic given in Figure 14, EGR is sourced from a point upstream from the turbine (pre-turbine) as in a HPL configuration, and delivered pre-compressor as in a LPL
configuration. While this system presents some of the same adverse features of the LPL EGR system, it provides an adequate pressure differential between the exhaust and
intake manifolds. This allows EGR rates for substantial NOx reduction without needing a pump or the application of excessive exhaust back pressure to drive EGR into the
engine.

As mentioned earlier, the pressure differential between the exhaust and intake manifolds plays a major role in controlling EGR rates. Using a venturi at the point of EGR entry
into the inlet system (Figure 12) enhances EGR flow by converting its potential energy to kinetic energy. The resultant EGR expansion may lead to a small drop in its
temperature, thus adding a small side benefit to using this device. However, at maximum power and rated speed conditions, the venturi may restrict the flow of air into the
engine and increase pumping losses. Therefore, designs incorporating venturis to enhance EGR rates are often accompanied by a bypass and a bypass valve to accommodate
air flow at full load conditions.

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Fast-Acting EGR System

One major drawback common to all EGR configurations discussed so far is the large residual volume between the EGR valve and the combustion chamber. The presence of
this volume has a negative impact on smoke control, especially when rapid accelerations are required. As the engine responds to a step increase in fuel, EGR remaining in the
piping between the EGR valve and the combustion chamber is usually inducted with the fresh air into the engine. This action may lead to sluggish acceleration accompanied
by a puff of smoke. The problem is further compounded by the turbo-lag phenomenon, defined as the time between injecting fuel to accelerate and delivering air to the intake
manifold by the turbocharger. During this turbo-lag, combustion could use all the fresh air it can get to efficiently burn the increasing fuel rate. Yet, it is during this incremental
time that the engine faces air shortage due to turbo-lag as well as inducting residual EGR remaining in the piping leading from the EGR valve to the cylinders. For this reason,
researchers have devised new schemes to minimize this EGR residual volume, which are sometimes referred to as fast-acting EGR systems. An example of a fast-acting EGR
system is shown schematically in Figure 15.

Figure 15. Fast-Acting EGR System

Note that EGR is delivered to the intake port at a point close to the intake valve. The EGR valve is also located very close to the intake port, thus reducing the volume of
exhaust an engine has to consume, especially during acceleration. The fast-acting EGR system has greatly minimized this EGR volume making it easier for the engine to
accelerate without interference from residual EGR. A reservoir with a shell-and-tube EGR cooler is also provided for storing cooled EGR. In some EGR designs, such as a
small high speed passenger car, the piping between the cooler and EGR control valve is nestled between the cooling water passages within the cylinder head. This design
eliminates the need for a separate EGR cooler, even though EGR cooling effectiveness may suffer somewhat.

The other part of the fast-acting EGR system involves its source point. If EGR is sourced from a pre-turbine point, then it fits the description of HPL EGR. On the other hand,
if it is sourced from downstream of the trap, it would be a LPL EGR system which might require an EGR pump to elevate its pressure above that of the intake manifold, as
shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16. EGR Pump (HPL or LPL) to Overcome Intake Manifold Pressure

Internal EGR
As described in all of the system configurations, a portion of the exhaust gas was taken out of the exhaust manifold or the exhaust pipe and recirculated back into the intake
manifold. In fact, this methodology is in agreement with the conventional definition of EGR. An alternative way of achieving NOx reduction through combustion products is
performed through the residual exhaust gas. In theory, if it were possible to retain these combustion products in the cylinder until the next combustion cycle, then it would be
possible to achieve NOx reduction without the complication of an external EGR system with its many components and their control. The use of residual gas for NOx reduction
is commonly referred to as internal EGR, even though exhaust gas is not recirculated but generally retained in the cylinder. In some cases, exhaust gas products may be
returned to the cylinder through the exhaust valve actuation as will be discussed later. Therefore, the term internal EGR could still be correctly employed as the acronym for
exhaust gas retained as well as exhaust gas returned.

An example of the exhaust gas returned is Hinos Pulse EGR system, which is compared to a conventional HPL EGR system in Figure 17 [Brezonick 2000]. In the Pulse EGR
system, the exhaust valve is reopened during the intake stroke by means of a modified exhaust valve cam lobe design. This modified design features a second lobe on the valve
cam referred to as sub-lift lobe as shown in Figure 17. As the piston moves from top dead center to bottom dead center during the intake stroke, the sub-lift cam lobe lifts the
exhaust valve off of its seat and allows higher pressure exhaust to return to the cylinder. Of course, the timing and the degree of valve lift as well as the pressure differential
across the exhaust valve are extremely important parameters in controlling the rate of the exhaust gas returned. Optimization of the system needs to take into consideration the
wave dynamics in the exhaust manifold, hence the name Pulse EGR. This wave dynamic results from the blow down characteristic when other exhaust valves, in a multi-
cylinder engine, discharge their combustion products in the exhaust manifold. Pulses generated from this blow down process are extremely important to the creation of the
proper pressure differential across the exhaust valve at the time of sub-lifting for EGR.

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Figure 17. Hinos Pulse EGR Versus Conventional External EGR System
(Courtesy of Diesel Progress)

The fact that the sub-lift lobe continues to return exhaust gas to the cylinder at all engine speeds and loads, even under full load conditions, may lead to excessive smoke. This
is in contrast with the conventional (external) EGR system where it is possible to eliminate using EGR at full load and avoid excessive smoke. To overcome this difficulty,
Hino engineers have used higher injection pressure from their common-rail injection system to suppress the increased smoke. In addition to the increased injection pressure,
the turbocharger design had to be modified allowing more air to be inducted into the cylinders and improving combustion while allowing the use of exhaust gas returned for
NOx reduction. The claim for the Pulse EGR system, including the high injection pressure common-rail as well as the new turbocharger, is a 25% NOx reduction from the level
of the conventional engine coupled with an improvement of 5 to 10% in fuel economy. In addition, the system complexity is reduced by the elimination of the EGR control
valve and EGR piping. Since there is no possibility of cooling the returned exhaust products, the EGR cooler is also eliminated. The weight savings for the Pulse EGR system
is claimed to be about 10 kg (22 lbs) in a mid-range diesel engine.

An added modification over the Pulse EGR system can be achieved if the function of the sub-lift lobe can be made more flexible and controllable. This flexibility can be
provided through variable valve actuation (VVA). The application of VVA in diesel engines has received a lot of attention and continues to provide more opportunities for
performance improvements as well as emissions reduction. Variable valve actuation mechanisms generally allow the control of the timing of the valve lift, the rate of the valve
lift, the valve lift, as well as the number of valve openings. Control of these parameters may be limited at times and have limited impact on performance and emissions
depending on a complex array of technical conditions. For instance, the closeness of the piston crown to the valve face may limit either the valve lift timing and or the total
valve lift itself. Therefore, system optimization is usually performed to obtain the best results within the overall physical and technical limitations of the system.

Variable valve actuation mechanisms operate within the constraints of the cam lobe, but has the added flexibility provided by an electro-hydraulic actuation system. The
actuation system allows a second exhaust valve opening to return a portion of the exhaust products back into the cylinder. The second opening of the exhaust valve is
performed during the intake valve closed position as in the Pulse EGR system. The difference in the VVA case is the flexibility in timing the control events as opposed to a
fixed sub-lift lobe in the Pulse EGR system. The VVA concept is part of the Advanced Combustion and Emission Reduction Technology (ACERT) put in production by
Caterpillar in 2003 [DDC 2003].

Effects on Combustion and Emissions

The effect of EGR on fuel spray angle, fuel atomization, fuel penetration, O2 concentration, and exhaust emissions has been studied by Arcoumanis and co-workers [Arcoumanis
1995]. Their research was conducted on a small 1.9 L DI diesel engine equipped with an experimental EGR system.

Figure 18. Effect of EGR on Fresh Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

The study confirmed that EGR displaced a portion of the fresh filtered air, thus displacing a portion of the O2 entrained into the engine. The relationship between EGR rate and
O2 displaced from the fresh filtered air shown in Figure 18 indicates that increasing EGR from 0 to 50% reduced O2 from 21 to 14%. Also shown in Figure 18 is the effect of
EGR on CO2, indicating that increasing EGR from 0 to 50% would increase CO2 by about 5%. With O2 being displaced (reduced) soot oxidation rate drops, leading to higher
concentrations of carbonaceous particulate matter. The authors have found that the increase in CO2 and soot was accompanied by an increase in CO and HC as well.
Interestingly, EGRs influence on the fuel spray angle, fuel atomization, as well as fuel spray tip penetration, was found to be minimal.

As expected, the temperature in the intake manifold, where EGR and fresh air are mixed, increased, and density decreased. The effect of EGR rate (in uncooled configuration)
on the temperature of the mixture in the intake manifold is shown in Figure 19. It was also observed that the number of auto-ignition sites, as well as their size, increased with
higher EGR rates. Conversely, flame luminosity and its temperature were reduced. At 50% EGR, the flame temperature was reduced by about 100 K [Arcoumanis 1995]. Since
NOx formation is strongly flame temperature-dependent, it was suggested that reduced combustion flame temperature is the major reason for NO x reduction.

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Figure 19. Effect of EGR Rate on Intake Manifold Temperature

Through its effect on both intake air and combustion temperatures, EGR also affects the temperature of exhaust gases. There has been a concept, presented by several emission
aftertreatment manufacturers, that the regeneration of diesel particulate filters may be facilitated through an increase in the exhaust gas temperature caused by EGR [Lemaire
1994]. This implies that EGR actually increases exhaust temperatures, a statement which requires some qualification. Indeed, in the uncooled EGR the exhaust temperature
typically increases, especially at higher engine loads. However, in the case of cooled EGR, there is no general rule as to its impact on the exhaust temperature, which depends
on the effectiveness of EGR cooling and other variables.
NOx Reduction. The effect of EGR rate on NOx reduction at various engine load conditions is illustrated in Figure 20. Even though it has been pointed out that cooling EGR
may not always be desirable, it must be noted that if EGR is to be used at higher engine loads, then it should be cooled. Cooled EGR will displace less of the fresh air volume,
thus maintaining an adequate overall A/F ratio to sustain good combustion efficiency.

Figure 20. Effect of EGR Rate on NOx Reduction at Various Engine Loads

Fuel Consumption. Central to NOx reduction via EGR is its impact on fuel consumption, especially if other NOx reduction methods such as injection timing retard are
considered. This issue was the subject of a study conducted on a heavy-duty diesel engine. It concluded that using EGR to reduce NOx emission from a baseline of about 4.0
g/bhp-hr to 2.8 g/bhp-hr was more efficient than achieving the same reduction through injection timing retard. Results of this study are illustrated in Figure 21, giving the
impact on BSFC as well as particulate emission.

Figure 21. Effect of EGR Versus Injection Timing Retard on BSFC

PM Emissions. One of the negative consequences of using EGR is its adverse influence on particulate matter emission. A test conducted on a Series 60, 11 liter, turbocharged
and intercooled Detroit Diesel engine where EGR was systematically increased from Level A through D (Figure 22) showed the corresponding total PM emission increase
during a series of EPA heavy-duty transient tests [Khair 1997].

Analysis of the particulate samples indicated that the soluble organic fraction (SOF) remained constant. It was also concluded that the insoluble fraction (mostly carbonaceous)
of the particulate increased as EGR rates increased from A to D. Oxidation type catalytic converters were designed to reduce particulate SOF, and unfortunately, do not curb
the insoluble fraction. Diesel particulate filters (DPF) are a very effective aftertreatment alternative to control the insoluble PM fraction on EGR equipped engines in
applications where very low PM emission levels are required.

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Figure 22. Effect of EGR on PM Emission

NOx reduction and PM increase differences as well as the effect on intake temperature for both cooled and uncooled EGR are shown in Figure 23 [Herzog 1992]. It is also
important to note that NOx may slightly increase with EGR if it is applied at low load conditions. The resulting increase in ignition delay can affect the time temperature
profile in the combustion chamber in a way that leads to increased NOx production. This phenomena is illustrated in Figure 23 where NOx emissions with cooled EGR were
found to be somewhat higher than with uncooled EGR.

Figure 23. Effect of Cooled and Uncooled EGR on NOx and PM Emission

DI/TCI HD diesel engine, 1800 rpm, low load (BMEP 2.8 bar), US-2D low S fuel

NOx/PM Trade-Off. While the results of this study are specific to one heavy-duty engine with its sensitivity to either injection timing retard or a particular EGR
configuration, they did illustrate a general preference to EGR as a system to reduce NOx with a reasonable BSFC penalty and PM trade-off [Hawley 1999]. Figure 24 below
underscores the importance of A/F ratio in EGR system implementations and compares the NO x reducing capability of injection timing retard versus two EGR configurations.

Figure 24. Effect of Injection Timing Retard, Cooled HPL EGR, and LPL EGR on NOx/PM Trade-Off

In Figure 24, the baseline NO x/PM emissions of a medium-duty diesel engine were about 5.2/0.15 g/bhp-hr. Injection timing retard was adjusted to obtain the lowest possible
NOx and still maintain stable combustion. This effort resulted in 4.0 g/bhp-hr NOx while PM emission remained essentially unchanged. The same engine was fitted with a
cooled HPL EGR system that enabled it to achieve NOx as low as 2.0 g/bhp-hr (composite US FTP). Since this was done without revising the engine turbocharger, a serious
A/F ratio drop was experienced which in turn led to a significant increase in PM emission. The EGR configuration was then changed to a LPL EGR, which improved A/F ratio
and consequently the NOx/PM trade-off. As indicated in Figure 24, the LPL EGR system was capable of reducing NOx down to as low as 1.5 g/bhp-hr, with PM in the 0.3 to
0.4 g/bhp-hr range, versus over 0.9 g/bhp-hr for the extrapolated PM concentration of the cooled HPL EGR configuration. Further A/F ratio optimization on this engine
resulted in PM emission of 0.105 g/bhp-hr.
In Figure 25 (A), the NOx/PM emission trade-off is shown as a function of EGR rate [Wagner 2000]. A steep increase in PM emissions was observed once the EGR ratio reached
about 45%, indicating a shift in combustion chemistry. The PM emission increase was very closely matched by the increase in HC, Figure 25 (B).

Figure 25. Effect of EGR Ratio on NOx/PM (A) and NOx/HC (B) Emission Trade-Off

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1.9 liter VW TDI engine, 1200 rpm, 30% load, HPL EGR

Particle number emissions and size distributions were also investigated in the same study [Wagner 2000]. Figure 26 shows the number concentration as a function of particle
diameter for several EGR rates. Increased particle number emissions were measured with increasing EGR rate. It is also evident that increased EGR resulted in larger particle
sizesthe particle size at the peak concentration increases by a factor of approximately two between 30% and 53% EGR. It was hypothesized that EGR particles reintroduced
into combustion chamber acted as nuclei for new particles and agglomerated to form larger particles.

Figure 26. Effect of EGR on Particle Numbers and Sizes

SMPS, dilution ratio 35:1, size range 11 nm 505 nm

A/F Ratio Control. Motivated by the need for A/F ratio control throughout the engine operating regime, several concepts were brought forth. The most common approach
(favored by both light- and heavy-duty engine manufacturers) uses variable geometry turbochargers, VGT. These devices are able to produce varying levels of boost pressure
depending on the angular position of their variable nozzle vanes. Depending on the angular position of the variable vanesas positioned by an electronically controlled
actuatorexhaust manifold potential energy (pressure) is converted into varying degrees of kinetic energy (speed), resulting in varying degree of boost. Hence, variable
geometry turbochargers can be used to modulate airflow at any engine speed and load condition to optimize A/F ratio as a function of EGR rate [Hawley 1999].

In addition to controlling airflow, VGTs affect exhaust manifold pressure by virtue of the restriction caused by the position of the variable vanes. This feature can also be used
as an added tool to control the pressure differential between the exhaust and intake manifolds, thus providing additional EGR rate control in conjunction with a fixed orifice
EGR valve. Of course, such a system provides more control flexibility, it requires more sophisticated control and calibration effort. A well designed EGR/VGT system can
provide smoke-free operation at any speed and load condition by maintaining A/F ratios above a designated minimum threshold.

Control of A/F ratio can be also provided by electrically- and hydraulically-driven superchargers. A/F ratio control systems, Figure 27, have been proposed that operate in
concert with EGR systems for the purpose of minimizing NO x and PM from diesel engines, while improving engine response, acceleration smoke, and fuel economy [Khair
1998a][Khair 1999]. These systems advocate the dual use of superchargers as air pumps as well as EGR pumps.

Figure 27. Schematic of an Electrically-Driven Supercharger for A/F Ratio Control

The system shown schematically in Figure 27 is capable of controlling both EGR and power augmentation. Exhaust flows from the exhaust manifold (A) onto the turbine (B)
of the turbocharger assembly and on through a diesel particulate filter (C) for particulate matter control. Exhaust gas is then split with one portion exiting the exhaust system
(D) and the other recirculated back to the engine intake manifold. EGR passes through a heat exchanger (E) to reduce its temperature and thus maximize its NOx reduction
effectiveness. An electronically controlled diverter valve (F) serves as a junction point between post-filtered/cooled EGR (G) and fresh filtered charge air (H). Diverter valve F
controls the charge mixture supplied to an electrically-driven charger, EDC, (I). This mixture will depend on the engine working regime. At low idle speed and part load
conditions, the diverter valve F would allow a mixture of fresh air and exhaust gas into the EDC. The proportions of that mixture would be determined by the NO x reduction
algorithm and the EGR rate needed for the desired NOx control. For engine speeds below peak torque speed and as the load increases, the diverter valve would gradually
reduce the proportion of EGR and increase that of the fresh air. With 100% fresh air allowed at full load conditions, the EDC can be used in its power augmentation mode
where excessive smoke can be averted and better fuel consumption may be observed. Thus the combination of a diverter valve, such as valve F, and an EDC can control both
EGR and smoke-limited power output at speeds below those of peak torque. Above peak torque speeds, the regular engine turbocharger is usually well matched to the engine
charge air requirements for smoke-controlled operation. Therefore, the EDC (I) would be used for EGR rate control only for engine speeds above the peak torque speed. Two
check valves (K and L) are arranged to control the charge flow into the intake manifold and prevent back flow through the engine turbocharger or the EDC. Intake manifold
charging would be through the check valve K at speeds below peak torque speed, and through the check valve L above peak torque speed when operating at full load
conditions. Implementation of this system on a medium-duty diesel engine led to smoke-free operation during hard acceleration (Figure 28) as well as reduced NOx by almost
50% in the US EPA heavy-duty transient emission test [Khair 1998].

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Figure 28. Smoke-Free Operation Through A/F Control

Low NOx and PM Demonstrations

SwRI Demonstration with B-series Cummins and Series 60 DDC

A demonstration using two heavy-duty North American diesel engines, a 5.9 L B-series Cummins and an 11 L Series 60 Detroit Diesel, was carried out at the Southwest
Research Institute [Khair 1997]. PM emissions were controlled using a diesel particulate filter (Corning EX-80/100/17 wall-flow filter, 10.5 inch diameter by 12 inch long)
regenerated with a cerium-based fuel additive (fuel borne catalyst, supplied by Rhodia). Extensive development and applied research work led to a PC-based controller and an
EGR strategy reducing NOx emissions to between 2.0 and 2.5 g/bhp-hr (2.7 and 3.4 g/kWh) on both engines. Analysis of the PM sample filters assisted in estimating the
carbonaceous particulate matter content typical of an EPA heavy-duty emission transient cycle. A corresponding additive concentration was then recommended by the supplier
to maintain quasi-continuous trap regeneration.

Exhaust gas recirculation was implemented in a high pressure loop (HPL) configuration, where EGR is taken from a point upstream of the turbocharger turbine and introduced
into the intake manifold. Results of hot-start EPA heavy-duty transient emissions tests and cycle average specific fuel consumption for the Series 60 and the B-series engines
are tabulated in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. Starting from NOx levels of 3.89 and 4.67 g/bhp-hr (5.3 and 6.35 g/kWh) for the Series 60 and B-series engines, respectively,
these engines achieved 2.02 and 2.29 g/bhp-hr (2.73 and 3.10 g/kWh) NO x emissions. In both cases, particulate matter engine-out emissions had more than doubled (from
0.085 to 0.204 g/bhp-hr for the Series 60 and from 0.14 to 0.35 g/bhp-hr for the B Series). However, using the filter and the cerium-based fuel additive, these PM levels were
reduced to 0.014 and 0.060 g/bhp-hr (0.02 and 0.08 g/kWh), respectively. FTP cycle-weighted average fuel consumption increased by 4% for the Series 60 engine and by 5.5%
for the B series engine. Both engines experienced significant increases in HC and CO emissions. Although EGR contributed to this increase, the presence of the particulate
filter appeared to have added to the problem. This development was especially noticeable in the case of the B series engine with HC emissions where an older filter already
laden with carbonaceous material was used without regenerating it prior to the test. For the same reason it appeared that NOx emissions were exceptionally low as a result of
the increased back pressure which must have led to additional residual (internal) EGR, overdriving EGR into the engine because of high back pressure.

Table 3
Series 60 Transient Emissions Results
Emissions, g/bhp-hr BSFC, lb/bhp-
Test Description
HC CO NOx PM hr
Baseline 0.08 1.19 3.89 0.085 0.400
Inactive HPL EGR 0.09 1.30 3.82 0.085 0.398
Active HPL EGR 0.25 2.91 2.36 0.204 0.403
Active HPL EGR + DPF 0.27 4.26 2.29 0.014 0.416

Table 4
B Series Transient Emissions Results
Emissions, g/bhp-hr BSFC, lb/bhp-
Test Description
HC CO NOx PM hr
Baseline 0.55 2.27 4.67 0.14 0.424
Active HPL EGR 0.83 4.20 2.58 0.35 0.421
Active HPL EGR + DPF 1.36a 6.60a 2.02 0.06 0.447
a - High HC and CO attributed in part to elevated engine backpressure resulting from restricted trap.

SwRI Demonstration with Navistar 7.3 L Engine

Another demonstration program was performed on a Navistar 7.3 L, heavy-duty diesel engine [Khair 1997a]. This program involved HPL EGR with a Johnson Matthey CRT.
The Navistar engine was a V-8, turbocharged, intercooled, direct-injected diesel engine equipped with a hydraulically-actuated electronically-controlled unit injector system
(HEUI). The CRT was tested originally on DDC, 6V92TA, 2-stroke diesel engines to investigate the potential urban bus retrofit market in the USA.

The results of this demonstration were extremely encouraging and, as indicated in Figure 29, both HC and PM emissions were practically eliminated. Carbon monoxide
emission was reduced to a trace and NOx+HC for the transient test was 2.29 g/bhp-hr. When tested in a low pressure loop EGR configuration, the transient cycle average fuel
consumption was within 2% from that of the baseline engine without EGR or trap.

The results of the above demonstrations indicate the magnitude of emission reduction EGR can achieve in heavy-duty diesel engine applications. Realizing that one of the
adverse consequences of using EGR is increasing particulate emissions, diesel particulate filters were included for their synergistic contribution in reducing PM emissions.
From these EGR applications, it is apparent that NOx reduction on the order of 40 to 50% can be achieved, with penalties in particulate emission control that would require
DPFs. The fuel consumption penalty for a well-developed EGR system is expected to be significantly reduced.

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Figure 29. Demonstration Results of Navistar Engine with EGR-CRT Technologies

APBF EGR/DPF/SCR Demonstration

One more demonstration was performed in the Advanced Petroleum-Based Fuels program (funded in part by the US Department of Energy and supported by the
Manufacturers of Emission Controls Association, the Engine Manufacturers Association, and other suppliers to the automotive industry). The project sought to demonstrate the
ability of combining three technologies; LPL EGR, diesel particulate filters, and urea selective catalytic reduction (SCR), to reduce NO x and PM emissions to below the 0.20
and 0.01 g/bhp-hr limit, respectively. The overall emission reduction system is schematically shown in Figure 30 [Khair 2004].

Figure 30. Schematic Representation of APBF Emission Control System

The emission control system consisted of a split exhaust with each of the two branches featuring a catalyzed soot filter followed by urea injection systems supplied by Robert
Bosch. Each urea injection system provided finely atomized urea solution in front of a selective catalytic reduction catalyst for NOx reduction. The two branches of the exhaust
system were then rejoined and exhaust flow was directed through an oxidation catalyst acting as a clean up catalyst to reduce ammonia slip. Immediately downstream from the
clean up catalyst was the LPL EGR pick up. EGR was routed through an EGR cooler that used jacket water for the cooling medium. EGR then proceeded to a combination
EGR valve and intake throttle assembly. This assembly was independently controlled by a computer-based controller that borrowed signals from the engine electronic control
module and determined the EGR valve as well as intake throttle position based on an optimized schedule (LPL EGR system components by STT Emtec). The development of
the EGR system calibration used four criteria: (1) limit on smoke opacity, (2) limit on turbine inlet temperature, (3) limit on fuel consumption penalty, and (4) a limit on
compressor inlet vacuum. The system was optimized for operation over the EPA transient cycle as well as the 13-mode steady-state Supplemental Emission Test (SET).
Composite results of these standardized tests (without the use of SCR catalysts) appear in Figure 31 and Figure 32, respectively.

Figure 31. Composite Transient FTP Results of APBF Emission Control System

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Figure 32. Composite Steady-State SET Results of APBF Emission Control System

In both the transient and the steady-state instances, the EGR system enabled a NOx reduction of over 50%. Since the LPL EGR system was equipped with catalyzed diesel
particulate filters, the recirculated EGR was mostly particulate-free in addition to filtering the entire exhaust stream and reducing tailpipe PM to about 0.005 g/bhp-hr [Khair
2004].

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