Cdna09690enc 001

Commission of the European Communities
energy
DEVELOPMENT
OF A MODULAR ELECTROCHEMICAL
STORAGE SYSTEM
FOR ROAD ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Commission of the European Communities
energy
DEVELOPMENT
OF A MODULAR ELECTROCHEMICAL
STORAGE SYSTEM
FOR ROAD ELECTRIC VEHICLES
by
A. LAURSEN, project manager -
Povi. K. BIRCH, Anders HOGSHOLM,
Per Halkjr JACOBSEN, Poul STANGERUP, Ole STEENSEN
ELEKTRONIKCENTRALEN
Venlighedsvej 4
DK-2970 HORSHOLM
Contract No. EE-E-2-426-DK(G)
FINAL REPORT
Research financed by the Commission of the European Communities

within the frame of the energy R & D programme
- Energy conservation -
Directorate-General for Science, Research and Development
1985 EUR 9690 EN

Published by th
COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
Directorate-General
Information Market and Innovation
Btiment Jean Monnet
LUXEMBOURG
LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the Commission of the European Communities nor any person acting on behalf
of the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of the following
information
ECSCEEGEAEC Brussels - Luxembourg, 1985

III
FOREWORD
It is hereby reminded that the research program:
"Development of a Modular Electrochemical Storage System

for Road Electric Vehicles".
is a joint effort between the Centro Ricerche FIAT (CRF)

of Italy and the independent laboratory ElektronikCentra-
len (EC) of Denmark, whereby:
CRF develops mainly the research related to the

battery monoblocks, battery containment structures,
vehicle interfaces and complete storage systems.
- Elektronikcentralen carries out the thermal modelling

of the batteries and participates in the development
and testing of the associated electronic units.
SUMMARY
During the period November 1982 to July 1983, the following

activities have been completed.
Participation in the contractors' meeting on

electro-chemical energy storage in Bordeaux
on 25-27 April 1983.
Revision of battery container mathematical

model.
Calculation of battery temperature response for

combinations of ambient conditions and vehicle
operation.
Modification of switch stage for battery charger.
Integration and packaging of charger circuits.
The work is now finished. The detailed description of the

results obtained are for practical reasons divided into two
parts:
Part 1: Thermal study of the battery.
Part 2: Development of an on board

battery charger.
PART 1
THERMAL STUDY OF
THE BATTERY.
LIST OF CONTENTS PAGE
5
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BATTERY CONTAINER 7
3. AIR FLOW MODEL 9
4. THERMAL MODELS 14
4.1 Battery container network 14
4.2 Monoblock heat generation 16
4.3 Ambient conditions 17
4.4 Vehicle operation 18
5. RESULTS 19
5.1 Constant temperature, 100% use 19
5.2 Constant temperature, 50% use 21
5.3 July temperature, 100% use 23
5.4 September temperature, 100% use 25
5.5 September temperature, 50% use 27
5.6 Winter temperature, 50% use 29
6. CONCLUSION 31
6.1 Temperature level 31
6.2 Temperature gradients 31
APPENDIX 33
1_. INTRODUCTION
A mathematical model of the battery has been made. The model

describes the air flow pattern and heat transfer of the container,
the heat generation of the individual monoblocks, the ambient
temperature in time and the vehicle operation in time.
The temperature response in the time domain has been calcu-

lated for various combinations of ambient temperature cycles
and vehicle operation.
The results show that overheating is unlikely to occur, but

that indoor overnight garage and charging facilities are re-
commendable by use in cold climates. Temperature gradients may
cause small differences in lifetime for monoblocks at diffe-
rent positions. This can be avoided by adding thermal insula-
tion at the ends of battery container.
7.
2. BATTERY CONTAINER
The basis of this study is the final container design as it

appears from CRF drawing No. S/3319 dated 4/5 1982 and dra-
wing No. S/3321 dated 19/4 1982. In the following it is re-
ferred to as Container CRF May 1982. Some details do not
appear obviously on the drawings. These details are speci-
fied below.
2.1 Friction Pads
The friction pads between the monoblocks correspond to the

size of one monoblock, approx. 24 0 mm by 180 mm and do not
protrude into the gap between the two rows of monoblocks
or between monoblocks and outer walls.
2.2 Center Rod
There is a center rod between the two rows of monoblocks. It

is made of an elastic plastic tube, capable of equalizing manu-
facturing tolerances, so that the monoblock walls will be in
contact with the longitudinal ribs of the container side walls,
and the center rod over the full length of the container. The
diameter of the center rod when mounted is 10 mm, and the heigth
over container bottom is 164 mm (same as longitudinal rib).
2.3 Container Lid
The container lid is almost in contact with the top of the mono-
blocks, except for the 15 chiefly rectangular areas, 80 by 193 mm,
which are listed 7 mm apart. The remaining part of the lid is
hollow with air in the internal cacities.
2.4 Fan
Pabst axial fan type 4650 N. Free air delivery 44 1/s. Static
pressure 80 Pa.
2.5 Core Mat
This material is only used around fittings and in other very

limited areas. The fraction relative to the total surface of
the container is so small that the effect on the thermal ba-
lance is negligible.
2.8 Bottom Ribs
The two 40 mm bottom ribs stop 200 mm from both ends of the
container, leaving a 120 mm gap to four 20 mm ribs close to
the container ends.
2.7 Exhaust Hole
One hole of 120 mm diameter, the center of which is located

on the longitudinal symmetry axis of the bottom 160 mm from
the container end far from the ventilator. A possible connec-
ting tube to the surface of the vehicle is assumed to be short
and not introducing any significant flow resistance.
3. AIR FLOW MODEL
The method of calculating the air flow is the same as described

in progress report No. 2 section 3.2. The geometry of container
design CRF May 1982 deviates in topology from the earlier ver-
sions. The layout of the equivalent diagram is shown in appen-
dix fig. 1. There are 10 standard sections, which are charac-
terized according to the principles used earlier. The ventila-
tor is characterized by some points of the pressure versus flow
curve taken from the manufacturers data sheet.
3.1 Transistion to top channel (2)
Transistion to top channel.
Equivalent cross section, m 6.74 10~ 3

Equivalent gap width, m 16.9 IO" 3
Equivalent length, m 60 10- 3
Sum of resistance coefficients 3.76

2
Coefficient to q , k 2 49.7 10
Coefficient to q, k1 13.6
3. 2 Top channel, first half monoblock (3)
Equivalent max. cross section, m 2 13.20 10"

Equivalent max. gap width, m 20.60 10- 3
Equivalent length of max. gap, m 54 10- 3
Equivalent min. cross section, m 2
3.66 10- 3
Equivalent min. gap width, m 12.0 io- 3
Equivalent length of min. gap, m 69
Sum of resistance coefficients 0.30 10" 3
Coefficient to q 2 , k. 13.4
Coefficient to q, k 61.4 10 3
1
10.
3. 3 Top channel, center to center of two monoblocks (4)
Equivalent max. cross section, m 2 13.20 10" 3

Equivalent max. gap width, m 20.60 10" 3
Equivalent length of max. gap, m 108 10~ 3
Equivalent min. cross section, m 2 3.66 10" 3
Equivalent min. gap width, m 12.0 10" 3
Equivalent length of min. gap, m 138 10-3
Sum of resistance coefficients m 0.80
2
Coefficient to q , k 2 35.8 10" 3
Coefficient to q , k 123
1
3.4 Side channel between monoblock and container wall (5)
Equivalent cross section, m' 180 10 - 6

Equivalent gap width, m 1 10 - 3
Equivalent length, m 5 10 - 3
2
Coefficient to q , k~ 15.4 10'
Coefficient to q , k 1 12.1 10
3.5 Mid channel between two monoblocks (6)
Equivalent cross section, m' 360 10 - 6

Equivalent gap width, m 1 10 - 3
Equivalent length, m 5 10'

Coefficient to q 2 , k~ 3.24 10'
Coefficient to q , k. 6.06 10
11 .
3.6 Bottom channel, side (7)
Equivalent cross section, m2 2.20 10"3

Equivalent gap width, m 10 10"3
Equivalent length, m 240 10"3
Coefficient to q 2 , k 29.8 103
Coefficient to q , k. 476
3.7 Bottom channel, center (8)
Equivalent cross section, m' 3.13 10" 3

Equivalent gap width, m 10 10" 3
Equivalent length, m 240 10" 3
Coefficient to q 2 , k~ 49.0 103
3.8 End channel, side middle (9)
Equivalent cross section, m' 1 .2 10" 3

Equivalent gap width, m 10 10" 3
Equivalent length, m 40 10"3
Coefficient to q 2 , k~ 417 10 3
Coefficient to q , k.. 146
3.9 Exhaust channel (10)
Equivalent cross section, m 11.3' 10"3m2

Resistance coefficient 1 .0
Coefficient to q 2 , k 2 4.7 103
12
3.10 Ventilator
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s defined by the following p o i n t s
Pressure [Pa] Flow [ 1 / si]
80 0
72.5 5
62 10
47.5 15
42 20
33 30
12 40
0 44
3.11 Resulting air flows
The air flow of all branches has been calculated. The results
are given in table below.
All air flows are given in liter/sec. The positive direction

is top to bottom, fan to exhaust or side to middle as appro-
priate .
13.
Monoblock
Section A B C D E
2. Transistion to 12.10
top channel
3. Top channel, first 12.10

half monoblock
4. Top channel, center - 9.12 6.67 4.51 2.37 -

to center of two
monoblocks
5. Side channel between

monoblock and con- 0.37 0.18 0.03 -0.06 -0.09
tainer wall
6. Mid channel between

the two monoblocks 2.23 2.09 2.10 2.26 2.56
7. Bottom channel, side.

Center to center of - 0.21 0.39 0.42 0.35 -
two monoblocks
8. Bottom channel, middle .

Center to center of two - 2.57 4.65 6.75 9.02 -
monoblocks
9. End channel, side-middle 0.16 - 0.26

below monoblock
10. Exhaust channel 12.10

14
4. THERMAL MODELS
4.1 Battery container network
The heat transport inside the container is accomplished by

three mecanisms:
The monoblock surfaces are coupled to the air stream.

This coupling is modelled by conduction through the air
over the half air channel width. The model is lumped
into a number of nodes, each corresponding to a branch
or node in the air flow model. The conductance from
monoblock surface to the air is thus found by the ex
pression:
G = 2'VA
where is the specific heat conductivity of air,

=0.026 W'm - 1 - 1 , A is the surface area associated
with the node in question and d is the width of the
air channel. The value of d is taken as the equiva
lent gap width from the air flow model. The same mecha
nism is responsible for the coupling between air stream
and the inner surfaces of the container.
The heat transferred to the air is circulated with

the airstream within the container . This circulation
is modelled by means of a fluid conductance given by
the expression:
F = q-P-Cp
where q is the airflow calculated by the airflow model

for the air channel associated with the node in question,
is the density of air, p=1,20 kg-m -3 and Cp = 1,00
kJ-kg - 1 -K - 1 .
15.
The monoblock surfaces are coupled to the inner surfaces

of the container by means of radiation. The net transfer
of radiated heat power is expressed by Stefan-Boltzmanns
law:
= A-e-Cs ( (1+273) "-(2 + 273) *)
where A is the effective surface area, is the effective

relative emissivity of the surfaces for infrared radiation
at the temperature level in question, C_ is the radiation
constant for a block body, C g = 5,6710-8 W-m~2-K~'* and ..
and 92 are the centigrade-temperatures of the two surfaces.
This expression is very unpractical because of the fourth-

power dependency of the temperature. In this case, however,
temperature differences are small compared to the absolute
temperatures. The expression, therefore, can be simplified
to a linear expression:
= A-hR- {.,-2)
where h R is the specific heat exchange figure for radiation,

in this case h D = 5,7 W'in-2-K-1.
The radiative coupling can now be expressed by a conductance:
G = A-h R
The layout of the thermal model equivalent diagram is shown

in Appendix, Fig. 2. The designations of branches and nodes
corresponds to those of the air flow model. Only the right
half of the diagram is shown for symmetry reasons. The
diagram reflects the situation correctly even if q = 0 as
will be the case when the fan is stopped. The values of the
individual conductances are calculated for each branch as
described above.
16.
4. 2 Monoblock heat generation
The heat power dissipated within the monoblock depends on tem

perature level, whether the monoblock is under discharge or u n
der charge, the current and the depth of discharge, resp. charge.
The theoretical relationships are rather complicated. Therefore,
it was chosen to use the data measured earlier in the air flow
colorimeter, ref. progress report N o . 2, section 2. The best fit
linear approximations to the relationships are generated and
used in the thermal model.
42^2 3i2
The values are based on the standard load cycle: 185 A in 15 s

61,7 A in 35 s and OA in 30 s. Duration of 1 100% discharge is
3 hours.
The power dissipated in a monoblock is given by an expression

of the form:
P = A
M0N0 d(t) B
d(t)%N0
This expression shows, that losses decrease with increasing
temperature, which is in agreement with the measurements. A,(t)
and Bj(t) depends on the state of discharge according to Appendix,
Fig. 3. Q is monoblock temperature. In case of 50% discharge
only the first 1i hour of the curves are used.
42_. 2 Charge
In case of 100% discharge, the monoblock is charged by 18,5 A in

8 hours and 9.25 A in 4 hours. For 50% discharge is it 18,5 A in
4 hours and 9,25 in 4 hours.
The power dissipated in a monoblock during charge is given by an

expression of the same form as for discharge:
p = Ac(t) Bc(t).eM0N0
A (t) and (t) depends on the state of charge according to

Appendix, Fig. 4.
17,
4.3 Ambient conditions
The ambient conditions are defined by the temperature of the air

surrounding the container. The air taken in by the fan is assumed
to have the same temperature. Air movements outside the container
are assumed only to originate from natural convection. Four diffe-
rent sets of ambient conditions are defined.
4^3^ 2:ant
A constant ambient temperature of 20C.
4_ 1 3_ 1 2__JU1Y
A day/night temperature cycle, defined as follows:
From 04.30 to 12.00 increasing temperature

" 12.00 to 15.00 constant 35C
" 15.00 to 03.30 decreasing temperature
" 03.30 to 04.30 constant 20C.
The course is shown in Appendix, fig. 5.
4^3_13__September
From 05.00 to 12.00 increasing temperature

12.00 to 15.00 constant 30C
" 15.00 to 04.00 decreasing temperature
" 04.00 to 05.00 constant 18C.
The course is shown in Appendix, Fig. 5.
18
4^3^4 Winter
From 0 7.30 to 12.00 increasing temperature

" 12.00 to 15.00 constant 8C
" 15.00 to 0 6.30 decreasing temperature
" 0 6.30 to 0 7.30 constant 0C.
The course is shown in Appendix, Fig. 5.
4.4 Vehicle operation
Two modes of vehicle operation are incorporated in the model.

In 100% operation the battery is fully discharged and in 50%
operation the battery is only 50% discharged. The charge ope
rations are adjusted accordingly, ref. section 4.2.
In both cases the vehicle is driven in two periods every day.

The morning period starts at 9.00 and the afternoon period ends
at 17.00. In the 100% case the two periods are 2 1,5h and in
the 50% case they are 2 0,75h, with a rest period in between.
The charge starts at 17.00 and ends with a rest period until
9.00 where the first drive period starts.
The course of the two cases is shown in Appendix, Fig. 6 showing

the battery current.
In connection with vehicle operation, is also considered opera

tion of the ventilator in the battery container. This ventilator
operates during the last 4 hours of the charge phase, where the
charge current is 9.25A. The ventilator is stopped during the
remaining 20 hours of the cycle.
19
5. RESULTS
The thermal model has been used to calculate the temperature

response of the battery in the time domain. The basic parts
of the model: The air flow model, the battery container and
the monoblock have not been changed. Ambient conditions and
vehicle operation have been mixed in different combinations
as shown in the scheme below.
Ambient Conditions
Constant July September Winter
Vehicle 100% 5.1 5.3 5.4 -
Operation 50% 5.2 - 5.5 5.6
The figures refer to the following sections dealing with the

individual results.
The results given are the periodic solution, i.e. the equili-
brium cycle obtained after an infinite number of preceeding
cycles. In practice, the response will be very close to the
periodic solution already in the second or third cycle.
5.1 Constant temperature, 100% use
The results of the calculations are shown on the following

curve sheet. The sheet shows the monoblock temperature (elec-
trolyte) for each of the five monoblocks A to E. The ambient
temperature and the battery total heat dissipation for 10
monoblocks.
The maximum temperature difference between coldest and warmest

monoblock at the same time is 3,8C.
The maximum temperature of the warmest monoblock is 37,5C,

The minimum temperature of the coldest monoblock is 28,5C,
ESACAP 28-0CT-83 14: 18: 41 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
CONSTANT.100
,0 TNOO (MONOA) TNOD (MONOS) TNOD (MONOC) TNOO (MONOD) TNOD (MONOE) TNOD (A) POWER g
f $ -f
o
. -OJ
1
o
o
o
-O
o
o
o
O)
M
- o O

o *
ru
LU
1.00 4.00 8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00 28.00 32.00 36.00 4000
HOURS
21 .
5.2 Constant temperature, 50% use

sheet.

monoblock at the same time is 3 C.
The maximum temperature of the warmest monoblock is 35 C.
The minimum temperature of the coldest monoblock is 25 C.

ESACAP 280CT83 13: 44: 20 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
CONSTANT.050
0 TNOD (MONOA) NOD (MONOB) TNOD (MONOC) TNOD (MONOO) TNOD (MONOE) TNOD (A) XPOWER g
- - - +- *- -* - -t
ro
ro
0.00 8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00 28.00 32.00 36.00

HOURS
23
5.3 July temperature, 100% use
The results of the calculations are shown on the following sheet.

monoblock at the same time is 4,3 C.
The maximum temperature of the warmest monoblock is 42,5 C.

JULY. 100
0 TNOD (MONOA) TNOD (M0\03) TNOD(MONOC) TNOD(MONOD) TNOD () TNOD (A) XPOWER
O + 1- t
to
4.00 .00 12.00 20.00

HOURS
25.
5.4 September temperature, 100% use

sheet.

The maximum temperature of the warmest monoblock is 40,5 C.

SEPT. 100
TNOD (MONOA) r.NjQJ (M0N03) NOD(MONOU) TNOD(MONOD) TNOD(MONOE) TNOD (A)

to
4.00 8.00 12.00 16.00 20:00 24.00 28.00 32.00 36.00

HOURS
27,
5. 5 September t e m p e r a t u r e , 5 0 % use

sheet.
The m a x i m u m temperature difference b e t w e e n coldest and warmest

The maximum temperature of the warmest monoblock is 4 0 C.
The m i n i m u m temperature of the c o l d e s t monoblock is 28 C.

SEPT.050
0 TNOD (MONOA) NOJ (>IONOd) TNOD (MONOC) TNOD (MONOD) TNOD (MONOE) TNOD (A) %P0WER g
o O - +- -+ X- -X *-
-e - -o 4-
o
ru
ro
oo
. 00 12.00 16.00 20.. 00 24.00 28.00 32.00 36.00

HOURS
29.
5. 6 Winter temperature, 50% use

sheet.

monoblock at the same time is 4.3 C.
The maximum temperature of the earmest monoblock is 23 C.
The minimum temperature of the coldest monoblock is 10C.

WINTER.050
0 TNOD (MONOA) TNOD (MONOB) TNOD (MONOC) TNOD (M0N0D) TNOD (MONOE) TNOD (A)
o -
0.00 4.00 8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00 28.00 32.00 36.00 4000
HOURS
31
CONCLUSION
This conclusion deals only with the thermal aspects of the

battery container. It must be considered, however, that the
container has many other functions than providing a suitable
operating temperature for the monoblocks.
6 .1 Temperature level
With a maximum temperature found not exceeding 43 C under

the warmest operating conditions considered, battery over-
heating is not likely to occur. The temperature profile
used in the simulation has been established in agreement
with CRF to cover average South European conditions.
The minimum temperature is more likely to cause problems.

The 10C found, could be even lower under North European
conditions or if the daily use is less than corresponding
to 50% discharge. Under such conditions, therefore, is it
recommended to provide indoor garage facilities for over-
night parking and charging. This will also solve possible
problems if the vehicles are left unused in a week-end or
holiday period.
6. 2 Temperature gradients
The maximum temperature gradient occurs at 100% use during

the July and the September simulation, 4.3 C. It is smaller
for constant temperature, 3.8 C. Two fundamental physical
reasons can be identified giving occasion for such differen-
ces .
The topology of the container with 5 pairs of monoblocks

in a row. (The pairs are designated A, B, C, D and E
starting from the ventilator). From this topology it
is expected that A and E should be coldest, followed
by B and D and that C should be the warmest. Looking
at the results for the individual monoblocks in sec-
32.
tion 5.1 from 17.00 to 01.00 where the heat dissipation

is rather constant and the ventilator is not operating
this temperature distribution is confirmed: BC and D
lies within 1 C and A and E are both 3 C colder.
When the ventilator starts and operates from 01.00 to

05.00, A and E are seen drifting apart. After stopping
the ventilator at 05.00 they gradually approach each
other again. The maximum temperature difference between
A and E amounts to 2C due to this effect at constant
air temperature. It will be slightly more significant
during the variable temperature cycles because the am-
bient air, which is sucked in by the ventilator, reaches
its minimum temperature around the period where the ven-
tilator is operating.
The maximum temperature gradient of 4.3 C is not considered to

be large, but on the other hand, it is judged to be able to in-
fluence the lifetime for the monoblocks. This temperature gra-
dient could be approximately halved by proper insulation of the
end surfaces of the container. Elimination of the topology effect
in this way will require an insulation corresponding to 50 mm
polystyrene foam on each end of the container. The best way of
doing this, will be to increase the total length by 100 mm and
add a 50 mm insulation block in each end between the end mono-
block and the end wall. This insulation will also increase the
minimum temperature in the winter cycle, 50% use from 10C to
approx. 13 C without increasing the maximum temperature.
33
APPENDIX
to part 1
34
AIR FLOW EQUIVALENT DIAGRAM
Tope 7> TQP / /orfi jnP/Ay FA*/Lox

l
<Sf & tC 6 "Z _ j% 2.
oTGL
o7c 6 C,7L
Fig. 1. Node names are underlined. They have mnemotecnic reference to

their location.
Branch names refer to the corresponding conductance. They in
clude a number referring to the following standard sections:
1 : Not used (ventilator box)
2 : Transistion to top channel
3 : Top channel, first half monoblock
4 : Top channel, center to center of two monoblocks
5 : Side channel between monoblock and container wall
6 : Mid channel between two monoblocks
7 : Bottom channel, side, (right/left)
8 : Bottom channel, middle
9 : End channel, sidemiddle
10: Exhaust channel.
/>>5

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41
PART 2
DEVELOPMENT OF AN ON BOARD
BATTERY CHARGER
.3
LIST OF CONTENTS page
1. INTRODUCTION 45
2. REQUIREMENTS 47
2.1 Electrical Function 47
2.2 Electrical Safety 47
2.3 EMC 48
2.4 Thermal 49
2.5 Mass, Volume 49
3. SYSTEM DESIGN 50
3.1 Design Drivers 50
3.2 Design Constraints 52
3.3 Candidates for Design 53
3.4 The Half Bridge Converter 56
4. DETAILED DESIGN 60
4.1 Transistor Switch Stage 60
4.2 Drive Circuits 66
4.3 Transformer and Inductor 68
4.4 Control Unit 70
4.5 Thermal Design and Packaging 74
4.6 EMC 81
83
5. CONCLUSION
44
Table of contents, continued

age
Table 1 Characterization of two 46
different charger concepts
Table 2 Measurements on a 6 pulse 3kw 51
rectifier
Table 3 Converter characteristic 55
Figure 1 Converter configurations 54

2 Switchmode charger concept 57
3 Half Bridge waveforms 58
4 Half Bridge waveforms 59
5 Cascode switching circuits 61
6 Undeland stress reduction circuit 62
7 Switching stage 63
8 MOS driver circuit 67
9 Main transformer 69
10 Siemens TDA 4718 71
11 Control circuits l 72
Controller for charger
Control loops and protection
circuits
11 Control circuits II : 73
Controller for charger
Mos driver circuits
12 Thermal layout 78
13 Mechanical layout 80
14 Overall diagram grounding 82
Appendix 1 Parts list, switching stage 85

Appendix 2 Parts list, control circuits 87
Literature References 93
45
1_ INTRODUCTION
The battery charger has been conceived as an original part of

the electrical vehicle in order to permit to full flexibility
of such a vehicle. Electricity will be available within the
vehicles operating area, the charger may not; therefore it
must be onboard.
Traditional battery chargers operate off the 50Hz mains and

use transformers and inductors, at this frequency, for con-
ditioning the power of the battery. Hence, the traditional
battery charger is heavy and bulky. It follows that in order
to help reduce vehicle mass and increase load volume the
charger itself becomes a candidate for mass and volume re-
duction. Another, but entirely different reason for examining
the charger design is that the present battery charge control
is rather poor. A better charger design would ensure a longer
battery life.
The purpose of the work reported here was to develop a light

weight charger employing high frequency DC/DC conversion prin-
ciples. The results to be expected can be seen in table 1,
which compares a traditional charger design against that of
an experimental 50kHz switchmode charger.
50 Hz 50 Hz
TRADITIONAL CHARGER SWITCHMODE CHARGER

COMMERCIAL DESIGN EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Charge characteristic poor good
Efficiency 83-95% at 2.4 kW 90-91% at 2.4 kW
Mass 45 kg 13 kg
Volume 54 liters 12 liters
EMC complies without effort takes quite an effort

o
Thermal passive T C O M p < 110C forced cooling < 50 C
4>-
Complexity low high o-
Design maturity mature immature
Reliability high medium
Problem areas mass, volume high voltage, switching stage,

EMC design and thermal interface
TABLE 1: Characterization of two different charger concepts.

47
REQUIREMENTS
2.1 Electrical Function
The charger has to provide a 20A charge for a 96V battery.

This translates into the following characteristic:
Constant current 20A until 113V

Reduced current < 20A until 130V
Internal charger protective functions require
Reduced output current at low battery voltage
e.g. 3A at < 60V
Output voltage switch off at > 130V
The maximum output power is about 2.3 kW and assuming an effi-

ciency of 85-90% gives input a main power of 2.7 kW. This is
at least in Denmark, too much loading on a single 220V mains
outlet, so the 3x380V mains need to be used.
2.2 Electrical Safety
Electrical equipments used by the general public such as elec-

trical household articles are designed according to electrical
safety regulations such as:
Safety requirements for main-operated electronic and
related apparatus for household and similar general use.
IEC publication 65.
Safety of household and similar electrical appliances.
IEC publication series 335.
The EV charger is not yet included in the IEC regulations,

but once the electrical vehicle is adapted by the general
public, it will.
48
The part of the regulations that is, of major importance is

the need for galvanic isolation between charger input and
output. Thus, any kind of power condition via the mains to
a battery must incorporate a transformer.
2.3 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
As before assuming a widespread use by the general public

a number of regulations will have to be complied with.
Use of switching regulators and rectifiers results in a
noicespectrum partly radiated from the charger but also
transmitted via its connection to the mains. We are there-
fore faced with two types of noisepolution, radiated noise
(electric and magnetic fields) and conducted noise (line
conducted). For the EV environment the following regulations
can be considered:
"The limitation of disturbances in electricity supply

networks caused by domestic and similar appliances equipped
with electronic devices" European Standard EN 50060, 1976
or VDE 0838.
"Radio interference suppression of radio frequency equipment
for industrial, scientific and medical and similar purposes".
VDE 0871.
The EN50006 is a regulation specifying the amount of noise

current a mains connected equipment can feed back to the mains.
It deals with the first 40 harmonics of 50Hz. The background
for the spec, is firstly the sensitivity of some equipments to
mains noise and secondly the use of the 50Hz mains as a sig-
nalling path for e.g. turn-on and turn-off of electricity
meters for changing day/night tariffs. The consequence of
the EN 5006 is that rectifier units and switchmode converters
must incorporate certain design features that reduces mains
noise. This in many cases leads to more circuit complexity
and lower overall efficiency.
49
The VDE 871 specifications sets limits on the high frequency

noise emitted:
- Mains conducted 15 kHz - 30 MHz
- Radiated magnetic field 15 kHz - 30 MHz
- Radiated electric field 30 MHz - 1 GHz
The regulation for mains conducted is again user equipments

being sensitive to mains noise. The radiated part being general
noise emitted in bands where public or other communications
are disturbed. E.g. the low frequency M-fields generally disturbs
AM radios employing ferrite antennas whereas the E-fields
mostly effects the general AM-FM and TV receivers. The effects
of the VDE 0871 regulation on the charger design is that input
and output noise suppressing filters must be used and that the
general circuit layout has to be carefully considered. Several
iterations between layout and EMC measurements is usually the
case before the design is acceptable.
2.4 Thermal
The intended operating range is -20C to +4 0C. Electrical

efficiency shall be maximised, however, not less than 85%.
Due to the output power level (2.3 kW) the designer has great
problems in reducing equipment temperature due to internal dis-
sipation. Therefore, increasing efficiency is a prime driver
for a successful design.
2.5 Mass, volume
Table 1 shows a comparison between a traditional charger and

a switchmode charger. The mass and volume listed here have
been used as ballpark numbers for the design, although the
original mass target was set much lower. The mechanical out-
line was, due to existing equipment compatibility, set such
that the maximum height of the charger had to be kept less
than 7 5 mm.
50
SYSTEM DESIGN
The envisaged charger design is centrered around a switchmode

design operating in the 20-50 kHz range. The electrical safety
requirement means galvanic separation and hence a transformer.
This means that the class of switchmode converters is limited
to those employing transformer isolation. As a consequence the
design becomes more complicated, less efficient and weights
more than it otherwise would for the same electrical perfor
mance .
3.1 Design Drivers
Two important system parameters drive the design: Mass and EMC.
In order to bring down the overall mass a high switching fre
quency is desired since it brings down the mass of the magnetic
devices. Hence the switching frequency is set at high as possible
but with due consideration to available transistor technology.
A switching frequency of 50kHz is thus selected giving a good
balance between available transformer sizes needed for the 2.3kW
power level and transistor losses. EMC and to some extent the
output power level favours a design based on a 3 380V AC recti
fied mains as a DC input to the charger. The EN50006 regulation
limits the amount of low frequency current emisson on the mains.
The practical ways of avoiding this is by modulating the char
ger input current proportionally with the input voltage, that is,
make the charger appear as a resistive load to the mains. For
a power level of 2-3 kW, this method is the only viable approach
at a 220V AC mains input. However, the approach cost an extra
regulation loop or in some cases a preregulating stage resul
ting in more circuit complexity plus lower overall efficiency.
On the other hand using a 3 380 VAC mains input the current
emissions can be ensured below the EN 50006 level as long as
the power level is kept below 3kW. Tabel 2 shows the results
of measurements done with a 3 380VAC input showing a just
about compliance with the EN50006 regulation. Hence, using a
3 380 VAC mains input we obtain a compliance with EN50006
without any penalty in efficiency. But, - the rectified DC
level is at 510V and this complicates the switching stage design.
51
Measurements on a 6 pulse 3-phase mains rectifier 3 380 V AC,

Load: 3 kW lightbulbs and 10pF parallel capacitance.
Limit as per
EN 50006 Measured
Frequency Harmonic Current Current
Hz dB/ RMS dB/ RMS
50 1
100 2 121 78
150 3 131 75
200 4 117 <72
250 5 125 121
300 6 114 <72
350 7 122 115
450 9 116 82
550 11 114 113
650 13 111 110
750 15 108 86
850 17 107 109*
950 19 106 107*
1050 21 105 83
1150 23 104 106*
1250 25 103 104*
1350 27 103 72
1450 29 102 106*
1550 31 101 103
1650 33 101 88
1750 35 100 104*
1850 37 100 98
1950 39 100 83
2050 41 - 104
Outside EN50006 spec.
TABLE: 2
52
3.2 Design Constraints
The envisaged efficiency 85-90% at a power level of 2.3kW

means that between 230-345 W has to be dissipated in the
charger box. Semiconductor junctions and ferrite magnetic
cores has to be kept at temperatures below 100C, the lower
the better. This puts a great burden on the thermal design
of the box, a point that is further emphasized by the avail-
able height of the construction (<75mm). Large heatsinks for
these power levels can be acquired but they do not fit the
mechanical constraints. Therefore it was necessary to use
forced aircooling and employing smaller heatsinks. Calcu-
lations showed that an airvolume of about 50-200 m ,/K was
needed.
Early calculations on transformer cores sizes showed that

there was quite a gab in power range between the standard
core sizes. For power levels below 1.3 kW (at 50kHz) there
was a good selection, however above this level there were
large jumps. Therefore two approaches were looked at; one
using a large core UI 93/104/30 and one using two EC 70/35/14
smaller cores. It was found that the large core could not be
as tighly coupled as the smaller ones. Besides, the large core
could not fit inside the mechanical outline.
Switching transistors has been a problem all along. There

are only a few standard types on the market that can be used
at the high switching frequency of 50kHz and at a high DC
voltage of 510V. The first selection came up with only one
candidate;the Motorola MJ16010 transistor rated for 450V/15A,
but other transistors e.g. the BUX 98, which is made by several
manufacturers was found usefull. BUX 98 has a rating of
450V/20A. The two transistor types were both judged fast
enough for 50kHz operation, although a particular switching
circuit had to be developed to obtain the required switching
performance. In any case,the transistor rating made it proble-
matic that the power conversion could be done with only one
set of power transistors and that some scheme of power sharing
had to be set up. Although MOS transistors were thought of
as potential candidates for the switching stage, there were
53
ruled out on limited power handling capability.
3.3 Candidates for Design
The candidate designs must satisfy the following conditions as

found in the previous analysis of requirements:
transformer isolation
output current controlled - current source design
possibly modular design to facilitate use of smaller
cores (EC70) and to keep within rating of power tran-
sistors
high efficiency in order to ease thermal design
input voltage 510VDC
Three basic converter configurations have been studied

with the above points in mind. None of them are found to
the ideal so the choice is the usual compromise between the
least desirable attributes. The converter types are:
buck fed push-pull

half bridge converter
two transistor forward converter
The converters are shown in fig. 1 and discussed in more

detail in ref. 5, 6 and 7. Table 3 summarises the main points
of the converters. The buck fed push-pull converter has problems
with a high transistor stress during turn-on and this is further
complicated by the present lack of fast flyback diodes for 510V
use. This in fact makes the buck fed push-pull a less useful
design for our application.
The half bridge converter and the two transistor forward

converter do not have as high transistor stress and are there-
fore better suited. However, the transformer mass increases due
to a reduced duty cycle. Since mass is of prime importance,
the half bridge converter is chosen.
54
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ELEKTRONIKCENTRALEN App.
F/6 1
EC 1063. 82-10 1000
BUCK FED PUSH-PULL HALF BRIDGE TWO TRANSISTOR FORWARD
BUCK FED PUSH-PULL
Number of switches 3 2 2
Transformer ratio 2:1 2:1 2:1
Max. V V V
CE CE 2 2
CE

Max. I 1.2 I
o
2
Duty cycle 0-1 0.95 ~ 0.8 ~ 0.5
Magnetic mass 100% 110-120% 150%
Efficiency high highest higher
Problem areas Buck turn on Dissymmetry in transfor

Buck flyback diode rat mer. Transformer ranging
ing. Max. frequency for during OFF time. Simul
buck stage. taneous conduction of
transistors.
TABLE 3: Converter characteristics.

56
3. 4 . The Half Bridge Converter
The half bridge converter is a relatively simple design that

is widely used. The main problem is the lack of symmetry be-
tween the two halfperiods which can result in transformer-
saturation and transistoroverloading. In order to avoid this,
a deadtime is inserted between the two periods. Another pro-
blem, which is due to imperfect transformer construction, is
transformer ringing due to transformer leakage inductance.
Minimising the leakage induction through split winding design
is of major help but the last leakage energy must be removed
by R-C circuits inserted accross the transformer primary.
Calculations on transformer core EC70 shows that it is possible

with effective cooling to transfer 1200W at 50kHz. Hence we can
combine two transformers such that they share the power between
them. This leads to a concept in which the power can be split
between the transistor as well, as shown in fig. 2. The series
connection of secondary windings ensures the same secondary
currents and hence primary currents. Fig. 3 and 4 shows the
characteristic waveforms.
Assuming a switching frequency of 50kHz, max. output voltage

of 130V, min. input voltage of 510VDC - 10% we find a trans-
former ratio of 2.8:1. This means a max. current of approx. 8A
for the switching transistor, well within the rating of a
MJ16010. Thus the transistor will see current, voltage ratings
of 8A, 260V with possible excursion up to 510V during turn-
off. Requirements on switching flanks will be approx. 100-
200nsec in order to have moderate transistor losses.
The capacitor sizing is discussed in ref. 6. For the current

levels needed, a value of 1yF per stage is sufficient in order
to prevent more than 5% droop on the capacitor voltage.
Control of the half bridge is through use of main transformer

current sensing and change of duty cycle in order to control
the output current. Output voltage and output current is obtained
via servoloops in the controller block.
57
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60
DETAILED DESIGN
4. 1 Transistor Switching Stage
The transistor switching stage has been and still is at this

time of writing the major design problem. On the other hand,
the requirements are difficult. The list reads:
variable on time <1 ysec to 10 ysec;

period 20 ysec
no external power supply for the driver circuit
transformer isolation of driver circuits
minimum losses in switching circuit
switching 260 V/8 A but with ability to handle

510 V/8 A during transformer ringing
Storage time <1 ysec.
A number of switching circuits were tried out without getting

the desired performance. In particular the problem of variable
duty cycle proved difficult to solve. The isolation requirement
meant a transformer and a transformer changes the DC bias once
the duty cycle is changed. Through ref. 14, a new type of circuit
was revealed; the cascode switch circuit or the grounded base
switching configuration. It turns out that this circuit has
been around since 1978, but had first gained importance with
the coming of the power MOS transistor. The cascode circuit
shown in fig. 5 together with a number of variations.
The basic cascode circuit is switched on and off by a low vol-

tage high current MOS transistor which only need to be rated
for the zener voltage. At turn on the capacitor is discharged
through the bipolar and MOS transistor. Positive current feed-
back through the transformer ensures that the bipolar transi-
stor is kept on after the capacitor discharge. During turn-off
61
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64
of the MOS, the bipolar emitter current is interrupted and the

stored base charge is discharge through the base to the storage
capacitor. The reverse base current were equals the full col-
lector current resulting in a very short storage time. Storage
can be further shortened by adding a Baker clamp to the feed-
back transformer. For operation with small duty cycles the Dar-
lington addition is necessary in order to minimise the base-
charge during turn-on. The Darlington improves the turn-on
speed as well. Typical performance of such a circuit operating
at 50 kHz is:
Vcc : 230 V t : 150 nsec

r
Ic : 5 A t : 300 nsec
s
V 50 nsec
SAT : 2 V fc
f:
transistors: BUX48, BUX98.
This combination of bipolar and MOS transistor utilizes the

advantages of both components and overcomes some of their draw-
backs. In example the MOS transistor is simple to interface
with a pulsetransformer and can easily be driven with variable duty
cycle. A low voltage (50 V) MOS can be designed with a very
low on-resistance e.g. 60 m at 20 A. On the other hand the BUX 98
can switch 20 A at 500-600 V with suitable stress reduction
circuits, but the driver circuitry is cumbersome. The cascode
circuit shown here is reasonable simple and interfaces the bi-
polar transistor in an efficient manner.
bi
Operating of this circuit was restricted to currents less than

5 A due to dv/dt caused restart of the circuit immediately af-
ter turn-off. The mechanism for this is not yet found, the
problem, however, can be removed by applying stress reduction
circuits (SRC's, snubbers) which is needed anyway to shape the
loadline.
Turn-off is by for the critical part of transistor switching.

During this time collector current and collector voltage can
appear simultaneously resulting in a high turn-off loss. Using
a turn-off stress reduction circuit the c irrent fall and vol-
tage rise can be separated and the switch-off loss minimised.
The traditional dissipative SRC is not suitable at the higher
frequencies. The losses are simply too high. Other techniques
are needed such as 'non-dissipative' SRC's. Ref. 17, 18 and 19
discusses this problem. The non-dissipative SRC do have losses,
but moderate; the one preferred in this application is one by
Undeland shown in fig. 6. The circuit provides via C a con-
trolled dv/dt during turn-off. Turn-off Dl/dt is controlled via
L. The circuit dissipation is ^Llm2 and occurs in R during the
off period. C D provides for energy storage and is mounted close
to the power transistors. The transistor is in real life sub-
stituted with the complete cascode switch circuit.
A half bridge circuit consisting of two cascode circuit plus

SRC's were set up to drive the configuration shown in fig. 2.
The transformer primaries were put in parallel. Efficiencies
of 92% were reached at 1000-1400 W output using MJ16010 tran-
sistors.
Fig. 7 and appendix 1 gives the switching stage circuit diagram

and parts list.
66
4.2 Drive Circuits
The MOS power transistor shall be driven with a variable on

time of 1-10 ysec and shall be galvanically isolated from the
drivecircuit. In utilising the capacitive nature of MOS gate
input we can, by applying a current pulse, turn on the transi-
stor and keep it on by isolating the charged gate. Turn off
occurs when the gate capacitance is discharged.
The on pulse generated by the control circuits is differentia-

ted in order to obtain an on and an off pulse for the MOS tran-
sistor. A small ferrite core with a very few windings can pro-
vide as a saturable transformer. Using a circuit as shown in
fig. 8 the variable on pulse in turned into 400 nsec pulses.
The second part of the circuit restores the variable pulse. The
positive pulse is passed via the diodes Dl, D2 to the MOS gate
turning it on. During the pulse, transistor Q1 is reverse
biased by D2. The negative pulse is passed via base-emitter of
Q2 and D3 and turns Q1 on. Hence the MOS gate is discharged
through Q1.
This type circuit discharges the MOS gate terminated by R

(R = 4 7 k ) . Its application is only usefull where the MOS
drain is not subject to fast dV/dt changes, such as the
cascode circuit. Turn on and off flanks can be as fast as
100-150 nsec charging into 3nF at 15 V.
67
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ELEKTRONIKCENTRALEN App A/G 8

EC 1063. 82-10. 1000
68
4.3 Transformer and inductor
Transformers and inductors are designed around the EC 70/35/17

standard core which at 50 kHz and a good thermal interface can
provide for 1.3 kW of processed power.
The particular aspects of transformer and inductor design for

50 kHz lies in the winding design. At the higher frequencies
losses due to eddy currents dominate - and several techniques
are used to reduce these. To reduced losses due to the wire it
self foil conductors, litze or braid conductors are used. To
reduce losses due to winding geometry, split windings are used.
Ref. 22 in particular, ref. 23 and 24 gives the approach to
high frequency transformer and inductor design.
The main transformers are wound as shown in fig. 9.
The split winding design results in a good coupling between pri

mary and secondary resulting in a ratio of 1000:1 between pri
mary inductance and leakage inductance. The coupling capacitance
between primary and secondary is 125 pF with the screen grounded,
The inductor is sized for 125 yH at 25 A; this gives 31 turns

7 1 *mm on the EC70 core using a 2.5 mm airgab. Losses are
estimated at: 7.4 W for winding and <3 W for core.
69
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70
4.4 Control Unit
The control unit is built around the Siemens TDA 4718 switch
mode control circuit. The circuit provides for PWM control of
a push pull configuration and has the additional features of
dynamic overcurrent control, over and under voltage control and
soft start. Frequency and dead time can be adjusted. The control
circuit is shown in fig. 10.
In the system realization the control functions are used as

follows:
. push-pull outputs drives the half bridge switch circuits

. dynamic overcurrent interfaces with a current trans-
former inserted in the primary
. under voltage interfaces with the low power controller
power supply
. overvoltage interfaces via an overvoltage detector with
an extra winding on the series inductor. During flyback
action the inductor voltage equals the output voltage.
The voltage is peak detected and using for output vol-
tage control
. overcurrent/voltage information is besides the above
mentioned control inputs used for switching OFF the
controller via a D flip-flop and the soft start terminal
. duty cycle controller receives inputs from voltage and
current control loops. Switch over between loops is car-
ried out changing the reference for the current control
loop.
The diagrams of the controller are shown in fig.11 and 12. The
component list is shown in Appendix 2.
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4.5 Thermal design and packaging
The b a s i s for the thermal design h a s been an estimated overall

efficiency of 9 0 % implying the total losses to be 238 W.
T h e s e losses a r e distributed as follows:
4 transistors each 25 W = 100 W

2 transformers each 18 W = 36 W
Inductor 15 W = 15 W
2 diodes each 15 W = 30 W
Rectifier 12 W = 12 W
2 filters each 8 W 16 W
Electronics 5 W = 5 W
2 fans each 12 W = 24 W
Total power dissipation 238 W
The casing concept is a tube of rectangular cross section with

an axial airflow for cooling. The cross section being 70 by
260 mm and the length 400 mm.
The external surface available for natural cooling is thus

26410 -3 m 2 . A reasonable surface temperature is estimated to
15 C above ambient. The convective power dissipation is calcu
lated by:
con = 1,38-A-h- 0 2S . (T. 1 25

1 - T2, )
and the radiative
rad, = 5.67 10_8 [ (T.
1 + 2 7 3 ) 2- + 273)"]
A is surface area, 264 10~ 3 m 2

h is surface height, 0.26 m
T-| is surface temperature, 55 C
T2 is ambient temperature, 40 C
is surface emissivity, 0.9
con = 1.3826410- 3 0.26 -0 ' 25 15 1 ' 25 = 15.1 W

P r a d = 5.6710-80.926410-3(328*-313'*) = 26.6 W
75
The power used by the fans, P = 24 W is also dissipated out

. an
side the box, because the fans are arranged at the exhaust side
of the cooling air channel.
The power to be dissipated inside the casing, therefore, is:
P. = 238 W P . P. = 172.3 W
int con rad fan
It is planned to use two PABST fans type 3960 in parallel to ob

tain the cooling air stream. This fan will deliver 65 m 3 /h ac
cording to data sheet in free air, corresponding to 18 l/s.
The total delivery from both fans in the cabinet is estimated

to 20 l/s in a cross section of 60 mm by 250 mm. The average
air velocity will be:
201Q 3 , ,
V = = 1
0.060.25 3 m/s
The temperature rise through the cabinet will be:

p
= int
q P'C
q is the airflow, 1810 3 m 3 /s

is the air density, 1.127 kg/m 3
c is specific heat, 1000 j/kg C
Am _ 172.3 = 7 fi r
20 10M.127 1000 L ^
Cooling of the internal surfaces take place by conduction through

a boundary layer, of specific conductivity, so that:
_ AAT

If the heat transfer coefficient is introduced:
h = _E_ = A

The transferred heat will be:
= h.A (1)
76
For the boundary layer:
1 ^
6 = 5.83,
where is the kinematic viscosity and L the plate length in

the stream direction.
The heat transfer coefficient can then be found from
h= W
5.83v^
by introducing:
= 0.0271 W/mC
= 16.97-10 -6 m 2 /s
h- ;0271 - i.n.^ (2)

6
5.83/16.9710~
The necessary internal cooling surface area is dependent of the

permitted over-temperature and the plate length in stream direc
tion.
To get an idea of the order of magnitude is inserted the values

= 15 C and L = 0.2 m. The selected fans give = 1.3 m/s.
Equation (2) now gives:
h = 13/ =2 9
<!
and equation (1):
172.3 = 2.9-A-15 A = 4 m2
This is 15 times the external surface and it will be very dif

ficult and costly to obtain.
There are 3 possibilities for reduction:
- 1. Increase the over-temperature

- 2. Increase the velocity
- 3. Decrease plate length, L.
77
The first can be done to some degree, but is is not advisable

to exceed a junction temperature of 100 C for the transistors.
This means a case temperature of 70 C and a cooling surface
temperature of about 60 C. Higher surface temperature is also
not recommended for the ferrite components because of the rather
high temperature differences expected between the different
parts of the core. This means that = 20C must be considered
a maximum.
The second is not practical. Fans are already rather big and an
increase will be impossible with the restricted dimensions of
the cabinet.
The third will add to the mechanical complexity, but is the only
way to go if outside dimensions have to be kept down.
If the temperature difference = 20 C and L = 20 mm, the neces

sary area is found again:
Equation (2) gives:

3
h 1
= 4-
13 /
072 = 9
1
and equation (1):
172.3 = 9.1-20 A = 0.95 m :
This is a more realistic value. It is still difficult to obtain,

but the final design has been worked out according to this prin
ciple .
For electrical functional reasons, the two transformers, the

coil and the 2 diodes are collected to one assembly, the trans
former assembly. The output transistors are mounted in two
transistor assemblies, each containing two transistors. The
resulting layout is shown in fig. 12.
W
\
l
m
r-
m
'
H !
Ilii
30
O
Uytfr ^
O
m
E- ^
s
^ -~ J
> s:-.
"
m iJc
I111
iiilu
1 Ain.W'-''
1
?_xL- M:l . ; - ' ! - ; 1>
^
\
k 9 o -?>
7S~
4
is, ^0
!
SN
/ i'i 0 L*U
fr- Q
' il - J
OJ />/*/: ? r s?, >- -/ - CO

79
The packaging follows closely the thermal layout, all through

the overall dimensions have been increased in order to accomo-
date the EMC filters, large capacitors ard control circuits.
Fig. 14 shows the layout.
All the mechanical parts and all major electrical parts are
weighed and based on this the overall mass was calculated at
13 kg.
The breakdown of mass shows:
Transformers, inductor 2.1 kg

Electronic parts 1 .4 kg 35%
EMC filters 1 .0 kg
Heatsinks, fans 5.4 kg
Mechanical design 3.1 kg } 65%
13.0 kg
As seen the electronic parts contribute only by about a third

to the overall mass, hence some mass reductions could be thought
of by a better integration of thermal and mechanical design.
Q
m s
r
w I
H is
*
O
n
m
I
!
H
>
r
w \
2 .
Ni
c
S

a
Ss
3 -J
OD
co
O
81
4.6 EMC
The EMC design has two aspects, the line conducted noise and
the radiated noise. The noise can be further characterized by
its frequency content. Whereas the low frequency line conducted
noise can be controlled by adequate choice of converter concept
the high frequency noise must be dealt with at circuit level.
At the circuit level the major noise sources are the points where
large voltage transients are seen e.g. transistor collectors.
The voltage transients are typically in the order of 1-5 kV/psec
and hence contain a wide spectrum of high frequency noise.
Capacity coupling between a collector and the box structure en-

ables the noise to propagate over the whole structure and thus
appear as common mode noise between the input or output lines
and structure. In worse cases the noise can appear as differen-
tial mode noise on control signals, severely imparing the work-
ings of the charger.
Using aluminum oxide isolating washers between the TO-3 cases

and structure gives a capacitive coupling of about 26 pF per
transistor. On this basis the common mode noise will exceed the
spec, value by some 3 0 dB! Hence some drastic measures are needed
to reduce the capacitive coupling of the power transistors and
structure without degrading the thermal conductivity. Ref. 27,
28 and 29 deals with some of the methods that can be used.
The overall block diagram and grounding concept is shown in

fig. 15.
0 3.::
t
1
N
tf [S CM Fit-T&l
7< t> TtJLL
_j
N.
Ze^/-te/C.
73
C
O)
C.
C/
>
r
tn
2
^

\
L e- I
I I
I
' i > :
1;
1
C*sn?OLLEQ S. /(L
y^y- -
5 GD
O Cw&as. I
' ; ^SV>x/5 276S C3/.3
co
to
83
CONCLUSION
Although a complete electrically integrated charger has not been

achieved, the work carried out has demonstrated the feasibility
of the following main points.
Transistor switching at 50 kHz using a mix of high power bipolar

and low power MOS has proved feasible. A single stage can handle
2-5 kW of peak power, the limit set by allowable dissipation in
the transistor (BUX98) and its thermal interface.
A 2.3 kW DC output from a charger is possible with 4 switching

stages. It may be possible with only 2 stages, but that probably
requires a different concept e.g. 2 transistor forward in order
to reduce currents.
Mass and volume can be brought down as compared to the traditio-

nal 50 Hz charger design. Mass and volume reduction factors of
3-4 are possible. The mass is, however, very dependent upon the
charger efficiency. A poor efficiency results is larger heat
sinks and thus increasing mass. 65% of the overall mass is due
to structure and thermal interface. Forced aircooling will be
needed.
Some problems have been encountered with the halfbridge concept.

Simultaneous conduction may have resulted in tome unexplained
burn-outs; transformer ringing has caused other difficulties. In
retrospect, the 2 transistor forward converter may be a more at-
tractive candidate for a charger design.
EMC and the problems associated with it has not been tried out.
Calculations show that screens have to be used on all high vol-
tage TO-3 case transitors and on the output rectifier diodes.
Double screens must be used on the transformers.
35
APPENDIX 1
Parts list, switching stage

I
Reference Value Toleranco Type
Designation Notes 35
/?/ ^3 330Z t/o% , .SW /SoV
/\? // ACL fOW C/A/1S&S S*U*JT
4- 47 .2SM
#s.ee /on y tv
AC . 330 ru /c >
C2 C4- .. Ai/cP> avAÔC
C'J3 CS~ 330^ NKP 6 to AC^
$//QZ /fJ/6/D /?r.

$3 CS4- A/JJv/o LT X'g
AZ $ BUZ i l /^<SOAr #u < 4^Q
/ <? YS2g SZ> (/ P/A//A s

2 , >/ 4yiA24 SOV
D3tue> e>yw46h gA
>4- 3 &y 2Z3 <r#p\A
. 6 ', /Z .V 1/o% ~ZV j-O &&: 5~hA <3/tUU?
7 , >/- BVWih AV V P////
/ /G 4A/*l4~e
1/ 6/i// 3 7&< " d*J E 0///S C&E (Ptf'JLtK }

s
/ AJ<5& % J .Sfarr,
77, TZ- T/tf h /J-* 15*

s -/E ( /W//X )
><&/ M) : 4 7///3 CL ' &??>
*EC Zt I 7z"?*f c 1.**
\
COMPONENTS LIST REV. (A) SHEET g C=
/
CIRCUIT S. M&.&SStf'
OWN.
ELEKTRONIKCENTRALEN .
cr / oo
87
APPENDIX 2
Parts list, control circuits

Reference Value Tolerance m
i. yp e Notes 88
Designation
-
O 77>/?^7/<P vS/"AyV S
Uz Ch+SZ*Q<L
UZ Ch40Jl 8<L
l- Cb<4c49Bc
us Cb 4o40 foe
A/ 2>Z4-
07 l/i 3 3 9
US C4o/3Sc
$/ /2
(2. 2217
a //22Z
fot- *J20o7
as- -?V22
? )JZ1o7
t? 7 2V22ZZ
6<P 2*]<)7
"; /
i/o 2.//ZIZ.-L
Q/S J+/222Z
fn 2 /2.2.2
CZt '/4/4-S
l-L *-
ces -f
C4- -
^ i "
C*iC
CUZ7
cê 1
OM
C <*/o --
c //
CK/Z.
c->
cz/4
COMPONENTS LI ST REV. (A) SHEET ^/ FO ?.
CIRCUIT C0*JTZ/>Lj? /*.# oes. - ^ S - / J 3

CS/re& &T 0WN
^y^
ELEKTRONIKCENTRALEN APP.
Reference Value Tolerance Type Notes 89
Designation!
CJ / -/Kl 4/4?
c*e >L A -
c-e " -
CJt *
cp /^ Y\7 27
C2 .y/ s% 6ZA7() 7>///i/?s
^ 2./ S,V 5% +- *
ce zz 7 M -/4 g
C 3
C^ 2<

s*
C>C 2-6 <
CP ZI "
/ f7k 5%
/tz
i> /k.
R4- 4,7z
s 7't
3.*z -
7 3.6 k:
*4 3. 6 t
P*> -S. />
Pio
RH -
RIZ 2
kiz
R/4-
AL
R/ zzo
RJQ
Rl 7 'S
RIX zz>
Fl/")
Rio 'k.
Rz/ zzo
pzz //TO '%
R2S ~
COMPONENTS LI ST BEV. (A) SHEET 2 Of Z-
CIRCUIT ' CdJ-rrtoLL^ * oes A3 - tf<A2

C/MG^.
c^f
ELEKTRONIKCENTRALEN KPP.
Reference Value Tolerance Typ Notes 90
Designation
, -
A&4- 47 z S70
P2T Elk /'/o
2- 4.7k
.27 470.P
Ri<e Aok
Rz
24-0 L
3 SX7c. /fc
R3l 33 -zz&p AcltussAt^* ]/ s 7/.2sJ
RIZ s, e 5%
31 /*E
RS4 '5 k
RS^ 5hR_
PU 27p
RS7 27L a
$ /&t
3 set
P4c iZsk. /%
+ '2.7 k
R4z /5k *o tA/hi-hUj V0 = i/<e~/Z /

R3 Z7&P J
/ / / . . , jt.

/ff /&E
< ~ 6 /<-
~~ " ' <* T .
R4f> S 6& s-%

47 S.fA
P4f 5Z-&L
R4"i 47p
USO 3.1 k
RS? ^P
RSZ. S.3P
R^ 2.XZ
PE<- Iz -
RSS 6<?z I [/ y.v!/
/SJ. 12JC &
R<T7 ZZop -
RS? /uro f7/o

RS7/
COMPONENTS L I S T REV.(A) SHEET 5 OF ^
CIRCUIT AymtALuOt ES At OES. Z^/z-JSjg/l

C7AA*icp_ OWN.
Reference Value : Tolerance: Type Notes 91
Designation!
C7 fZofif s% /b7yci/i\j J/.,,.,J Îr/t/j
rz. . i^F % *>*-* 26y- Rj- Afp

CS o.jja
C4- A
CS 2Zti.p/4o 7><.
S%
1
C, 33P f&t,l <^ *S/t^~^s r 7*4,^1
.
C7 ,
ce a, fft % PME Z,/ ///=/? >

CO 0. */tf - -
C 0. />, F
c// 0, 7hP
c/z o./^f
0. / / , F
C/4- C t>t F

C7S ./fF
c*z / F
CA? /0>nF -
c/e /O 't F
M /
CZ* 4/0- /A^-U /vw/cyba

CZ/ JZujbF /W/^vu
czz 7.^F 2 7 ?'AIE Z4^/ &/P7) HP
C3> / 5% 7^/yei/C S "if,* s r^/tps
C?4~ % . ,
COMPONENTS LI ST REV. (A) SHEET ^L. O

F -
CIRCUIT' CO/JTTtoûE^ A< OES. J&-SSQf

Ct/A E&BP OWN.
93
LITERATURE REFERENCES
1) Safety requirements for mains operated electronic and

related apparatus for household and similar general
use.
IEC publication 65 (1978)
2) Safety of household and similar electrical appliances

IEC publication 335 series (1970)
3) The limitation of disturbances in electricity supply

networks caused by domestic and similar appliances
equipped with electronic devices.
EN 50006 (CENELEC)
or VDE 0838
4) Radio interference suppression of radio frequency equipment

for industrial, scientific and medical and similar pur-
poses.
VDE 0871
5) Properties of DC/DC converters for switched-mode power

supplies, c. van Velthooven.
Philips Application Information, March 1975.
6) A conceptually new approach for regulated DC to DC con-

verters employing transistor switches and pulsewidth control.
E.T. Calkin and B.H. Hamilton
IEEE - Trans, on Ind. App. July/August 197 6
7) Half-bridge transistor inverter for DC power conversion.

Sun Luin Kuo.
IEEE - Trans in I n d . E l e e , Nov. 1974.
94
8) The power transistor in its environment.

Thomson - CSF Semiconductor division 1978
9) The effect of emitter-base avalanching on high-voltage

power switching transistors.
Motorola application note AN-803.
10) Understanding power transistor dynamic behavior, dv/dt

effects on switching and RBSOA.
Motorola application note AN-87 3
12) Switching phenomena and base drive design

Tinus van de Wouw.
Proceedings PCI, sept. 1981.
13) Effects of base drive on switching time

Tinus van de Wouw.
Proceedings PCI, Sept. 1982
14) Application of transistor emitter-open turn-off scheme

to high voltage power inverters
D. Chen & J. Walden
IEEE PESC 81
15) A new switching configuration improves the performance

of off-time switching converters.
Peter Bardos
Proceedings of Powercon 8, 1982.
16) A new bipolar frequency power switching technology

eliminates load-line shaping.
William R. Skanadore
Proceedings of Powercon 7, 1980.
17) High voltage transistors chopping the 380/420V mains.

Klaus Rischmller'
Thomson-CSF application note No. 13
95
18) Switching stress reduction in transistor converters.

T.M. Underland
Proceedings of IEEE IAS, 1976.
19) Highcurrent transistor choppers.

H. Knll
Proceedings 2nd IFAC Symposium, Oct. 1977.
20) Design considerations of gate drive circuits for power

MOSFETS.
Raoji Patel
Unitrode Power Supply Design Seminar Manual 1982.
21) Transformer isolated HEXFET driver provides very large

duty cycle ratios.
. Wood.
HEXFET Databook 1982/83 Internation Rectifier.
22) SMPS power inductor and transformer design.

F.C. Geertings
Philips Laboratory report EPO 7904 Nov. 1979.
23) Design charts for power chokes on ferroxcube 3C8.
F.C. Geetings, J. Jongsma

Philips Laboratory report EPO 7806 Aug. 1979.
24) Improved method of powerchoke design.

J. Jongsma, L. Bradke.
Electronic Components and Applications.
Philips Feb. 1982.
96
25) Ferroxcube for power, audio/video and accelerators.

Pages C3 - C30
Philips Datahandbook Green series part 5, 1982.
26) Integrierte Schaltnetzteil TDA 4700/4718.

Siemens Technische Mitteilung aus dem Bereich Bauelemente
1980.
27) Radio frequency interference suppression in switchmode

power supplies.
L.E. Jansson
Mullard Technical Communications Oct. 1973.
28) Squelch RFI in switching supplies.

John Turnbull
Electronic Design 20, Sept. 27, 1975.
29) Output voltage spikes in switching power supplies.

J.E. Crowe
Electronic Engineering, March 1977.
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Commission of the European Communities

Contract No. EE-E-2-426-DK(G)

Research financed by the Commission of the European Communities

Directorate-General for Science, Research and Development

1985 EUR 9690 EN

ECSCEEGEAEC Brussels - Luxembourg, 1985

It is hereby reminded that the research program:

"Development of a Modular Electrochemical Storage System

is a joint effort between the Centro Ricerche FIAT (CRF)

CRF develops mainly the research related to the

- Elektronikcentralen carries out the thermal modelling

During the period November 1982 to July 1983, the following

Participation in the contractors' meeting on

Revision of battery container mathematical

Calculation of battery temperature response for

Modification of switch stage for battery charger.

Integration and packaging of charger circuits.

The work is now finished. The detailed description of the

Part 1: Thermal study of the battery.

Part 2: Development of an on board

3. AIR FLOW MODEL 9

A mathematical model of the battery has been made. The model

The temperature response in the time domain has been calcu-

The results show that overheating is unlikely to occur, but

The basis of this study is the final container design as it

2.1 Friction Pads

The friction pads between the monoblocks correspond to the

2.2 Center Rod

There is a center rod between the two rows of monoblocks. It

2.3 Container Lid

This material is only used around fittings and in other very

2.8 Bottom Ribs

2.7 Exhaust Hole

One hole of 120 mm diameter, the center of which is located

The method of calculating the air flow is the same as described

3.1 Transistion to top channel (2)

Transistion to top channel.

Equivalent cross section, m 6.74 10~ 3

Sum of resistance coefficients 3.76

3. 2 Top channel, first half monoblock (3)

Equivalent max. cross section, m 2 13.20 10"

3. 3 Top channel, center to center of two monoblocks (4)

Equivalent max. cross section, m 2 13.20 10" 3

3.4 Side channel between monoblock and container wall (5)

Equivalent cross section, m' 180 10 - 6

3.5 Mid channel between two monoblocks (6)

Equivalent cross section, m' 360 10 - 6

Equivalent length, m 5 10'

3.6 Bottom channel, side (7)

Equivalent cross section, m2 2.20 10"3

3.7 Bottom channel, center (8)

Equivalent cross section, m' 3.13 10" 3

3.8 End channel, side middle (9)

Equivalent cross section, m' 1 .2 10" 3

3.9 Exhaust channel (10)

Equivalent cross section, m 11.3' 10"3m2

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s defined by the following p o i n t s

Pressure [Pa] Flow [ 1 / si]

3.11 Resulting air flows

All air flows are given in liter/sec. The positive direction

3. Top channel, first 12.10

4. Top channel, center - 9.12 6.67 4.51 2.37 -

5. Side channel between