International Journal of Electronic Engineering Research

ISSN 0975 - 6450 Volume 1 Number 4 (2009) pp. 287298

Research India Publications
http://www.ripublication.com/ijeer.htm

Optical Sensor Based Instrument for Correlative

Analysis of Human ECG and Breathing Signal

M. Sundararajan

Principal, Sri Lakshmi Ammal Engineering College,Chennai-600 073.

E-mail: Msrajan69@gmail.com

Abstract

Optical sensors that use photons as sensing elements are increasingly

becoming important and relevant in the field of non-invasive diagnostics. The
reason is that they have a simple construction, easy to use and relatively
inexpensive in comparison with tools such as EEG, MRI and FMRI that can
be use for research purposes without much investment. Among the various
optical sensors available, the photoplethysmography (PPG) sensors that are
capable of measuring the blood volumetric changes in the subcutaneous
vessels in conjunction with sensitive temperature sensors that enables the
monitoring of breathing activity are used in the present study. Detailed
analysis of the frequency spectrum of the PPG signal shows a peak around
0.12 Hz other than the two principle frequency components namely the
cardiac peak appearing at around 1 Hz corresponding to 60 pulsations a
minute (fh) and the respiratory appearing at around 0.25 Hz corresponding to
15 inspiration/expiration cycles per minute (fb). The amplification/prominence
of the low frequency rhythms also called the relaxation rhythm that appears
around 0.12Hz(fl) in conjunction the respiratory peak during deep breathing is
reported in the present work.

Keywords: Photoplethysmography, Cardiac respiratory and low frequency

rhythm.

Introduction
The presences of two oscillators in the human body namely the heart and the lungs are
well known and widely reported in scientific literature. While heart is a closed loop
oscillator whose frequency is mostly system controlled, the lungs form an open loop
oscillator whose frequency can be voluntarily and consciously varied by the subject.
Their presence and the coupling between these two oscillators is evident by studying
288 M. Sundararajan

the frequency spectrum of the Photoplethysmography signal which is nothing but a

recording of arterial blood flow with respect to time. Other than these two principal
frequency components one for the heart appearing at around 1 Hz corresponding to
60 pulsations a minute (fh) and the other for lungs appearing at around 0.25 Hz
corresponding to 15 inspiration/expiration cycles per minute (fb), one more frequency
component is observed at lower frequencies around 0.12 Hz from the study of PPG
signal mentioned above. Though only little scientific attention has been paid to the
physiological significance of this rhythm, it gained attention after emergence of the
fact that this rhythm was the simultaneous individual experience of profound
relaxation. Consequently, this rhythm was investigated during controlled relaxation
induced by hypnotic relaxation (autogenic training, AT) which caused this rhythm to
emerge abruptly [15]. The physiological details of the mechanisms governing this
phenomenon, however, remained poorly understood.
The possible reasons for the appearance of this low frequency component could be
the frequency modulation due to a slight heart arrhythmia known to occur inhaling
and exhaling [1], myogenic or neurogenic process of coupling [2], the coupling
between the already present low frequency rhythm and the arterial blood volumetric
changes [2], a sub-harmonic via parametric-coupling or hystereisis effects either
mechanically by thorax motion or unspecified nervous effects [3], nonlinear coupling
between left and right sections of the heart [4], similar primary respiration rhythm in
osteopathy [5], natural oscillations in the vascular system, various metabolic process,
the action of so far unknown internal clock [5] or the phenomenon of mixing between
the two fundamental frequency components described above. Even though multiple
frequency components (such as (fh+fb), (fh+2fb), (fh+3fb), (fh+4fb) (fh-fb), (fh-2fb), (fh-
3fb), (fh-4fb)) would be generated by this mixing, the higher frequency components
will be damped by the human body. However the lower frequency components are
relatively amplified. One reason for this could be the non-linear nature of the human
body and the other reason could be the frequency resonance between that particular
frequency component which is amplified and the natural frequency of oscillation of
the human body as defined by the theory of physics. The occurrence of this low
frequency rhythm is reported in scientific literature under different conditions
associated with autogenic training exercises [6] and controlled breathing (pranayama)
exercises [7].

Photoplethysmography
Photoplethysmograph is a non-invasive technique that measures relative blood
volume changes in the blood vessels close to the skin. The first paper on PPG dates
back to 1936 when Molitor and Kniazak [8] recorded peripheral circulatory changes
in animals. In recent years, it has developed into a popular non-invasive method for
assessing mean arterial blood pressure and oxygen saturation (Pulse Oximeter). The
measurement of blood volumetric changes in the skin perfusion by means of PPG
depends on the fact that blood absorbs infrared light many times more strongly than
the remaining skin tissues.
Optical Sensor Based Instrument for Correlative 289

Optical properties of the Biological tissues

The basic principle behind the measurement of blood volumetric changes in the skin
by means of PPG is the fact that hemoglobin in the blood absorbs infrared light many
times stronger than the remaining skin tissues. It is known that in the range of
invisible infrared light around 900nm there is a particularly favorable measurement
window for optical sensing. Only a small proportion of the entering light is absorbed
by the epidermis.
There is also a large difference between the reflection of the bloodless skin and
the reflection from the vessels filled with blood. In bloodless skin 60% of the light is
reflected back whereas in the skin with blood, 6% is reflected back (Figure. 2.1).
Since the full blood vessels reflected approximately 10 times less light than the skin
tissue without blood, they appear as dark lines against a relatively light background
[9].

Figure 2.1: Optical characteristics of the biological tissues in the Visible and Infrared
region.

As the blood pressure in the skin vessels decreases, the surface area of the vessels
will reduce. This increases the average reflection in the measuring window, so it will
be recorded as an increase in the PPG signal. The optoelectronic measuring principle
of the PPG thus depends on detecting the changes in reflection of the sub-epidermal
layers of skin during and after a defined movement or occlusion routine, which causes
variations in the volume of the vessel plexuses in the skin [9]. As the optical radiation
is introduced into tissue, part of the photons will be reflected directly by the skin
surface, another fraction will be distributed in the tissue by absorption or scattering,
while the remaining photons will travel into the tissue either straight through or with a
number of collisions.
The simplest PPG sensor consists of an infrared LED and a photo detector placed
in a small plastic housing. It is shown in Figure 2.2. The sensor is applied to the skin
290 M. Sundararajan

by means of a double-faced adhesive ring. The sensor can be either of transmitting

type or reflecting type [9].

Figure 2.2: Photoplethysmograph Sensor and Measuring window under the Sensor.

Advantages of PPG
PPG offers several advantages over other in-vivo optical methods like Laser Doppler
Flowmetry (LDF). PPG uses inexpensive optical sensors, which are rugged and needs
little maintenance. Since it consumes very less power and can be powered by a battery
pack, it is an ideal ambulatory device. The PPG signal contains a rich source of
information related to cardio-pulmonary system. A range of clinically relevant
parameters like heart rate, respiratory rate, and respiratory induced intensity
variations-RIIV can be obtained from the PPG signal. PPG can be used in the study of
neurologically induced skin perfusion changes [10], asymmetry of the brain [11], etc.

Breathing
Breathing is the most important function of the human body which is fundamental for
its very survival. This maintains the oxygen level in the blood stream to the required
amounts, which when transported through the arteries will metabolize various
functions that the human body performs [12]. In maintaining good health, the quality
of breathing process plays an important role that is the manner in which oxygen is
inspired and carbon dioxide is expired. The external nose serves to gather air and
accelerate its flow, forming a rapid jet that enters the cavity within the face - the
internal nose. The internal nose is strategically connected to the brain. In addition, the
olfactory nerve responsible for the sense of smell is present in the upper compartment
of the nasal cavity and has its nerve endings in most parts of that compartment [13].

Normal Breathing
Normally, the air enters and leaves the lungs at a rate of 14 to 16 times per minute
with out one being aware of it. The depth and the rate of normal breathing is regulated
peripherally and automatically to meet the oxygen needed by the cells and to
discharge the carbon dioxide accumulated in it. It is interesting to note that in a
Optical Sensor Based Instrument for Correlative 291

normal subject, there is a right-left asymmetry of breath flow. Breathing is

predominant either through the right nostril or through the left nostril. If nothing is
done to interfere with the rhythmic functioning of the body, this will tend to alternate
in a periodic fashion. The predominance of breathing through one nostril lasts for 1-2
hours after which it shifts to the other nostril. The flow increases in one side until it
reaches a peak, and then it begins to decrease. Finally, most of the air starts flowing
through the opposite nostril. Though this is a natural biological rhythm, it can be
interfered voluntarily or by extraneous factors like emotional disturbances etc [13].

Deep Breathing (Protocol followed in making the measurements)

The subject is first informed about the protocol to be followed in deep breathing. Here
breathing is done consciously and continuously such that the stomach and the chest of
the subject remain fully stretched after one full inspiration. During expiration the
subject is requested to expire as much as possible continuously with out break and
then start inspiration again. Essential care is taken to ensure that inspiration and
expiration is done with the same force. It is generally believed that under normal
breathing conditions, an average adult person takes in about 500 cc, but in the case of
deep breathing the amount of air filled into the lungs is roughly about 2000-3000 cc.
Since inspiration is done with a force, it hits the olfactory bulbs on its way to the
lungs.

Experimental Setup
Experimental Setup and Data Acquisition
The PPG sensors were properly placed on the left and right temples of the subject
with the Tx and the Rx in line with blood vessel, after thoroughly cleaning the surface
of the skin with clinical spirit to avoid dust related artifacts. The subject is also
requested not make any movements when the measurement is in progress in order to
record a superior quality signal free from motion artifacts. Then the thermistors with
dimensions in the order of few microns are introduced into the left and right nostrils
of the subject without causing any irritation to him, this will give a recording of the
breathing pattern for the left and right nostrils that are independent of each other.
Finally the ECG sensors are placed appropriately. The sensors placements,
amplification settings, filter settings, ambient light in the room and all the other
necessary connections are thoroughly crosschecked by two people before the
experiment began.
Figure 4.1 shows a typical PPG signal from the modified optical sensor with some
artifacts. Any variation in the optical coupling, between the sensor head and the
subject, or physiological changes which dynamically alter the transmitted light give
rise to what is commonly termed as motion artifact [14]. In fact even a simple
movement may produce a complex motion artifact. Ambient light can also cause
artifact by coupling to the probe receiver, either directly or by transmission through
tissue. Whilst it is theoretically straightforward to remove ambient artifact, practical
limitations mean that sufficiently bright or high frequency artificial light sources can
still cause artifact. The normal PPG signal, which is free from artifacts, is shown in
292 M. Sundararajan

the figure 4.1. Figures 4.2 and Figure 4.3 show the breathing signal and ECG signal
recorded under normal breathing conditions respectively.

Figure 4.1: Atypical PPG signal free of any Figure 4.2: Atypical breathing signal free of any
artifact. artifact.

Figure 4.3: Atypical ECG signal free of any artifact.

Procedure, Data Analysis and Results

Protocol followed while making the measurements (Procedure)
The measurements are carried out with the above setup under two different breathing
conditions viz. Normal breathing and Deep breathing, each for a duration of 5-10
minutes with a time gap of 5 minutes between them. Protocols for normal and deep
breathing are discussed above. Measurements were also made on the subjects who
were made to relax through autogenic relaxation technique for comparison. Autogenic
relaxation is done by visualizing every part of the body and feeling that it is relaxed,
this kind of relaxation done for 15 minutes before the measurement is started on that
subject. This autogenic relaxation technique was suggested by Sanyasi Krishna
Yogam, Chennai and the measurements were made on subjects trained by him. Seven
male subjects and three female subjects with a mean age of 22 years with no breathing
disorders are taken for the present study.

Data logging and filtering

The Universes II system that is capable of recording PPG, breathing and ECG signals
synchronized in time is used for making the measurements in the present study. The
PPG, breathing and the ECG signals are recorded at a sampling rate of 250Hz. The
Optical Sensor Based Instrument for Correlative 293

measurement system has a built in notch filter for removing the 50 Hz noise. The
system also has an inbuilt variable filter confined to each channel, this was used as a
25Hz low-pass filter for removing other noises while making the measurements. The
resulting graph gives a good idea on how the signal develops with respect to time
focusing on the signal shape and amplitude.

Signal processing
Next step in evaluating the raw signal is the application of Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT). For filtration of the raw data, application of Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) /
Power Spectral Density (PSD) and plotting graphs, the Diadem 7.0 program is used.
FFT gives a graph that clearly portrays the power distribution of the signal over the
entire frequency spectrum. As the FFT of the PPG signal contains numerous peaks,
Power spectral density which nothing but the square of FFT has been used to evade
confusion.
Usually the cardiac peak is the most dominant peak in the power spectrum of any
normal PPG recording. A relatively weaker peak will be detectable at the breathing
frequency. Other than these two peaks, a peak may be detected varying over a wide
range 0.14 and less, depending on the mental and physical condition of the subject
under study. Though several explanations are given for the appearance of this low
frequency component, the origin is still debatable.

Observations and Results

A typical PPG sensor that has emitter (LED operating at 940nm) and a photodetector
abutting each other is shown in Figure 2.2. When placed on the surface of the skin,
the infrared (IR) radiation from the emitter penetrates up to 3-5mm in side the skin
and the scattered light from the arteries close to the skin will be picked up by the
photo-detector and amplified by the Universes II measurement system before it
reaches the analog to digital converter which in turn connects to the computer where
the data is recorded. The reflectance of the arteries depends up on the apparent size
which is a function of the local blood pressure that allows us to record the arterial
blood volumetric changes in that part of the human body.
Figure 5.1 the Power spectral Density (PSD) of PPG signal picked up by the
optical sensors positioned appropriately on temples of a subject in normal condition
before performing the autogenic relaxation described in section 5.1. The same figure
shows the PSD of ECG signal and FFT of the breathing signal that were recorded in
conjunction with PPG signal. The most dominant peak in the PPG spectrum at 0.9 Hz
shown in Figure 5.1 (c) corresponds to the peak at 0.9 Hz in the ECG denotes the
beating frequency of the heart. The same PPG spectrum shows a barely detectable
peak at 0.3 Hz that corresponds with the peak at 0.3 Hz in frequency spectrum (FFT)
of the breathing signal recorded by the thermistors sensors placed inside the nostrils
of the subject.
.
294 M. Sundararajan

(a) PSD of ECG Signal (b) FFT of Breathing Signal

(c) PSD of PPG Signal

Figure 5.1: Spectral analysis of ECG, Breathing and PPG data before performing
autogenic relaxation

Figure 5.2 shows a similar spectral analysis done on a similar data that were
recorded on the same subject after performing the autogenic relaxation described in
section 5.1. By carefully comparing the several spectral components that are
discussed above in figures 5.1 and 5.2, several interesting features may be observed.
First of all a much stronger and sharper (narrow width) breathing peak may be clearly
noticed in the spectral analysis of the PPG signal recorded after autogenic relaxation
in comparison with the measurements done before the autogenic relaxation

PSD of ECG Signal (b) FFT of Breathing Signal

Optical Sensor Based Instrument for Correlative 295

PSD of PPG Signal

Figure 5.2: Spectral analysis of ECG, Breathing and PPG data after performing
autogenic relaxation.

Apart from this an important low frequency peak at 0.12 Hz may be observed in
PSD of the PPG signal in figure 5.2 which was not present in the PPG spectrum of the
signal that was recorded before performing autogenic relaxation. This periodic low
frequency component around 0.12-0.14 Hz may disappear and reoccur after some
time number of times from time to time [5]. This low frequency rhythm is also
defined as relaxation rhythm in scientific literature.
In the second phase of the experiment the PPG breathing and ECG data were
recorded under two different breathing conditions viz. Normal breathing and Deep
breathing, the protocol for deep breathing is described in section 5.1.
Figure 5.1 the spectral analysis (PSD) of PPG signal picked up by the optical
sensors positioned appropriately on the left and right temples of a subject under
normal breathing conditions. The same figure shows the FFT of the breathing signal
picked from the left and right nostrils using the miniature thermistors sensors.
The PPG spectrum shows dominant peak at 1 Hz corresponding to the heart rate
and a relatively weaker peak may be noticed at 0.3 Hz corresponding to the breathing
rate. It is an established fact that one does not breath with the same force thorough
both the nostrils, one nostril is always more prominent than the other. This
prominence shifts from one nostril to the other with a periodicity of two to eight hours
[17]. This one-nostril prominence can be clearly noticed from the FFT spectrum of the
breathing signal recorded from the left and right nostrils shown in the Figure 5.3, the
strength of the breathing activity through the right nostril is roughly three times that of
the left nostril.
Figure 5.4 shows a similar spectral analysis done on a similar data that were
recorded on the same subject while he was performing deep, the protocol for deep
breathing is elaborated in section 5.1. By cautiously studying the PPG spectra shown
in figures 5.3 and 5.4, it may be noticed that the breathing peak in the spectrum is
much sharper and has a slightly lower frequency pertaining to the protocol followed
for deep breathing. More importantly a prominent peak can be noticed at a frequency
marginally less than 0.12 Hz which has no harmonic relation with the respiratory
296 M. Sundararajan

activity or the cardiac activity, this is similar to the low frequency peak obtained in
the PPG spectrum of the data recorded after autogenic relaxation. It may also be noted
that respiratory peak and the cardiac peak are at multiple of a frequency or in other
words the ratio of heart rate to breathing rate is an integer in the case of deep
breathing. It may also be noted that the harmonics of the cardiac and the respiratory
peaks are strengthened during deep breathing.

Figure 5.3: Spectral analysis Breathing and PPG data recorded during normal
breathing

Figure 5.4: Spectral analysis Breathing and PPG data recorded during deep breathing.
Optical Sensor Based Instrument for Correlative 297

Discussions and Conclusion

The comparative study of the PPG signal captured during normal breathing and deep
breathing clearly shows that deep breathing strengthens both the low frequency
rhythm or the relaxation rhythm and the respiratory component. Though the source of
this low frequency rhythm is clearly speculative, leaning on the phenomenon of
resonation, correctly this rhythm could a result of resonation between the already
present rhythm (around 0.12 Hz) and the frequency component that may result from
the mixing of the operating frequency of the heart and the lungs. A second possible
mechanism would involve the coupling between the already present low frequency
rhythm and the blood volumetric changes.
It is also noted that deep breathing leads to increased coupling between the operation
of heart and the lungs that will lead to optimum exchange of gases which if very
important for maintaining vital status. The control centers for the cardiac and respiratory
control located close to each other in the brain. This increased coupling may be attributed
to the stimulation of this control center in the brain through the stimulation of the
ethmoidal nerve by air touching the upper chamber of the nose during deep breathing.
This analysis believe that practicing deep breathing will improve physical and
mental relaxation and in turn improve human well-being and correct various
respiratory problems. Besides alternate deep breathing through the two nasal canals,
as prescribed by pranayama can lead to the correction of the various asymmetrical
problems pertaining to the human brain.

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