Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
org/
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Fourth Edition
Robert E. Sheriff
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
Conventions Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
iii
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iv
v Reference Tables and Figures
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The twelve years since the third edition manuscript was finished have seen many new devel-
opments. Using seismic data for hydrocarbon production decisions has become almost routine.
Visualization has become important in helping us better understand relationships. We now realize
that most of what we formerly considered noise is actually geologic signal that we did not
understand. We combine and interpret attributes and try to relate them to physical properties. AVO
has become routine. We are beginning to quantify the anisotropic aspects of the real world.
Multicomponent recording and interpretation of converted waves have proven their value in a
number of situations. Downhole digitization of well logs has enormously increased the fidelity and
amount of data about subsurface conditions. Recognition of hazards by noninvasive methods is
growing. Our vocabulary has expanded because of geostatistics, neural networks, anisotropy,
tomography, horizontal drilling, multicomponent acquisition, deep-water work, etc. These factors
have all contributed to increasing our vocabulary.
The foregoing factors and actual applications also indicate that the title used in previous
editions, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Exploration Geophysics, has become too restrictive and
consequently I have modified the title to Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Geophysics to
conform with current practice.
What has always concerned me is what words should be included. If you do not find here the
word you are looking for I probably did not think to include it, I hope you will tell me so that I
can include it in the next revision. I try to be alert to words that are not in the Encyclopedic
Dictionary when I discover them in reading or hear them in a talk or conversation, and I often jot
down the word on a scrap of paper and then periodically enter these into a computer file for
consideration for the next edition. My list for this edition began when I shipped off the manuscript
for the previous edition, and I have already begun a list for the next edition. Please suggest words
that you would like to have included so that they can be considered. I would, of course, also
appreciate receiving any corrections or other comments about this edition. My goal is to provide
a reference book that is useful to geophysicists.
Robert E. Sheriff
Houston, 20 March 2001
vii
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Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments
II greatly
greatly appreciate
appreciate the
the help
help that
that many
many people
people have
have given
given me
me in
in efforts
efforts to
to make
make this
this work
work useful.
useful.
II have
have tried
tried to
to keep
keep aa record
record of
of those
those who
who helped
helped but
but undoubtedly
undoubtedly II have
have missed
missed some
some and
and II
apologize to
apologize to them.
them. II have
have borrowed
borrowed many
many potential-field
potential-eld definitions
denitions from
from IGC
IGC 1996
1996 andand Goussev
Goussev
and Peirce
and Peirce 1999.
1999 . II especially
especially wish
wish to
to acknowledge
acknowledge the the huge
huge contributions
contributions byby Dan
Dan Ebrom
Ebrom and
and Bob
Bob
Bruce and
Bruce and mymy colleagues
colleagues at at the
the University
University ofof Houston.
Houston. And
And II again
again thank
thank mymy wife,
wife, Margaret,
Margaret, for
for
her advice
her advice and
and support.
support.
II have
have merged
merged the the names
names of of contributors
contributors with
with those
those ofof the
the preceding
preceding editions
editions on
on which
which this
this
edition is
edition is built.
built. A
A number
number ofof the
the names
names areare repeats
repeats and
and II very
very much
much appreciate
appreciate their
their continuing
continuing
help. A
help. A number
number of of the
the names
names are
are also
also of
of those
those who
who are
are nono longer
longer with
with us
us and
and we
we are
are thus
thus reminded
reminded
of how
of how much
much we we owe
owe them
them for
for their
their contributions
contributions to to geophysics.
geophysics.
Aina, Adebayo
Aina, Adebayo Butler, John
Butler, John Dobrin, Milton
Dobrin, Milton
Al-Chalabi, M.
Al-Chalabi, M. Bybee, Halbert
Bybee, Halbert H. H. Domenico, Norman
Domenico, Norman
Alexander, Mike
Alexander, Mike Carlile, R.
Carlile, R. E.
E. Donovan, Mike
Donovan, Mike T.T.
Ahmad, F.
Ahmad, F. I.I. Calvert, Andrew
Calvert, Andrew J. J. Dragoset,
Doo, Jung Bill
Jim
Aldridge, David
Aldridge, David F. F. Carmichael, R.
Carmichael, R. S.
S. Duffy, John
Dragoset, Bill
Allingham, John
Allingham, John W.
W. Castellussi, George
Castellussi, George Eaton, John
Duffy, Perry
Anderson, Brian
Anderson, Brian Cavers, D.
Cavers, D. A.
A. Ebrom,Perry
Eaton, Dan
Antonelli, Philip
Antonelli, Philip D.D. Chambers, Richard
Chambers, Richard L. L. Edelmann,
Ebrom, DanH. A. K.
Asten, Michael
Asten, Michael Chapin, David
Chapin, David Eggers, Dwight
Edelmann, H. A.E.K.
Astern, M.
Astern, M. W. W. Chen, Quincy
Chen, Quincy Eisner, Elmer
Eggers, Dwight E.
Ballantyne, Edwin
Ballantyne, Edwin J. J. Chen, Thomas
Chen, Thomas C. C. Eppert, Elmer
Eisner, Herb
Bancroft, John
Bancroft, John C. C. Cherepovski, Anatoly
Cherepovski, Anatoly Evans, Randy
Eppert, Herb L.
Barasch, Linda
Barasch, Linda S. S. Christensen, A.
Christensen, A. D.
D. Ferderer,
Evans, Robert
Randy L. J.
Barnes, Art
Barnes, Art Cidinsky, Karel
Cidinsky, Karel Finklea, E.
Ferderer, E. J.
Robert
Barnes, Barbara
Barnes, Barbara S. S. Claerbout, Jon
Claerbout, Jon F.
F. Frazier, S.
Finklea, E. B.
E.
Barnett, Wayne
Barnett, Wayne S. S. Clarj, C.
Clarj, M.
C. M. Frost, Noel
Frazier, S. B.
Barr, Fred
Barr, Fred Claude, Ph.
Claude, Ph. Gajkowski,
Frost, Noel Wynn
Bean, R.
Bean, R. J.
J. Corbett, J.
Corbett, J. D.
D. Galbraith, James
Gajkowski, WynnN.
Bexdam, Sanbdor
Bexdam, Sanbdor Correa, Gus
Correa, Gus Gardner, G.
Galbraith, H. F.N.
James
Bhattacharya, B.
Bhattacharya, B. B.
B. Cox, Mike
Cox, Mike Gardner, G.
Gardner, L. W.
H. F.
Bird, Dale
Bird, Dale Crampin, Stuart
Crampin, Stuart Geldart, Lloyd
Gardner, L. W. P.
Boerner, David
Boerner, David Cressman, Ken
Cressman, Ken S.S. Georgi, Daniel
Geldart, Lloyd P.
Bowers, Glenn
Bowers, Glenn Daniel, D.
Daniel, D. B.
B. Ghiselin,Daniel
Georgi, Richard G.
Braunstein, Jules
Braunstein, Jules Daniels, Jeffrey
Daniels, Jeffrey Goetz, J. Richard
Ghiselin, F. G.
Bremner, Doug
Bremner, Doug Davis, Bob
Davis, Bob Goldstein,
Goetz, J. F.Norman E.
Brown, Alistair
Brown, Alistair R.R. Davenport, G.
Davenport, G. Clark
Clark Goussev, Serguei
Goldstein, Norman E.
Brown, R.
Brown, R. James
James Dellinger, Joe
Dellinger, Joe Green, Ronald
Goussev, Serguei
Bruce, Bob
Bruce, Bob Denham, Leslie
Denham, Leslie R.R. Hadsell,Ronald
Green, Frank
Bullock, S.
Bullock, S. J.J. Dewan, John
Dewan, John T.T. Hall, Stuart
Hadsell, FrankA.
Burg, Kenneth
Burg, Kenneth E. E. Diggons, Bill
Diggons, Bill Hansen,
Hall, Rochard
Stuart A.
Burns, G.
Burns, G. W.
W. Dix, C.
Dix, C. H.
H. Hann, John
Hansen, Rochard
Butler, Butch
Butler, Butch Dobecki, T.
Dobecki, T. L.
L. Hardage,
Hann, JohnBob
viii
viii
ix Acknowledgments
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ROBERT E. SHERIFF
HOUSTON, 1972
x
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Conventions Used
As in the previous editions, I use the following conventions:
1 Entries usually begin with the heart of a definition, although occasionally a discussion is
given first to provide a frame of reference.
Restrictions on meaning sometimes are contained in a discussion which follows rather
than being incorporated into the definition itself. Terms indicated as being synonymous
are often used interchangeably even though they may not be identical in all respects.
2 The numbering within an entry indicates different meanings, but the sequence does not
indicate preference.
Where meanings are contradictory, this is stated explicitly and, in some cases, a preferred
usage is indicated and an alternative suggested to avoid ambiguity. Letters subdivide an
entry without implying differences in meaning.
Only specialized meaning in geophysics are included.
3 Words in italics refer the reader to another entry that supplements the meaning.
Cross-references are shown only where needed to complete the meaning. They are
indicated by see, compare, or q.v. quo vide.
Cross-references also indicate preferences. For example, P-wave is preferred to other
terms meaning the same thing, so the other terms are referred to the P-wave entry.
Likewise, common midpoint is preferred to common depth point or common
reflection point because it expresses more accurately what it is that is common.
4 Bold face within an entry indicates additional terms that are in effect defined here.
5 Tradenames are indicated where they are in general use. Where used for a class of
devices, an entry may begin with a lower-case letter even though the tradename begins
with a capital. Neither inclusion nor exclusion of tradenames implies judgments about the
merits of devices or processes.
6 References suggest a place to begin looking for further information. Readers who want
more information will generally find additional sources suggested in the cited references.
References are listed in the back. Usually a readily available single source is cited.
The citation of a reference does not imply the original source nor the most complete or
current reference.
7 Figures have been kept simple to illustrate the terminology and the most important
features of concepts without attempting to make them realistic or illustrate all features.
Figures, tables, and boxes have been incorporated into one sequence identified
numerically within each letter of the alphabet to aid in locating them. Entries that are
most apt to be used for reference are listed immediately following the table of contents.
8 Pronunciations are indicated by the fairly simple code listed in the separate Guide to
Pronunciation. I found appreciable differences in pronunciation as well as in definitions
among the dictionaries I consulted Guralnik, 1972; Jackson, 1997; Morris, 1969; Oxford,
1971; Parker, 1993; Stein, 1966, some making subtle distinctions that seem unnecessary.
9 I have attempted to conform with current SEG practice as to whether compound words
are one word, hyphenated, two words, or italicized. Such decisions are sometimes
arbitrary.
xi
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Guide to Pronunciation
An apostrophe indicates the syllable to be most strongly accented and a comma , indicates
a syllable to be secondarily accented.
The following symbols are used to indicate pronunciations:
a as in act, that
a as in aid, date
ch as in charge, beach
d as in do, had
e as in ebb, ten
e as in equal, team
as in unaccented syllables, e.g., alone, agent, sanity, gallop, focus
f as in fit, differ
g as in give, dog
h as in hit, behind
i as in if, bit
i as in ice, bite
j as in joy, digit
k as in cast, kill, make
l as in let, mellow
m as in met, summer
n as in now, dent
o as in ox, top
o as in over, boat
oi as in oil, boy
oo as in hoot
ou as in out, power
p as in put, slip
r as in red, hurry
s as in sign, miss
t as in ten, cat
th as in thin, path
u as in up, love
u as in use, fuel
v as in voice, weave
w as in wind, away
y as in yet, lawyer
z as in zoo, those
zh as in vision, treasure
xii
A
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a: Sl symbol for year annum. abnormal pressure: The difference between pore fluid
A: 1. Ampere q.v., the SI unit of electrical current. 2. See pressure and normal pressure q.v.. Normal pressure is
A-type section. 3. The amplitude at normal incidence in the pressure produced by a column of formation water
AVO studies, where the amplitude is often approxi- extending to the surface hydrostatic pressure. Fluid
mated by the equation AB sin2 , where is the pressure that is lower than normal pressure is called
angle of incidence. underpressure or subpressure and that greater than
: The Greek letter alpha q.v., often used to indicate normal, overpressure q.v.. The seismic effects of
P-wave velocity. abnormal pressure are discussed in Sheriff and Geldart
: P-wave velocity parallel to the direction of the sym- 1995, 126 128.
metry axis; see Thomsen anisotropic parameters. abort: To terminate without running to completion, as to
AAPG-A: An exchange format for transfer of geologic abort a computer run.
and petroleum data. See Shaw and Waller 1989. ab plane: See axial surface.
AB,A*B: Denotes ways sum, product in which AVO AB rectangular array: Gradient array; see array (electri-
intercept and slope are combined to yield a single cal).
index, where amplitude is expressed as AB sin2 , absolute gravity: The absolute acceleration of the Earths
being the angle of incidence. gravity field as opposed to relative gravity such as
abandon: To cease producing oil or gas from a well when measured by conventional gravimeters. Absolute grav-
it becomes unprofitable. Before a well is abandoned, ity can be measured using a corner-cube reflector fall-
usually some of the casing is removed and cement ing in a small vacuum chamber, the position of the
plugs are placed in the borehole to prevent migration of reflector being measured with a laser interferometer.
fluids between formations. Portable absolute gravimeters are now in experimental
ABC method: A method of computing refractor depth exploration use. They can be operated in sets coupled
based on refracted arrivals from sources near the sur- by fiber optics to measure absolute gravity gradients
face. Especially used for determinations of weathering directly. See Niebauer et al. 1995 and Brown et al.
thickness from sources above the base of the weather- 2000.
ing. See Figure A-1. The weathering time t W is some- absorbing boundary: A boundary that does not reflect
times multiplied by a k-factor to give the vertical energy.
weathering time: absorption: ab sorp shn or ab zorp shn 1. A process
t wV 1 whereby energy is converted into heat while passing
t v kt w 2 . through a medium. Absorption for seismic waves is
V 1 V 22 typically about 0.25 dB/cycle and may be as large as
AB electrodes: The current electrodes in resistivity sur- 0.5 dB/cycle. See Q, Toksoz and Johnston 1982, and
veying and well logging. Current is passed between the Figure A-2. Absorption involves change of amplitude
A and B electrodes and voltage is measured between and velocity with frequency; it is thus a mechanism but
the M and N electrodes. See Figures A-18, A-19, and not the only one for attenuating high frequencies and
E-10. At least one of the electrodes is usually at the changing waveshape. Peg-leg multiples, which do not
surface. involve absorption, produce effects that are similar. 2.
Abelian: be n or be
le l yn Commutative q.v.. The process by which radiant energy is converted into
Named for Niels Henrik Abel 18021829, Norwegian other forms of energy. 3. The penetration of the mol-
mathematician. ecules or ions of a substance into the interior of a solid
abnormal end: Premature termination of a computer pro- or liquid.
gram caused by a hardware or software error. Verb: absorptance: ab sorp tns or ab zorp tns The ability of
abort. a substance to absorb incident energy.
FIG. A-1. ABC weathering method. Weathering time t W below B is t w (t AB t BC t AC )/2 where t AB
surface-to-surface time from A to B (obtained by adding the uphole time to the first-break time), etc.
1
absorption band 2 acoustic log
absorption band: The range of wavelengths within which cancel, possibly adding up to a larger cumulative error.
energy is absorbed by a substance. Atmospheric absorp- accuracy: 1. The degree of freedom from error q.v.; the
tion of electromagnetic energy is shown in Figure E-11. total error compared to the true value. Compare
absorption coefficient: If the amplitude A is expressed as precision, uncertainty, and sensitivity. 2. The ability of
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FIG. A-2. Absorption terminology. Sometimes this terminology is used for attenuation because of factors other than
absorption. Eenergy, Eenergy lost in one cycle, wavelength, ffrequency, xdistance, ttime, A/A 0
amplitude/(initial amplitude), A 1 /A 2 amplitude/(amplitude one cycle later). (From Sheriff, 1989, 330.)
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acoustic log
3
FIG. A-3. Acoustic impedance section generated by inverting a seismic section. (Courtesy Teknica.)
acoustic log
acoustic medium 4 Adams-Williamson equation
different distances sonic log, continuous-velocity log, waves are often distinct arrivals. 3. More generally,
measurement of the amplitude of part of the wavetrain any elastic wave or seismic wave.
amplitude log, display of the full-waveform character acoustic wave equation:
log, 3D log, VDL-log, micro-seismogram log, signature
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log, crossed-dipole log; sometimes named for the log- 2 P/x 2 /k 2 P/t 2 or
ging objective cement-bond log, fracture log. 2. Spe-
cifically, a sonic log q.v.
acoustic medium: See acoustic. 2 /x 2 /k 2 /t 2 ,
acoustic network: Combination of acoustic generators
pingers and detectors, such as deployed at the front, where Ppressure, density, kbulk modulus.
midpoint, and tails of streamers to determine the rela- Acoustilog: Acoustic-velocity log or sonic log q.v..
tive positions of the elements; bracing q.v.. Dresser-Atlas trade name.
acoustic positioning: 1. Determining location using sonar acquisition footprint or imprint: A pattern in data
waves, as by Doppler-sonar q.v. or locating with caused by the acquisition method or changes in the
respect to fixed sonar transponders. 2. Determining the methods, such as coherence changes where acquisition
distance between elements of a towed array by measur- parameters or methods change, or alignments caused by
ing traveltimes between the elements. 3. Determining the direction of data acquisition. Footprints generally
the positions of ocean-bottom seismometers by timing do not have geologic significance.
arrivals from first arrivals in production surveying or ACTI: The Advanced Computational Technology Initia-
from specific positioning shots. tive project of the U.S. Department of Energy labora-
acoustic transparency: A medium with constant acoustic tories that numerically modeled two SEG-EAGE 3D
impedance so that there are no reflections from within overthrust and subsalt models. See SEG-EAGE seismic
it. model, and Figure S-3.
acoustic velocity log: Sonic log q.v.. activation logging: A well-logging technique in which the
acoustic wave: 1. A P-wave, sometimes restricted to formation is irradiated with neutrons that transmute
P-waves in fluids, but often including those in the solid some nuclei into radioisotopes. The radiation from the
earth. Synonyms: sound wave, sonic wave. 2. The radioisotopes is measured after a short time interval.
wavetrain generated and detected by a sonic-logging activation overvoltage: See overvoltage.
sonde see acoustic log and Figure A-4. The wavetrain active: 1. A system or circuit that includes an energy
is a composite of various modes of energy transfer. The source. Often pertains to electronic elements such as
first arrival usually results from P-waves traveling in amplifiers and filters. Compare passive. 2. A method
the adjacent formation, where the sonic log measures which involves artificially induced signals. For
the slowness specific transit time or inverse of its example, see controlled-source electromagnetics. 3. A
velocity. An S-wave traveling in the formation is positioning system that involves transmission from the
sometimes a second arrival, but sometimes the second mobile station that is to be located.
arrival is a tube wave in the borehole fluid. Waves active beacon: See passive.
traveling through the mud usually have relatively high- active fault: A fault along which slip has occurred in
frequency content. Modes of high-amplitude, low- historical, Holocene, or Quaternary time.
frequency tube waves sometimes called Stoneley active layer: The layer above permafrost that thaws in the
summer.
active margin: A continental margin where one plate is
being subducted under another plate because of plate
convergence. See Figure P-5. Also called a Pacific or
convergent margin. Antonym: passive, Atlantic, or
trailing margin.
active microwave: Radar q.v..
activity: The relative tendency of a substance to enter into
a reaction. When shales adjacent to a reservoir act as
perfect cationic membranes and the permeable bed is
clean, the electrochemical SP q.v. can be found from
the activities of the formation water and mud filtrate,
which depend on the concentrations of dissolved salts.
AD: Analog to digital q.v..
Ada: a da A U.S. Department of Defense computer
language used for real-time applications. Named for
Ada Augusta Byron, Countess of Lovelace 1815
1852, English computer inventor.
Adachi formulas: dach Equations for solving the
multilayer dipping-refractor problem where the spread
is perpendicular to the strike. See Adachi 1954 or
Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 433 434.
Adams-Williamson equation: An equation to determine
the density of the Earth as a function of radius. See
FIG. A-4. Acoustic wavetrain in a borehole (idealized). Fowler 1990, 108 109.
adaptive processing 5 age dating
adaptive processing: Data processing where the param- copters. Surveys are usually flown at constant elevation
eters are varied with arrival time or location as data above sea level, but sometimes in drape surveys q.v.
statistics change. they are flown at a constant elevation above the
adder: A logic circuit whose output represents the sum of somewhat-smoothed surface.
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aggradation: ag r da shn The upward building of the aircraft signature: The effect of the aircraft on magneto-
Earths solid surface by deposition of sediments; meter measurements. See compensation test.
upbuilding. Refers to both marine deposition and air drill: A drill that removes cuttings by circulating air.
deposition by a stream to maintain its grade. air gun: A seismic source Figure A-6 that injects a
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AI: 1. Artificial Intelligence q.v., 2. Acoustic Impedance bubble of highly compressed air into the water. Its
q.v. frequency spectrum depends on the amount of air in the
air blast: Sound traveling from source to receiver through bubble, the air pressure, and the water depth or water
the air; see air wave. pressure. Arrays of guns of different sizes are often
airborne gravity: See aerogravity. used so that a broader frequency spectrum will be
airborne magnetometer: Used to measure variations in generated. See also waveshape kit. Air guns are also
the Earths magnetic field from an aircraft. See magne- used in boreholes or pushed down into marsh after
tometer. being modified to prevent mud, sand etc. from entering
FIG. A-5. Radioactive age dating. (a) Some naturally radioactive elements. (b) Applications to dating various rock types
and ages. Italicized methods are often applicable to metamorphic uplift dating as opposed to magmatic crystallization
dating. (From Doyle and Bennett, 1998, 353 and 380.)
air pressure 7 air shooting
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FIG. A-6. Air gun. (a) High-pressure air flows continuously into the upper chamber and through the shuttle into the lower
chamber. Opening the solenoid valve puts high-pressure air under the shuttle seat causing the shuttle to move upward,
opening the lower chamber and allowing its air to flow out through ports to form a bubble of high-pressure air in the
water. The size of a gun is the size of its lower chamber. (Courtesy Bolt Associates.) (b) Sleeve gun; the sleeve around
the gun slides back to release the air into the water. (c) Photo of a sleeve gun. (Courtesy WesternGeco.)
and fouling the air gun, and they are sometimes used in difference relative to ambient pressure.
bags of water that are set on the ground surface for land air shooting: A method of generating seismic energy by
work. See Dragoset 2000 and Caldwell and Dragoset detonating explosive charges in the air. Charges are
2000. usually placed on poles about a meter long so that the
air pressure: The ambient pressure exerted by the weight explosive shock wavefront is distributed over a larger
of the overlying column of air. Relations to tempera- portion of the ground surface than if the charge were
ture, water-vapor content, and elevation are given in laid directly on the surface, although the latter proce-
Figure A-7. Gauge pressure measures the pressure dure is also called air shooting. See Poulter 1950.
airwave 8 algebraic reconstruction technique ART
airwave: 1. Energy that is sometimes seen on seismic wavetrains traveling by normal-mode propagation. The
records that travels in the air at the velocity of sound: Airy phase is associated with a minimum in the curve
V10511.1 F ft/s, where FFahrenheit tem- of group velocity versus frequency; it is characterized
perature, or V331.50.607 C m/s, where C by a high-frequency wavetrain, often with a fairly
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Celsius temperature. 2. Audible sounds like distant abrupt termination at an arrival time corresponding to
thunder associated with the arrival of P-waves from the minimum group velocity. See channel waves and
nearby earthquakes. Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 485.
Airy-Heiskanen isostasy: er e h skan n sos t se
. A AIX: See UNIX Operating system.
modification of the Airy isostatic hypothesis. Usually albedo: al be The fraction of the incident energy that
do
assumes that compensation is complete and local, that is reflected.
the Earths crustal density is 2.67 g/cm3, and that the alert: The time when a navigation satellite should pass
density of the layer under the crust is 0.6 g/cm3 higher within range so that a location fix can be obtained. See
than that of the crust. See isostasy and Figure I-7. satellite navigation.
Airy hypothesis: er e See isostasy and Figure I-7. Pro- Alford rotation: al ford Rotating the information from
posed by George Biddell Airy 18091892, British orthogonal horizontal geophones into the natural coor-
astronomer who determined the mean density from dinate system. Used in S-wave studies, especially bire-
gravity measurements in mines. fringence q.v. studies. See Alford 1986.
Airy phase: A build-up in the amplitude of dispersed algebraic reconstruction technique ART: A method
FIG. A-7. Air pressure nomogram showing air pressure, temperature, humidity relations. The nomograph involves the
equations P v P w B(T d T w )/2700, RP v /P d , WP v /1.61(BP v ), where P v actual vapor pressure in inches of
mercury ( vapor pressure at the dew point); P w vapor pressure at wet-bulb temperature T w ; P d vapor pressure at
dry-bulb temperature T d ; Bbarometric pressure; Eelevation in feet; Wspecific humidity ( water-vapor weight/
dry-air weight); Rrelative humidity; Twet-bulb depression in F; T p dew point. Example: At 750 ft elevation and
dry-bulb temperature 95 F, the wet-bulb temperature is 80 F; (1) align 750 ft on scale E with wet-bulb depression
T15; (2) align where line crosses pivot line with T w 80 and read P v 0.87 inches of mercury and dew point
T p 74.5; (3) align P v 0.87 with E750 ft and read specific humidityW0.019; (4) align P v 0.87 with T d
95 and read relative humidity52.4%.
ALGOL 9 alpha
depth; see also beta curve. 3. The symbol for P-wave amalgamated: mal g ma t, d 1. Joined together, e.g.,
velocity. several separated reservoirs without permeability barri-
alpha: P-wave velocity parallel to the symmetry ers between them. 2. Eroded older rock fragments
axis; see Thomsen anisotropic parameters. mixed with younger rocks.
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FIG. A-11. Seismic amplifier. (a) Schematic of a seismic amplifier. Amp is an amplification stage; there are usually
several such stages. AGC control produces negative feedback. Filters may be located at various positions. Usually there
are many channels in parallel. (b) Block diagram of an IFP digital recording system. Each channel has its own compo-
nents prior to the multiplex switch. The line filter reduces radio-frequency static picked up by geophone cables. The
preamplifier increases the signal level by a constant amount while providing impedance matching. The low-cut filter
supplements geophone filtering by removing very low frequencies where ground roll is excessive. The high-cut filter
prevents aliasing; its slope is typically 72 dB/octave. The notch filter reduces 50 or 60 Hz power-line pickup (or 16 2/3
Hz electric railroad pickup). The multiplexer connects each geophone sequentially to the quaternary-gain amplifier
which automatically adjusts its gain in 4:1 steps until the amplitude falls within a prescribed range, after which a 3-bit
word specifying the gain is sent to the formatter. The A-D converter measures the signal amplitude, one bit being output
for polarity and 14 bits for magnitude. The formatter arranges the data for writing onto magnetic tape by the tape
transport. Separate read heads read the magnetic tape immediately after the data have been written. The output is
amplified in the digital AGC unit, converted to analog form in the DA converter, and written by a camera to give a
monitor paper record. (From Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 233.)
amplitude modulation AM 12 analytic signal method
amplitude modulation AM: Variations in the amplitude Because measurements have to be made with prestack
of a high-frequency carrier wave according to low- data, the noise level is usually large. The gradient is
frequency information. See Figure M-16. often determined by the ratios of amplitudes of large-
amplitude of the envelope: See complex trace analysis. offset to short-offset stacks. Also amplitude versus
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amplitude recovery: Technique for recovering the ampli- angleoffset. Class 1 reservoirs have higher impedance
tude of a seismic trace or reflection event. than the surrounding rocks, class 2 are those with very
amplitude shadow: A local low-amplitude region under- small, either positive or negative, impedance contrast,
neath an attenuating zone, often associated with hydro- and class 3 are low-impedance reservoirs. In Tertiary
carbon accumulation or leakage of small amounts of clastic sections, class 1 reservoirs often yield dim spots,
gas into the section. May be a processing artifact such class 3 bright spots, and class 2 reservoirs are difficult
as caused by trace equalization, where a few large to see unless they have appreciable increase of ampli-
amplitude values included within the window tend to tude with offset. Class 4 are low-impedance reservoirs
control the gain, or a result of velocity defocusing or where the magnitude decreases with offset. See also
irregularities in illumination. Figure A-12, Castagna and Backus 1993, Allen and
amplitude spectrum: The amplitude-versus-frequency Peddy 1993, Rutherford and Williams 1989, and
relationship such as computed in a Fourier analysis. See Hilterman 2001.
Fourier transform. AMT: Audio-Magneto Telluric method q.v..
amplitude variation with angleoffset AVAAVO: The anaglyph: an glif A stereogram in which two views
variation in the amplitude of a seismic reflection with are superimposed in complementary colors.
angle of incidence or source-geophone distance. analog: an l og 1. A continuous physical variable such
Depends on changes in velocity, density, and Poissons as voltage or rotation that bears a direct relationship
ratio. Often used as a hydrocarbon gas indicator usually linear to another variable such as earth
because gas generally decreases Poissons ratio and motion so that one is proportional to the other. 2.
often increases amplitude with incident angle/offset. Continuous, as opposed to discrete or digital.
Other conditions can produce similar effects. The analog computer: See computer.
amplitude of an event is often plotted Figure A-12 analog-digital converter: Device for converting analog
against sin2 or sin2 x, where is incidence angle signals into digital form.
and x is offset, and the slope gradient of a best-fit analog modeling: A method of studying the effects of
line is measured as the indicator: subsurface bodies or structures by comparison with the
response of physical models. For example, induced-
A AB sin2 . polarization and resistivity surveys may be simulated
by measurements using conductive or polarizable
shapes to represent subsurface bodies by scaling the
geometry and conductivity. Also called physical mod-
eling.
analog tape formats: Analog information may be written
on magnetic tape in several forms. In direct or bias
recording, magnetization less a constant bias is pro-
portional to the input, in FM or frequency modulation
q.v. information is carried by variations of a carrier-
wave frequency, in pulse-width modulation q.v. by
variations in the width of square-wave pulses. See
Figure M-16.
analog-to-digital AD: Conversion of analog data to
digital form; digitizing.
analytic signal: an l d ik 1. For a signal such as f (t),
see Hilbert transform. 2. The analytic signal A of a
potential field F is
spatial derivatives in orthogonal directions. See also previous leg and the line ahead.
analytic signal, Nabighian 1972, and Roest et al. angular distance: The angle measured at the Earths
1992. center that is subtended by the great-circle path
anaseism: an, sz m Initial earth movement away between two points, such as between an earthquake
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R T z i i ;
and the pseudo-anisotropy is
z i / z i / i 1/2 .
See dar Zarrouk. The anisotropy of induced polariza-
tion in rocks is less than the anisotropy of resistivity. In
layered rocks the resistivity parallel to the layering is
FIG. A-13. Angle measuring conventions. Specifying by less than that perpendicular to the layering. Anisotropy
(a) interior angles, (b) angles right, (c) deflection as measured in a borehole is caused by cyclic thin
angles, (d) azimuth angles. The first leg of a loop is sequences of alternating sand and shale, sorting of sand
specified by azimuth. grains, and fractures healed or fluid-filled.
anisotropy geostatistical 14 anomaly
anisotropy geostatistical: The situation where covari- pic media there are only two independent constants
ance models q.v. at different azimuths have different among 12 nonzero elements of this matrix.
ranges; this is geometric anisotropy, e.g., correlation b Polar anisotropy transverse isotropy involves
may be better in the strike than in the dip direction. In elastic properties that are the same in any direction
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zonal anisotropy, ranges may be the same but the sills perpendicular to a symmetry axis but different parallel
different. See variogram and Figure V-1. to the axis. Layering is the most common cause of this
anisotropy seismic: Variation of seismic velocity situation; see Figures A-14, E-6, and T-14, and polar
depending on either the direction of travel for P- or S- anisotropy. Polar anisotropy involves five independent
waves or the direction of polarization for S-waves. elastic constants; see Thomsen anisotropic parameters.
Velocity anisotropy or coefficient of anisotropy is This symmetry is similar to that of a crystal having
sometimes taken as the fractional difference between hexagonal symmetry. See Thomsen 1986, Alkalifah
the maximum and minimum velocities in different and Tsvankin 1995, and Thomsen 2002.
directions, (V maxVmin)/Vmax, often expressed as a per- c Azimuthal asymmetry q.v. involving ortho-
centage, sometimes as the ratio of maximum and mini- rhombic symmetry the symmetry of a brick gives a
mum velocities, V max/Vmin; the numerical value usually different P-wave velocity along the three orthogonal
makes clear which is meant. P-wave anisotropy is usu- symmetry axes and different shear-wave splitting see d
ally meant unless S-wave anisotropy is specified, but below in the three directions. Vertically fractured hori-
anisotropy of P-waves usually implies anisotropy for zontal layering may produce this situation. Orthorhom-
S-waves and vice-versa. bic asymmetry involves nine independent elastic con-
a The general elasticity tensor stiffness or its stants.
inverse compliance, q.v. relating stress and strain con- d In an arbitrary polar or orthorhombic anisotropic
tains up to 21 independent constants, the number medium, for each travel direction only two orthogonal
depending on the symmetry see symmetry systems. polarizations of plane shear-waves are allowed
Because of symmetries, this 3333 tensor may although they are not necessarily transverse to the
be written as a 66 matrix; see Figure E-5. In isotro- propagation direction; they may travel with different
velocities. An S-wave of arbitrary polarization entering
such a region in a direction other than along the sym-
metry axis splits into two S-waves; this is called shear-
wave splitting, q.v., birefringence, S-wave splitting,
or double refraction Crampin, 1981.
e Monoclinic anisotropy is similar to orthorhom-
bic anisotropy except that one of the three axes is not
orthogonal to the other axes. It involves eleven inde-
pendent elastic constants.
anisotropy, weak: The situation where (V S1 V S2 )/V S1
10%.
anisotropy paradox: See paradox of anisotropy.
anisotropy parameters: See Thomsen anisotropic param-
eters.
annealing methods: Methods for solving optimization
minimization problems involving constraints, often
penalty constraints. See simulated annealing.
annotation: Explanatory notes such as a comment.
annulus: an y ls 1. The space between two concentric
cylindrical objects. 2. The space between a drill-pipe
and the borehole wall through which the returning
drilling fluid mud returns to the surface. 3. The space
between tubing and casing or between casing and for-
mation. 4. A low-resistance ring about a borehole some-
times produced by invasion of mud filtrate into
hydrocarbon-bearing beds. Because of their greater
mobility, hydrocarbons may be displaced farther
beyond the invaded zone than conductive formation
water. See Figure I-6.
anode: a no d An electrode where electrons are produced
that is, are given up to the electrode and at which
FIG. A-14. Anisotropy. (a) Application of Huygens prin-
ciple to anisotropic velocity illustrates why phase and ray
oxidation occurs. The positive terminal of an electro-
velocities may differ in both direction and magnitude. (b) lytic cell or the negative terminal of a battery.
The application of Fermats principle to anisotropic anomaly: nom le 1. A deviation from uniformity in
velocity illustrates why the angle of incidence for a reflec- physical properties; a perturbation from a normal, uni-
tion for a coincident source and receiver may not make a form, or predictable field. 2. Observed minus theoreti-
right angle with the reflector. (c) SH-wavefronts in trans- cal value. 3. A portion of a geophysical survey, such as
versely isotropic media are elliptical but P- and SV-wave- magnetic or gravitational, that is different in appearance
fronts are not. from the survey in general. 4. A gravity measurement
anoxic 15 apparent
that differs from the value predicted by some model, volution. Values near the edges of an aperture are often
e.g., a Bouguer or free-air anomaly q.v.. 5. In seismic tapered rather than abrupt. The effective aperture
usage, generally synonymous with structure. Also used width is the width of a boxcar with the same peak
for unexplained seismic events. 6. A deviation that is of height and area. 3. The additional extent of a survey
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exploration interest; a feature that may be associated required to correctly image data in the required image
with petroleum accumulation or mineral deposits. 7. An area.
induced-polarization anomaly is usually positive and apex: a peks The uppermost point on a surface with
greater than background or the normal effect to be downward curvature.
economically interesting. In the frequency domain, an API: 1. The American Petroleum Institute. 2. The
anomalous region has resistivity that decreases with proper way to do a job: strictly API. 3. Applica-
frequency. An interesting resistivity anomaly is gener- tion Programming Interface, a well-defined interface
ally smaller than background. that insulates application programs from details of a
anoxic: An oxygen-depleted region or environment, such particular implementation.
as preserves hydrocarbons from oxidation. API gravity: A measure of the density of liquid hydrocar-
ANSI: Acronym for American National Standards Insti- bons at standard pressure and temperature derived from
tute. the equation:
antenna: an ten A device that radiates electromagnetic
API gravity141.5/ specific gravity 131.5.
radiation from a transmitter symbol Tx and/or that
receives electromagnetic radiation a receiver; symbol API 5 to 22 is considered heavy oil; 22 to 31, medium;
Rx. greater than 31, light condensate.
antialias filter: an, t al e s Alias filter q.v.. API unit: 1. A counting unit for gamma-ray logs. The
anticausal: an, t, kaws l Noncausal. See causal. difference between the high and low radioactivity sec-
anticipation function: A function that collapses a tions in the API calibration pit at the University of
wavetrain into an impulse at the front end of the train. Houston is defined as 200 API units. 2. A counting unit
Involved with recursive filters. for neutron logs. The reading in the Indiana limestone
anticline: A fold in stratified rocks in which the rocks dip portion of the API neutron log calibration pit which
in opposite directions from a crest; layers are convex has 19 percent porosity and is saturated with fresh
upward. Antonym: syncline. water is defined as 1000 API units.
anticoincidence circuit: A circuit that adds two inputs API well number: A unique number assigned by the
out-of-phase to give zero output when both occur American Petroleum Institute to each well drilled in the
simultaneously. United States. A 12-digit decimal number which is
antiferromagnetism: an, t fer o mag n tiz, m Prop- broken down as follows: Digits 1, 2: Code for state;
erty of certain magnetic materials where sublattices numbers 1 to 49 are alphabetical for the states including
take an antiparallel ordering of spins i.e., oriented the District of Columbia; Alaska and Hawaii are 50 and
opposite to each other, such that no or little net 51, 60 for Federal waters. Digits 35: Code for county,
magnetization is observed. Compare ferromagnetic and parish, or offshore. Digits 6 10: Code for the specific
ferrimagnetism. well. Digits 1112: Code for sidetrack. 1314:
antiparallel: Two vectors that point in opposite direc- recompletion; etc. See API Bulletins D12 and D12A.
tions. APL: Acronym for A Programming Language, a com-
antiroots: Shallow high-density mantle material beneath puter language designed for advanced mathematical
thin portions of the relatively light crust of the earth, applications.
i.e., characterized by shallow Moho. The effect brings aplanatic surface: ap, l nat ik The locus for a given
topographically low areas like ocean basins into iso- traveltime of wave energy reflected or refracted at a
static equilibrium. See Figure I-7. surface. Wavefronts are aplanatic surfaces for reflection
antisymmetric: an, t si mt rik The property of a times observed at the source point; see Figures A-15
function that makes it change sign when its argument and W-3. Aplanatic surfaces can be drawn for
changes sign: A(x)A(x). Also called an odd example to define a salt-sediment interface Figure
function. A-15c; each combination of source point and geo-
antithetic fault: an, te tht ik 1. A secondary fault phone position defines one aplanatic surface. If the
having throw in the opposite direction to the primary velocity and other assumptions are correct, the salt-
synthetic fault with which it is associated. 2. A fault sediment interface is the common tangent to all of the
associated with rotation so that the net slip is greater aplanatic surfaces. See Gardner 1949 and Musgrave et
than it would have been without the rotation. See Fig- al. 1967.
ure F-5. apodizing function: ap o d, zing A weighting function
AP: 1. Array Processor q.v.. 2. Attached Processor two used in truncating that reduces discontinuity effects.
CPUs where one of them has only a limited function See window.
e.g., no I/O capabilities. Compare MP. apogee: ap ge , The point on a satellites orbit that is
aperture: ap chr, 1. An opening, gate, or window farthest from the center of the Earth; see Figure E-12.
that limits the information affecting a measuring The shortest distance is perigee.
device. The seismic spread length can be considered apparent: 1. The value indicated by a measurement, as in
the aperture of a seismic system. 2. In processing, the apparent velocity. 2. The value of a property assum-
spatial range of the data considered in a calculation ing the ground to be homogeneous, isotropic, and semi-
e.g., the range of data considered in seismic migration infinite, as distinct from the true values. The sub-
or the time range of the data considered e.g., in decon- script a is frequently used to indicate that a quantity
apparent 16 apparent
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FIG. A-15. Aplanatic surface. (a) The locus of reflection traveltimes from a given source to a receiver with constant
velocity is an ellipse with the source and receiver as foci. Such a plot is called a bathtub chart. (b) To find the boundary
between two media of different velocities where source and geophone are in different media, draw wavefronts about
each and find intersections where the sum equals the traveltime (4.0 s for the heavy curve). The interface between the
two media must be tangent to this curve. (c) Use of aplanatic surface in the 3-D problem of locating a salt-dome flank
by shooting into a geophone in a borehole in the salt. The common tangent surface to the aplanatic paraboloids locates
the interface. (From Gardner, 1949.)
apparent autocorrelation function 17 apparent dip
wavefront makes with the surface; the angle whose The angle from horizontal for a refracting horizon
tangent is the ratio of the vertical-to-horizontal compo- determined from the updip and downdip velocities of
FIG. A-16. Arbitrary line. (a) A time slice through a migrated 3D seismic volume using different colors to indicate
positive and negative reflectivities and color intensity to indicate magnitude. (b) Vertical sections connecting well
locations is an arbitrary line. Arbitrary lines often consist of several connected straight-line segments. (Courtesy Prakla-
Seismos AG.)
apparent polarity 18 archaeological survey
head waves; see Figure R-10. 3. The dip of a rock layer above about 110 C. See fission track dating.
exposed in a section that is not at a right angle to the applications package: A set of specialized programs and
strike. associated documentation to carry out particular tech-
apparent polarity: A convention that relates a peak or nical or business tasks.
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trough of a seismic reflection to the sign of the reflec- application program: A program that allows computers
tion coefficient, assuming that the reflecting interface is to produce useful tasks.
an isolated one. See polarity standard. applied geophysics: See geophysical exploration.
apparent resistivity: 1. The resistivity of homogeneous, applied-potential method: See equipotential line method.
isotropic ground that would give the same voltage- appraisal well: A well drilled following a discovery to
current relationship as measured. Direct current determine the physical extent or producibility of the
apparent resistivity, a , is an Ohms-law ratio of resource.
measured voltage V to applied current l, multipled by a APRE: Average Predicted Residual Error q.v..
geometric constant k which depends on the electrode aquiclude: ak w klu d, Aquitard q.v.
array: a kV/l. Usually has units of ohm-meters. See aquifer support: Connection of an oil reservoir to an
resistivity. 2. With electromagnetic methods, quantities aquifer so that water can supplant the hydrocarbons in a
such as the moduli of the electric and magnetic field reservoir during production. The aquifer often needs to
intensities E and H are measured at a certain fre- be 100 times larger than the reservoir to provide
quency or time. If the subsurface were homogeneous adequate support.
and isotropic, these would yield the true resistivity via Aquapulse: Sleeve exploder q.v.. Western Geophysical
a certain equation. However, use of the same equation tradename.
for a heterogeneous subsurface yields the apparent Aquaseis: A marine seismic energy source in which towed
resistivity a : explosive cord is detonated. Imperial Chemical Indus-
a HS F V /F V HS , tries tradename.
aquitard: ak w tard, A saturated formation that is not
where HS resistivity of a homogeneous half-space, F capable of transmitting significant quantities of water.
is a function of Vobserved voltage, and V HS Also called aquiclude.
voltage for a half-space. Asymptotic definitions such arbitrary line: A vertical seismic section along a line
as late-time and early-time apparent resistivity are across a 3D data volume that is not necessarily straight
sometimes used for apparent resistivity values over a or in inline or crossline directions. Also called user
limited range of measurement parameters. For some line, arb line, and quite improperly because it is in no
EM models apparent resistivity may be undefined or sense random random line. See Figure A-16.
multivalued. See Spies and Eggers 1986 and Strack arc cosine arc sine, arc tangent: The angle whose
1992. 3. The resistivity recorded by an electrical log cosine sine, tangent is.
that differs from the true resistivity of the formation archaeological survey: ar ke , o log i kl A survey
because of the presence of mud column, invaded zone, sometimes required to determine if a cultural resource
influence of adjacent beds, etc. is present, especially on U.S. offshore leases. Often
apparent-resistivity curve: A graph of apparent resistiv- requires high-resolution sub-bottom profiler, magneto-
ity against electrode separation, frequency, or time.
Apparent-resistivity curves are often plotted on loga-
rithmic paper and compared with type curves normal-
ized theoretical curves for interpreting the resistivity,
thickness, and depth of subsurface layers. See also
pseudosection.
apparent truncation: Disappearance of a reflection
because the reflector becomes too thin, especially at the
top of the distal end of a transgressive systems tract
because of stratal thinning below a downlap surface,
where it is sometimes called backlap. See Figure S-32.
apparent velocity: 1. The phase velocity that a wavefront
appears to have along a line of geophones. If the
wavefront makes the angle with the spread and the
true velocity of the wavefront is V, then the apparent
velocity is V/sin . See Figure W-2. 2. The inverse of
the slope of a refraction time-distance curve.
apparent-velocity filtering: Attenuating events based on
their apparent velocity q.v.. See velocity filter.
apparent wavelength: The distance between correllative
points on a wavetrain as seen by a geophone spread.
Differs from actual wavelength if the wave direction
makes an angle with the spread. See Figure W-2 and
compare dominant wavelength.
apparent wavenumber: See wavenumber.
appatite fission tracks: ap p tt An age-dating tech- FIG. A-17. Archies formula for different lithologies.
nique useful where the sample has never been heated (From Keller, 1987.)
archeomagnetism 19 ARIS
meter, sidescan sonar, and echo sounder data. See also arc shooting: Fan shooting q.v..
geohazard survey. areal closure: See closure.
archeomagnetism: See paleomagnetism. areal survey: A three-dimensional survey q.v..
Archies formulas: ar che z Empirical relationships arg x: ar gy mnt Argument q.v. of the function x.
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between the formation factor F sometimes F R , Argand diagram: ar gan The trace of quadrature versus
porosity , water saturation S w , and resistivities; in in-phase apparent resistivities in the complex plane
clean granular rocks, over a broad frequency band. Used in frequency-
FR o /R w m /a, domain induced polarization. See also Cole-Cole plot.
An Argand diagram is not specific to resistivity.
R o /R t S w n , Argo: A medium-frequency 2 MHz, pulsed, phase-
measuring radiopositioning system operable in either
where mcementation factor that varies between 1.3
and 3, aproportionality constant varying from 0.6 to circular or hyperbolic mode. Based on signals from two
1.5, R o resistivity of the formation when 100% satu- or more shore-based stations. Cubic Western trade
rated with formation water, R w resistivity of the for- name.
mation water, R t true resistivity of the formation, n argument: 1. Angle of a complex number. 2. The param-
saturation exponent; often n2. Archies law eter that determines the value of a function; e.g., is
assumes that m2 and a1. The Humble formula the argument for sin . 3. Data passed to a subroutine;
assumes that m2.15 and a0.65. Values of a and compare parameter.
m for different lithologies are shown in Figure A-17. Aries: er ez The first point of Aries or the vernal
Named for Gus E. Archie, American engineer and equinox is the reference point on the celestial sphere
geologist. from which right ascension and celestial longitude are
architecture: Functional relationships between the parts measured. It is the intersection point of the celestial
of a computer or computer system. equator and the ecliptic, where the sun is located on the
archive: To take a data file off-line and store for future vernal equinox, March 21.
use. An archive file is not immediately available but ARIS: Atlantic Richfield Impulsive Seismic source, an
can be accessed in some way. impulsive energy source where a large mass 5000 lbs
FIG. A-18. Colinear arrays used in resistivity surveying. The equation for the apparent resistivity a is given for each
array.
arithmetic average, arithmetic mean 20 array electromagnetic
is accelerated by compressed air against a weighted displayed as on Figure P-14. c Gradient array or AB
ground-coupled baseplate. Western Geophysical trade rectangular array, an arrangement in which a pair of
name. potential electrodes measure the voltage between points
arithmetic average, arithmetic mean: (1/n) x i where of a rectangular grid between two distant, fixed current
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ship of the traverses to the source. See Strack 1992. when the array is large. 2. The arrangement or pattern
array seismic: 1. A group of geophones or other seismic of a group of geophones or sources Figure A-20.
receivers connected to a single recording channel geo- Arrays discriminate against events on the basis of their
phone array or a group of sources to be activated moveout or apparent wavelength; see directivity graph.
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simultaneously source array. The records from For a uniform array see Figure D-15 of n geophones
nearby sources when vertically stacked also effectively separated by the distance d, the effective array length
constitute a source array. Sometimes called a pattern is nd and the first null response occurs when the appar-
especially for a source array or a patch especially ent wavelength equals this. The half-width of the main
FIG. A-20. Arrays used for geophone or source arrays. The array elements are shown by the open circles, triangles and
numbers indicate the effective element locations and weightings in different directions; the inline direction is horizontal
in each instance. (a) Inline; (b) perpendicular; (c) cross; (d) 33 diamond; (e) X-array; (f) rectangular array; (g)
crows-foot array; (h) odd-arm star; (i) herring-bone array; (j) and windmill array.
array factor 22 asthenosphere
lobe at 0.7 peak amplitude defines the pass wave- ASCII: as ke American Standard Code for Information
length. For a nonuniform array, the effective array Interchange, a computer code for character and
length is the length of the uniform array that has the communications-control symbols.
same pass wavelength. Compare spread. ascension: See right ascension.
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array factor: See geometric factor. asdic: az dik Sonar q.v.. The British acronym for their
array induction log: An induction sonde that uses one or wartime Anti-Submarine Detection Investigation Com-
more transmitters and multiple receivers 5 to 8. Each mittee, which developed sonar.
receiver coil is commonly combined with a bucking aseismic: a sz mk Almost free of natural earthquakes.
coil. The curves are measured in an unfocused manner aspect ratio: 1. The ratio of the width of something such
and afterward focused by software. The vertical reso- as a fracture to its length. 2. The ratio of vertical to
lution varies from 6 inches to 3 feet. It yields multiple horizontal scale. 3. The ratio of shorter to longer axes
depths of investigation and hence a picture of the for an ellipse or ellipsoid.
invaded zone. asperities: Very small bumps that produce roughness;
array laterolog: An electric logging tool that uses mul- involved in fracture behavior.
tiple electrodes and unfocused measurements, focusing asphaltene: as fol ten High molecular-weight hydrocar-
being accomplished with software. Interpretation uses bons, components of bitumen that are soluable in car-
inversion to obtain a resistivity profile. See Figure L-3. bon disulphide but not in paraffin naphtha.
array length: See array (seismic). assembler: A program that translates symbolic assembler
array processor: A special-purpose processor to carry out language code into binary code for execution by a
certain functions such as matrix manipulations effi- computer.
ciently. See also convolver. assembler language: A source language that includes
Array Seismic Imager: A tool used in VSP and velocity symbolic language statements in which there is a one-
surveying consisting of five magnetically clamped to-one correspondence between the instruction and data
3-component phones. Yields the velocities of different formats.
wave modes. A Schlumberger tool. associative memory: Content-addressable memory
array sonicseismic log: A sonic log that measures wave capable of performing search and compare operations
arrivals at several offset distances, permitting the detec- on all memory locations in one memory access. Looks
tion and analysis of several waves. Schlumberger trade for similar bit patterns in key words.
name; Halliburtons Full Wave Sonic System is similar. astatic: a
stat ik Having a negative restoring force that
array station: Earthquake detection station that uses an aids a deflecting force, thereby rendering the instrument
array of seismometers to improve the detectability of more sensitive and/or less stable. The idea of astatic
weak signals. The LASA array used 525 seismometers balance is illustrated in Figure A-21. Used in gravime-
distributed over 200 km. ters and magnetometers.
arrival: An event, a line-up of coherent energy signifying asthenosphere: as the n sfer, A yielding zone in the
the arrival of a new wavetrain. Earths mantle involved in isostatic compensation and
arrival time: 1. The time from energy release until an in plate-tectonic movements. The asthenosphere lies
event arrives. 2. Arrival time may be corrected for between the nearly rigid lithosphere and above the
statics and normal moveout. mesosphere; it is approximately 200 km thick, has high
arrow plot: A tadpole display of dipmeter or drift data; attenuation of seismic energy low Q, and little
see Figure D-14. strength. See Figure E-1.
ART: Algebraic Reconstruction Technique q.v..
artifact: An incidental unintended effect produced by
acquisition or processing. Also called footprint.
artificial illumination: A computer display of a relief
map such as a specific horizon showing shadows as if
all overlying rocks were removed and it was illumi-
nated from a particular direction at a particular sun
angle. Parameters in its manufacture are sun elevation
and azimuth. The display, which may be of any mapped
quantity, is useful in bringing out lineations that may
not be obvious.
artificial intelligence: The concept that computers can be
programmed to assume capabilities thought to be like
human intelligence, such as learning, adaptation, self-
correcting.
artificial lift: The use of downhole pumps to bring forma-
tion fluids to the surface when natural formation pres-
sure is inadequate. Pumps may be mechanical, con-
nected to the surface by sucker rods, or powered
hydraulically, electrically, or by compressed-gas.
artificial magnetic anomalies: Nongeologic anomalies. FIG. A-21. Astatic balance principle. When the force on
See cultural magnetic anomalies. the mass m is balanced by spring tension s, the large
artificial neural net: See neural network. mass M exerts no net force, but once unbalance occurs, it
artificial reality: Virtual reality q.v.. throws the system farther out of balance.
astronomic latitude 23 attribute, seismic
astronomic latitude: Latitude measured with respect to attic oilgas: Oil/gas lying between the highest well in a
the vertical and the stars. Differs from geodetic lati- reservoir and the updip reservoir seal. Attic oil/gas
tude by a few seconds of arc where the mass distribu- cannot be produced by existing wells.
tion distorts the geoid equipotential surface, as near the attitude: The relation of a feature to horizontal. The strike
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roots of mountain ranges. See Figure G-2. and dip of a bed or other planar feature; the trend
asymptote: as m to t, The limit of the tangent to a curve direction and plunge for a linear feature such as an
as the point of contact approaches infinity. From the anticline.
Greek for not falling together. attribute: A specified item of information about some-
asymptotic wave theory: A high-frequency solution to thing; any detail that serves to qualify, identify, classify,
the wave equation. In a Taylor expansion of the wave quantify, or express the state of a quantity.
equation about the frequency in the form A i e jwt , attribute, seismic: A measurement derived from seismic
terms for small are neglected. Leads to the eikonal data, usually based on measurements of time, ampli-
equation q.v., geometrical spreading, and ray-theory tude, frequency, and/or attenuation. Generally, time-
solutions. based measurements relate to structure, amplitude-
asynchronous: a sing kr ns or a sin kr ns Without based ones to stratigraphy and reservoir
a regular time relationship. characterization, and frequency-based ones while often
asynchronous protocol: A telecommunication protocol in not clearly understood to stratigraphy and reservoir
which the transmitting station must indicate by special characterization. Attenuation measurements are usually
sequences of transitions of state the beginning and end very uncertain. Measurements are usually based on
of data transmission. Compare binary synchronous stacked or migrated data, but prestacked data are used
communication and synchronous data link control in determining stacking velocity q.v., AVO amplitude
SDLC. variation with offset, q.v., and other attributes. Because
asynchronous system: A system in which the components there are many ways to arrange data, attributes consti-
operate at independent speeds, requiring a handshake or tute an open set, and because they are based on so few
interlock sequence for inter-component communica- types of measurements, attributes are generally not
tion.
independent. Attributes are useful to the extent that they
Athy equation: ath e An empirical equation relating
correlate with some physical property of interest. The
porosity to depth z that is used in compaction studies
primary usefulness of attributes is that they sometimes
based on seismic transit time:
help one to see features, relationships, and patterns that
o e bz , otherwise might not be noticed.
where o is the value at z 0 and b is an empirical Seismic measurements usually involve appreciable
constant. uncertainty and do not relate directly to any single
atmospheric electricity: See geophysics and Figure A-22. geologic property. With so many geologic variables,
atmospheric window: A wavelength range within which correlation with a particular property in one situation is
there is relatively little attenuation of electromagnetic apt to not hold in another situation. Attributes generally
radiation from the sun. See Figure E-11. respond to a variety of geologic situations and a geo-
atomic absorption spectrophotometry: Measuring the logic change may mean a change in the correlation. The
unique absorption lines of atomic species after decom- problem is determining the limits to an observed cor-
position of a substance by heating it. relation, especially when we do not understand the
atomic capture cross-section: See capture cross-section. underlying physicsHow wide ranging is a correlation
atomic clock: A clock that determines time by counting valid? During a Direct Detection Symposium in 1973,
atomic oscillations. The standard is the atomic second, Miller Quarles presented numerous processing schemes
9129 631 770 oscillations of 133 Cs atoms. See fre- to enhance hydrocarbon signatures; in response to a
quency standard. question about the scientific basis of all these
attack time: See AGC time constant. attributes, he responded, We dont know yet, but
attenuation: 1. Reduction in amplitude or energy caused remember, we invented them. Unfortunately we still
by the transmitting media or system. Usually includes do not understand how to relate most seismic attributes
geometric divergence effects as waves spread out from to geologic causes and situations.
a source as well as conversion of energy into heat
Among the ways we calculate attributes are smoothing
absorption and other factors affecting amplitude, such
and averaging over windows of various sizes, finding
as transmissivity losses and mode conversion. 2. Instru-
residuals, peak values, measuring the distribution
mental reduction effects such as might be produced by
within a window mean, median, kurtosis, percent
passage through a filter. See Figure A-2.
greater/smaller than a threshold, sums, residuals, scat-
attenuation factor: If the amplitude of a plane wave is
ter, etc., continuity, edges, smoothness, linearity or
reduced by the factor e x in traveling a distance of x
curvature, gradients or other derivatives, absolute val-
meters, the attenuation factor is .
ues, polarity changes zero-crossings, peak-trough dif-
attenuator: An adjustable passive device for reducing the
ferences, etc. Relations may be measured over windows
amplitude of a signal.
spectra, correlation, semblance, covariance, etc.
Atterberg limits: at r brg, The water content when a
sediment changes its properties from liquid to plastic Attributes can be measured along a single trace or
and from plastic to solid, based on empirical tests, often throughout a volume or in other ways. The first
expressed in volume percentage of water. Used in engi- attributes identified as such were the 1D complex-trace
neering as a measure of soil stability. attributes of envelope amplitude, instantaneous phase,
attribute, seismic 24 attribute, seismic
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FIG. A-22. Atmospheric layering. Weather is mainly controlled by the troposphere. The jet stream at about 11 km
involves a wave-shape course at midlatitudes. A circumpolar vortex extends sometimes to 60 km. Ionized layers in the
ionosphere are important in radio transmissions. Atmospheric pressure falls off rapidly above the surface and is very
small above 20 km. Temperature falls rapidly in the troposphere, is about 210220 K in the stratosphere, and then rises
to about 275 K at 50 km because of the absorption of 21002900 radiation by ozone.
A-type collision 25 autocorrelation
instantaneous frequency, and apparent polarity see audio-magnetotelluric method AMT: A magnetotellu-
complex-trace analysis and acoustic impedance or ric method involving measurement of natural plane-
velocity determined by inversion q.v.. Attributes may wave electromagnetic signals, mainly sferic energy, in
be measured along a defined picked surface horizon the 10 to 10 4 Hz range to determine subsurface resis-
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attributes such as amplitude extraction, dip magnitude, tivity. See also magnetotelluric method, which involves
dip azimuth, artificial illumination, and coherence
the 10 3 to 10 Hz range.
q.v.. Hydrocarbon indicators q.v. are attributes.
Attributes can be combined to make new attributes. auger: o gr A drilling tool designed so that the cuttings
Transformations of attributes are sometimes given are carried to the top of the hole continuously during
physical-property names porosity, fluid saturation, the drilling operation by helical grooves on a rotating
lithology, stratigraphic or structural discontinuity, etc., drill pipe. With a wet auger, fluid is injected at the bit
usually based on local crossplots or local correlations to assist in the removal of cuttings.
with borehole-log or other measurements; they may be aulacogen: au lak jn Failed arm q.v.. Proterozoic
reasonable approximations locally but they are apt to grabens trending at a large angle to adjacent continental
give erroneous values under different circumstances. margins, generally filled with relatively undeformed
See Figures A-23 and A-24, Brown 1999, chap. 8, and sediments. See Moores and Twist 1995, 40.
Chen and Sidney 1997. authigenic: au thi jen ik Formed in place; refers to
A-type collision: Alpine collision q.v.. minerals that were not transported to the place where
A-type section: A three-layer model in which resistivity
they are now found.
increases with depth. See Figure T-7.
A.U.: Astronomical Unit, the distance of the Earth from autoconvolution: o, to , kon, vo
lu shn Convolution of
the Sun, 1.49610 8 km. a function with itself. See retrocorrelation.
audio: od e o The frequencies corresponding to normal autocorrelation: o, to , kor, la
shn Correlation of a
voice communication, i.e., 15 Hz to 20 kHz. waveform with itself. The normalized autocorrelation
audio-frequency magnetic method: Afmag method function 11 ( ) for a continuous stationary waveform
q.v.. is
FIG. A-23. Seismic attributes. Windows can be constant time intervals, constant intervals hung from one horizon, or
intervals between horizons. (From Brown, 1999, 234.)
autocorrelation 26 autocorrelation
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FIG. A-24. Attribute display examples. (a,b) Dip-magnitude and dip-azimuth maps, Nun Riiver field, Nigeria (from
Bouvier et al., 1989). (c,d) Coherence and amplitude time slices; note channels indicated by red arrows (after Bahorich
and Farmer, 1995). (e,f) Horizon slices illuminated in different directions; the direction of illumination is indicated by the
arrows (courtesy Woodside Offshore Petroleum Pty.). (Brown, 1999, 246, 256, and 251.) (Continued on next page.)
autocorrelation pulse 27 autocovariance
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t 2 f t f t dt
t time on the present value, or the extent to which
11 limit
1
, future values can be predicted from past values. The
t
t 2 f 2 t dt autocorrelation function contains all of the amplitude-
1
frequency information in the original waveform but
where f (t) represents a waveform or seismic trace none of the phase information. An autocorrelation func-
and is the time shift or lag. For equally sampled tion is symmetrical about zero shift, that is, it is zero
digital data the autocorrelation is phase. Deconvolution operators are often based on
autocorrelations; see Sheriff and Geldart 1995: 285
f k f k 287, 292 403.
k
11 limit . autocorrelation pulse: The autocorrelation of a sweep
f 2k signal, Sosie sequence, or the like. See Klauder wavelet
k
and vibroseis.
An autocorrelation is usually evaluated only over a gate autocorrelogram: A display of half of the autocorrelation
or window. The denominators in the preceding equa- function the half for positive time shifts of seismic
tions are the normalizing factors and sometimes are traces, usually in record-section format.
not included. The autocorrelation function is a measure autocovariance: o, to ver e ns Similar to an auto-
ko
of the statistical dependence of the waveform at a later correlation except that the mean value f is subtracted
automated depth estimation 28 azimuthal asymmetry
t2 1985.
f t f f t f dt. average velocity: The distance traversed divided by the
t1 time required, both with respect to some particular
travel path and with respect to a datum. Sometimes
For functions that have a zero mean, autocovariance is refers to a ray reflected at normal incidence, sometimes
the same as an autocorrelation function that is not to a vertical travel path. See velocity.
normalized. AVO: Amplitude-Variation-with-angle/Offset q.v.
automated depth estimation: Programs to automatically AVO gradientintercept displays: The best-fit straight
scan digital potential-field profiles or maps to estimate lines to plots of amplitude versus sin2 or sin2 x, where
the depth of magnetic, gravity, etc. sources. Methods is incidence angle and x is offset, are determined for
include Euler deconvolution, Naudys method, Phillips gathers, and the zero-offset intercepts A and slopes
method, analytic signal method, Werner deconvolution gradients, B are displayed often color-encoded on
q.v.. See also depth rule, Cowan and Cowan 1991, sections or horizon slices. See amplitude-variation-
Thurston and Smith 1997. with-angle/offset.
automatic gain control AGC: A system in which the avulsion: vl shn A sudden change in the course of a
output amplitude is used for automatic control of the stream.
gain of an amplifier. Seismic amplifiers used to have axial-dipole array: See array (electrical).
individual AGC for each channel, although multichan- axial surface: The surface about which folded beds are
nel control was sometimes used. See Figure A-25 and more or less symmetrical. Sometimes called the axial
gain control. Also called automatic volume control plane, though not geometrically a plane. Also called
AVC. ab plane. See Figure F-17.
automatic picking: Automatic timing of a seismic event azimuth: az mth 1. The horizontal angle measured
along a section or throughout a volume based on speci- clockwise from true north. Occasionally azimuth is
fying a seed point to indicate the event to be picked. referenced to south or to magnetic north rather than true
Often based on a crosscorrelation over a specified nar- north, or measured counter-clockwise. Also called true
row window. The autopicker generally stops if the bearing. 2. The direction from source to geophone.
crosscorrelation maximum is less than a set threshold, azimuthal anisotropy: az muth l an, so trp e A
and a new seed point must be indicated to continue the difference in properties such as seismic velocity with
picking. The pick is usually the amplitude and time for azimuth, such as produced by oriented near-vertical
a maximum or minimum, which is sometimes selected fractures. See anisotropy (seismic) and birefringence.
from a quadratic fit to 3 or more points to interpolate azimuthal array: See Figure A-19 and azimuthal survey.
between sample values. azimuthal asymmetry: Near-vertical fracturing, jointing,
autoregressive deconvolution: Deconvolution with a microcracks, and stress tends to develop a horizontal
recursive filter q.v.. axis of symmetry perpendicular to the fracturing called
autoregressive series: od, o ri gres iv A time series azimuthal anisotropy sometimes, extensive dilatancy
generated from another time series as the solution of a anisotropy. The velocity of P-waves parallel to the
linear-difference equation. Usually previous values of fracturing and of S-waves whose motion is polarized
the output enter into determinating current values. parallel to the fracturing is larger than for those perpen-
autotracker: An algorithm for automatic picking q.v.. dicular to the fracturing. This anisotropy is usually a
autotracking: Use of an algorithm to pick seismic reflec- form of orthorhombic anisotropy with the fracturing,
tions, especially used with work stations for interactive and it involves nine independent elastic constants. It is
interpretation. See tracking. sometimes considered a type of polar anisotropy q.v.,
AUV: Automated Underwater Vehicle. and the less important elastic constants are often
auxiliary plane: The vertical plane that is 90 to a fault assumed, sometimes neglected, or effectively set to
plane. zero. The symmetry axis because of the fracturing may
auxiliary storage: A storage not directly addressable by not be orthogonal to the axis because of the layering,
the processor. involving monoclinic anisotropy. This situation is
azimuthal projection 29 azimuth spider
involved in birefringence or shear-wave splitting q.v.. veys where all electrodes are on the surface, in contrast
azimuthal projection: A map projection in which a to an azimuthal survey involving a drill hole.
spherical surface is projected onto a tangent plane. azimuthal VES: Vertical Electrical Soundings having dif-
Azimuths to any point from the point of tangency are ferent orientations. Used to measure electrical anisot-
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30
balanced input 31 basement
tion of the country rock. Checking that this is so is zation occurs as a series of small steps rather than
called the baked test. continuously. Named for Heinrich Georg Barkhausen
balanced input: A symmetrical input circuit having equal 18811956, German electrical engineer.
impedance from both input terminals to ground. bar-m: A bar-meter, a unit of measurement for the pres-
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balanced section: A structural section that accounts for sure created by a seismic source one meter away from
conservation of mass and bed length during structural the source.
deformation. Ideally, the model should be 3D. barn: A unit for measuring capture cross-section;
balancing: 1. Time-variant scaling, usually on a root- 10 28 m2 .
mean-square basis. 2. See balanced section. barovane: bar o va n A device to divert the front end of
balancing a survey: Distributing cumulative errors a streamer away from the tow point.
among the legs of a survey. barrel: A stock-tank barrel, a volume of 42 U.S. gal-
bald structure: A structure on the crest of which some of lons or 157 liters; 6.2897 bbl/m3. The size dates back to
the section perhaps including an objective reservoir is the East Texas oil boom but todays oil drums usually
missing. May be caused by erosion or nondeposition. hold 55 gallons.
ballpark figure: An estimate that is of the correct order of barrels of oil equivalent BOE: A unit of energy equiva-
magnitude. lent to 5604 ft3 natural gas; 5.810 6 BTU; 1700
band: 1. A range of frequencies such as those passed kWh; 0.22 ton bituminous coal.
band-pass or rejected band-reject by a filter. Mea- barrier: Something that limits the flow of fluids such as a
surements are usually made between points where the fault or facies change.
amplitude is down by 3 dB or down 30% from the barrier reef: A reef that develops offshore, usually more-
peak value; see also bandwidth. 2. The names given to or-less parallel to the coastline.
the frequency ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum, Barrys method: bar es A refraction interpretation
as shown in Figure E-11. 3. Landsat data channels; see method using delay times. See Barry 1967 or Sheriff
Landsat image. 4. A track on magnetic tape. and Geldart 1995, 439 440.
band-limited function: A function whose Fourier trans- Barthelmes method: bar thel ms A refraction interpre-
form vanishes or is very small outside some finite- tation method involving continuous profiling. See Bar-
frequency band. thelmes 1946.
band-pass: See band. Bartlett window: bart lit Triangular window. See Fig-
band-pass filter: See filter. ure W-12.
band-reject filter: A filter q.v. that attenuates a range of barytes: b r tez Barite q.v..
frequencies; the inverse of a band-pass filter. base: 1. The reference integer in a number system. Also
bandwidth: 1. The range of frequencies over which a called radix. 2. Base station q.v.. 3. The transistor
given device is designed to operate within specified element that corresponds to the grid of a vacuum tube.
limits. 2. The differences between half-power points, baselap: Onlap or downlap reflection configuration q.v..
i.e., the frequencies at which the power drops to half the See Figure R-8.
peak power 3 dB. 3. The effective bandwidth is base level: The lowest level toward which erosion
whose magnetization is so much larger than that of basis functions: Algorithms that form the basis for
sedimentary rocks that their effects get lost in the noise. approximate methods used in numerical modeling for
4. Electrical basement is the surface below which interpolating, approximating a function, or numerical
resistivity is very high so that variations below this integration. The functions may be polynomial, splines,
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surface do not affect electrical-survey results signifi- trigonometric functions, sinc functions, etc.
cantly. 5. Acoustic basement is the deepest more-or- batch processing: Processing where all parameters are set
less continuous reflection. 6. Gravity or density base- up before a job is done, contrasting with interactive
ment is where a very large density contrast exists so processing q.v. where decisions are made as results
that anomalies resulting from deeper contrasts are lost develop. Similar processing may be accumulated and
in the noise. 7. Hydrologic basement is the deepest submitted together to increase efficiency.
point where significant porosity exists. batholith: A major igneous intrusive body, emplaced at
base of low-velocity layer LVL: See base of weather- depth in the crust.
ing. bathtub chart: A wavefront chart displaying the loci of
base of weathering: The boundary between the surface reflection times where the source-geophone offset is not
layer of low seismic velocity and an underlying layer of zero see Figure A-15. The loci are called aplanatic
appreciably higher velocity. It may or may not corre- surfaces, and for constant velocity, they are ellipses
spond to the geologic weathering or to the water table. with source and geophone at the foci. A reflector tan-
This boundary is involved in deriving static time cor- gent anywhere to one of the curves satisfies the reflec-
rections for seismic records and is important in multiple tion time for that curve.
generation and mode conversion. Also called base of bathymetric zonation: See Figure B-1.
LVL low-velocity layer. See also weathering. baud: bod 1. A measure of the ability of a transmission
base station: 1. A reference station that is used to estab- medium to change states. One pulse bit per second. 2.
lish additional stations. Quantities under investigation The speed at which a channel transmits information
have values at the base station that are known or somewhat lower because of protocol overhead.
assumed to be known accurately. Data from a base Bauers method: bawrs An approximate way of deter-
station may be used to normalize data from other sta- mining interval velocity from average velocities. See
tions, as in the telluric-current method. 2. Accurately Figure V-5.
located fixed station for radiopositioning. Baume gravity: bo ma
or bo
ma A measure of specific
base survey: A survey run before some experiment is gravity; different scales are used for liquids lighter than
performed. Its results are used for comparison with and heavier than water.
those of a later survey to determine the consequences of Baumgarte ray-stretching method: bom gart 1. A
the experiment. Used in the time-lapse q.v. method. graphical reflection interpretation method in which the
base temperature: The temperature in the region of uni- positions of successive layers are constructed as sur-
form temperature normally found in the lower part of a faces tangent to fictitious wavefronts that are projected
convecting system. backward from the observing stations. 2. A graphical
Basic: Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction refraction interpretation method. See Baumgarte
Code, a conversational computer programming lan- 1955.
guage that enables the use of simple English words, b-axis: Beta axis, the longitudinal axis of a fold structure.
abbreviations, and familiar mathematical symbols to Defined on a Schmidt net by the intersection of great
perform logical and arithmetic operations. circles that represent foliation surfaces. See Figure
basic crust: See sima. F-17.
basic wavelet: Embedded wavelet q.v.. bay: A transient magnetic disturbance having a period of
basin: ba sin A depressed, sediment-filled area. Some- about an hour and the appearance of a bay along the
times roughly circular or elliptical in shape, sometimes seacoast on a magnetic record. Other transient mag-
very elongate. netic disturbances include micropulsations small rapid
basin analysis: Working out the history of a sedimentary variations, giant pulsations, and magnetic storms. The
basin, usually by computer modeling. Basin modeling onset of a bay is usually accompanied by a micropul-
involves integrating inferred or historical sediment sation burst.
influx and compaction, erosion and deformation, heat bay cable: A marine seismic cable that is laid on the water
transfer, and water flow, to work out the history of bottom, as opposed to a drag cable or a streamer, which
hydrocarbon generation, expulsion, and migration. The are towed into place.
resulting pressure-temperature history is important in Bayess theorem: ba z s A theorem giving a-posteria
determining hydrocarbon generation and hence a probability in terms of a-priori probability; see condi-
basins prospectivity. tional probability.
basin-floor fan: A submarine fan deposited on the lower BCD: Binary-Coded Decimal q.v..
slope or basin, usually associated with the early portion BD, bd: Barrels-per-Day. Sometimes written BPD or
of a lowstand system tract while relative sea level was BPCD barrels-per-calendar day, BCD, BCPD barrels
falling. Generally associated with erosion of canyons condensate per day.
into slope and shelf. beach balls: Diagrams showing the first motion q.v. of
basin modeling: See basin analysis. fault displacement involved in earthquakes. See Figure
basinward facies shift: A vertical juxtaposition of facies F-10.
such as shallow marine sediments underlying nonma- beacon: 1. A fixed navigation aid. Beacons may be either
rine, often associated with subaerial erosion. This may passive or active transponders. 2. A radar reflector such
indicate a seaward shift of the coastline. as a corner reflector mounted on a buoy used as a
beam 33 benchmark BM
navigation or positioning aid or to locate the tail of a beat: The periodic increase and decrease in envelope
seismic streamer. amplitude caused by the interference of two waves of
beam: A finite cross-section of wave energy along a ray- nearly equal frequencies.
path. beat frequency: Either of the two additional frequencies
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Beaman arc: be man A unit of measure of the quantity (AB) and (AB) that are obtained when signals of
50 (1sin 2) used in calculating vertical displace- two frequencies, A and B, are mixed:
ment of a stadia rod with respect to the transit, where
is the angle which the line of sight makes with the cos 2 At cos 2 Bt
horizontal. See also stadia tables. Named for William cos 2 AB tcos 2 AB t /2.
M. Beaman 18671937, American engineer. Beaufort number: bo frt A numerical scale indicating
beam steering: Summing the effects of sources at several wind speed. See Figure B-2. Named for Admiral Sir
locations to provide increased directivity; it effectively Francis Beaufort 1774 1857.
forms a source antenna. Involves time-shifting the bed: 1. A lithostratigraphic subdivision; see stratigraphic
results from single sources by amounts that are propor- classification. 2. A relatively conformable succession of
tional to the distances between the sources and adding genetically related sediments.
the results to direct the beam. The beam directivity may bed of nails: A 2D comb or the 2D sampling function. An
be changed by varying the time shifts. See also syn- impulse is located at the intersection of all integral
thetic aperture. coordinate values.
beamwidth: The angular width of the beam of a direc- bedrock: Any solid rock, whether exposed at the surface
tional transducer or array of transducers, typically mea- or overlain by unconsolidated material. Sometimes
sured between the 3 dB points. The beamwidth is means older consolidated rock, rock with adequate
sometimes the combined effective beamwidths of trans- bearing capacity, or unweathered rock.
mission and reception. bell-shaped distribution: Normal or Gaussian distribu-
Bean bag: An impulsive energy source that drops a soft tion q.v..
500 lb weight 10 ft to the ground. Trade name of benchmark BM: 1. A relatively permanent metal tablet
Developmental Geophysical Inc. or other marker with identifying information firmly
bearing: The horizontal direction of one point with embedded in a fixed object indicating a precisely deter-
respect to another, usually measured as a clockwise mined elevation. Used as a reference in topographic
angle. True bearing is the same as azimuth with surveys. 2. A test or standard set of jobs that can be
respect to true north. used to evaluate performance.
benchmark models: Parameterized models representing from the monster Grendel because it frees a user from
specific earth problems. Models representing the same the cost of a MPP.
geologic situation are generally different for different Bernoulli equation: ber nu An equation describing
le
geophysical methods. the conservation of energy in the steady flow of an ideal
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beta curve: A type of curve used in interpreting pulse IP bin: For a surface subdivided by a grid of lines, the area
data, also called a pulse curve. Beta, the ratio of between adjacent lines. The traces that fall within a bin
observed apparent chargeability to the true chargeabil- are assumed to lie at the bin center, which is also called
ity of the lower medium a bilogarithmic weighting a node or grid cell. Bins are used for both pre- and
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function developed from IP theory, is proportional to postmigration data. Generally bin dimensions should be
IP phase angle. A beta curve for a simple single hori- smaller than V/(4 f sin ) where V is velocity, f is
zontal layer where only the lower material is polariz- dominant frequency, and is the apparent dip.
able shows the resistivity contrast factor as a function binary: b n re
Composed of only two elements. A
of the ratio of array interval to depth alpha and beta. number system in which only two digits, 0 and 1, are
See Seigel 1959, Chap. 2. used, the position of the digits representing powers of
beta decay: Spontaneous radioactive emission of a beta two; e.g., 11011 represents 2 4 2 3 2 1 2 0 168
particle an electron as a result of changing a neutron 21 or the decimal number 27. See Figure N-4.
into a proton. The result increases the atomic number Negative numbers may be represented by a minus sign
by one. or by codes such as the ones-complement or twos
beta diagram: A cyclographic diagram q.v.. complement codes.
beta testing: On-site testing of software at a location other binary-coded decimal BCD: A number system code in
than the site of its origin before a system is accepted. which decimal digits are represented by four binary
Betsy: An impulsive seismic source that involves firing a digits see Figure N-4. For example, in the BCD num-
shotgun shell into the earth. A Betsy downhole seisgun ber 0010 0111, the 0010 represents 2 1 1020 and
is an impulsive explosive source powered by shotgun the 0111 represents 2 2 2 1 2 0 7, giving the deci-
shells. The shells are loaded into a small chamber on mal number 27. The excess-three code BCDXS3 is
the end of a long metal pipe that is inserted into the the BCD number plus 0011 three.
bottom of a shallow 3 ft borehole. Betsy Seisgun is binary digit: Bit; 0 or 1, as used in the binary system. See
a Mapco trademark. binary.
BHC: BoreHole-Compensated sonic log; see sonic log binary gain: A gain-control system in which amplifica-
and compensated log. BHC is a Schlumberger trade- tion is changed only in discrete steps by factors of 2 and
name, BHC Acoustilog is a Dresser Atlas tradename. the times at which the gain steps occur are recorded so
BHGM: BoreHole GraviMeter q.v.. that the amplitude can be recovered later. Binary-gain
BHT: BottomHole Temperature. control is illustrated in Figure B-3. Compare floating
BHTV: BoreHole TeleViewer q.v.. point.
bias: b s 1. The amount by which the average of a set binary number: See binary.
of values departs from a reference value. 2. Superpos- binary synchronous communication bisync: A syn-
ing an additional magnetic field upon the magnetic field chronous protocol q.v. that supports the transmission
associated with the signal during magnetic tape record- of binary and character data.
ing. Used to obtain a linear relationship between the bin center: The geometric center of a bin.
amplitude of the signal and the remanent flux density in bin fractionation: The clustering of midpoints at loca-
the recording medium. See ac-bias recording. 3. A tions other than at the bin center that sometimes permits
voltage that is maintained at a point in a circuit so that subdivision of a bin into smaller bins.
the device will operate with desired characteristics. 4. A binning: Sorting traces into the appropriate bin q.v..
diode is said to have forward-bias when the voltage binomial expansion: b, no m e l If y x ,
across it is such that current flows through it, and
back-bias when the opposite polarity is maintained so xy nx n nx n1 yn n1 x n2 y 2 /2!
that no current flows.
bias recording: See analog tape formats. n n1 n2 x n3 y 3 /3!... 1 n y n .
bicubic spline: b ku b ik spln A surface, bioherm: b o, herm A reef of biogenic origin.
3 3 Biot-Gassmann modeling: : See fluid substitution.
F x,y c
i0 j0
i jx
i j
y
Biot-Savart law: be o s vart Amperes law q.v..
Named for Jean Baptiste Biot 1774 1862 and Felix
Savart 17911841, French physicists.
used to interpolate 2D data, where c i j are constants. Biot slow wave: A very slow wave 10 m/s predicted
bidirectional gridding: Bilinear interpolation q.v.. by Biot theory q.v..
big endian: See endian. Biot theory: A theory of seismic wave travel in porous
bilinear interpolation: b lin e r A 2D interpolation media that predicts three wave types: P- and S-waves
method in which values are first interpolated in one and a Biot slow wave. The slow wave couples wave
direction and then in the orthogonal direction. Com- motion to fluid diffusion and propagates at velocities
puter programs often interpolate stacking velocity in 10 m/s; it was observed experimentally by Plona
this way, first interpolating in time between picks at 1980. See Biot 1956.
velocity analysis points and then spatially between bioturbation: b o tur ba
, shn Stirring of sediment by
velocity analysis locations. This may create disconti- organisms near the Earths surface.
nuities in the gradient. Also called bidirectional grid- biphase modulation: Modulation using 90 to indicate
ding. a one and 90 to indicate a zero.
bimodal: b mo d l A set of observations that includes bipolar waveform: See current waveform.
members of two populations that have different distri- bipole: b po
l A dipole electrode arrangement in which
butions. the electrodes of the dipole are an appreciable distance
bipole map 36 BIRPS
apart when compared to source-receiver separation. surements. 2. A depth controller q.v. on a marine
bipole map: A display of profile data in bar-graph form, streamer.
often using color to display polarity. bird-dog: 1. To pay close attention to a job or to follow a
bipole-dipole array: A direct-current resistivity array in job until it is finished. 2. The one to whom such
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which the earth is energized using a pair of widely surveillance is assigned. 3. The representative of the
spaced electrodes bipole and the resultant electric company that hires a geophysical crew, responsible for
field is mapped at numerous locations up to several the work of the crew. Usually a staff or liaison position
miles from the bipole using orthogonal pairs of dipoles not carrying line responsibility.
to determine the magnitude and direction of the electric birefringence: b, ri frin jns Splitting of an incident
field. The method is used for reconnaissance because of S-wave into two waves with different polarizations,
the low cost per station compared to other resistivity also called shear-wave splitting, S-wave splitting,
methods.
mode splitting, and double refraction Crampin,
biquinary: b kwn re
A number-system code in which
1981. In a transversely isotropic medium, for each
a decimal digit is represented by a digit pair, 5AB,
travel direction only two orthogonal polarizations of
where A is 0 or 1 and B is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4. Thus the
decimal 7 is represented as 12 (152). See Figure plane shear-waves are allowed although they are not
N-4. necessarily transverse to the propagation direction. An
Birchs law: Empirical relations between density in S-wave of arbitrary polarization entering such a region
g/cm3, P-wave velocity V in km/s, and mean atomic in a direction other than along the symmetry axis splits
number m. For nonporous rocks, into two S-waves one of which is quasi-shear that
propagate at different velocities, S1 for the faster, S2
a m 3.05V, for the slower. For horizontal thin-layer anisotropy, the
two waves are the SH- and qSV-waves, the qSV not
where necessarily being polarized transverse to the propaga-
tion direction. For parallel fracturing the S1 mode that
a m 137 for m21, or,
is polarized parallel to the fractures travels faster than
VA m 1.5 or Va b, the S2 mode that is polarized with a component per-
pendicular to the fracture direction see Figure B-4.
where a, b are constants. Named for Albert F. Birch See also transverse isotropy, Thomsen parameters, and
1903, American geophysicist. anisotropy (seismic).
bird: 1. A sensor such as a magnetometer suspended BIRPS: British Institutions Reflection Profiling Syndi-
from an aircraft by a cable to make geophysical mea- cate, a group active in crustal studies, similar to
FIG. B-3. Binary-gain action in a seismic amplifier. (Courtesy Seismic Data Services.)
bisection 37 block diagram
COCORP q.v.. See BIRPS 1999 for both narrative 2000 ft3 /barrel), which is easy to deal with in
and data. fluid-flow simulation because of its simple thermody-
bisection: b sek shn A method of finding the roots of namic properties. Other categories of hydrocarbons
a continuous function. Parameter values are tried until a include volatile oils, retrograde gas, wet gas, and dry
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they are interrelated, without showing construction purpose of which is to detonate the main explosive
details. 2. Diagram showing the component operations charge.
of a computer program. boot: 1. Protective shield placed around a hydrophone,
blocking temperature: The temperature below which the cable connector, sleeve-exploder unit, etc. 2. To cause a
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atoms in a mineral can no longer diffuse. Important in computer to exercise a bootstrap program see boot-
radioactive age dating. strapping. 3. To plant a geophone firmly by stepping
block kriging: A method of making a kriging estimate on it.
over an area; e.g., a grid cell may be subdivided into bootstrapping: 1. Bringing a system into a desired state
subcells, kriged values determined for each subcell, and by its own actions. The execution of a bootstrap pro-
then these values averaged. gram, a set of permanently stored instructions; it may
Blondeau method: blon do A method of determining involve loading from external storage and executing a
vertical time to a predetermined depth based on first- set of instructions to initialize a computer. 2. To attempt
break data and the assumption that the instantaneous the impossible, as to lift oneself by ones bootstraps.
velocity is proportional to a power of the depth. The bore: A single water wave with an almost vertical front.
modified Blondeau method assumes that the constant of borehole: A hole drilled into the Earth; a well.
proportionality and the exponent can vary with depth. borehole effect: Well-log distortion because of the size
See Musgrave and Bratton 1967. Named for Ernest E. and influence of the borehole and the invaded zone.
Blondeau 1904 1939, American geophysicist. Borehole effects include breakouts, borehole ellipticity,
blow counts: The number of strikes of a pile driver and borehole rugosity.
required to push a pile a given distance. Used as a borehole electrical anisotropy: See anisotropy (electri-
measure of shear strength. cal).
blowout: An uncontrolled flow of gas, oil, and other fluids borehole geophone: A geophone that can withstand the
from a borehole resulting from excessive formation pressure and temperature conditions in a borehole.
pressure. Often consists of three orthogonal elements so that it
blowout preventer: See drill rig. can read all three components of wave motion and
blowup: 1. To become unstable, as in a mathematical usually includes a provision for clamping to the bore-
operation when dividing by a very small number. 2. To hole wall to ensure good coupling. Borehole hydro-
fail to converge. 3. To enlarge, such as by photographic phones are also used but they are much more subject to
means. tube waves.
blue sky: Not constrained by practicalities. borehole gravimeter: A remote reading gravimeter that
BM: Benchmark q.v.. can be lowered through a borehole as a logging tool.
body waves: P- and S-waves that travel through the body The difference between the gravity readings at two
of a medium, as opposed to surface waves. See P-wave different depths gives the apparent density in g/cm3
and S-wave. between the depths:
body-wave magnitude: An estimate of the size of an
earthquake based on body-wave amplitudes. 3.686128.5g/h 1 3.68639.18g/h 2 ,
BOE: Barrels of Oil Equivalent.
Boltzmann constant: bo lts mn The ratio of the ideal where g is the gravity difference in mGal, h 1 is the
gas constant R to Avogadros number N: depth difference in meters, and h 2 is the depth differ-
ence in feet. See LaFehr 1983.
kR/N1.30510 23 J/K. borehole gravity gradiometer: A measure of the vertical
gradient of gravitational acceleration. Usually mea-
bomb: 1. An explosive charge used as a seismic energy sured by the difference between borehole gravity mea-
source. 2. To fail to execute on the computer, e.g., a surements at two elevations vertical gradient. Hori-
data processing operation bombs. 3. A device to zontal gradients also can be measured.
collect a sample of fluid in a borehole. borehole imaging: Logging tools that provide an image of
Bond transformation: A technique for applying coordi- the borehole wall using several electrodes mounted on
nate frame rotations or symmetry operations to stiffness pads against the borehole wall, or by using a rotating
or compliance tensors without using full tensor nota- acoustic beam reflected from the borehole wall. See
tion. See Winterstein 1989. Figure I-1a and compare borehole televiewer.
Boolean algebra: boo le n An algebra of elementary borehole log: Well log q.v..
logical properties of statements; a system involving yes borehole Stoneley waves: A flexural mode of energy
or no decisions, used in computer design and program- propagation in a borehole. In some cases, Stoneley-
ming. See Figure B-5. Named for George Boole 1815 wave propagation can be used to infer permeability and
1864, English mathematician. fracturing. See Tang and Cheng 1996.
boomer: 1. A very strong, usually low-frequency reflec- borehole televiewer: A well log wherein a pulsed, narrow
tion event identified with a distinctive massive reflector. acoustic sonar beam scans the borehole wall in a tight
2. A marine seismic-energy source in which a discharge helix as the tool moves up the borehole. The traveltime
of electricity through a transducer consisting of a flat and amplitude provide information about the borehole
coil with spring-loaded aluminum plates induces eddy wall. Analog or digital data can be presented in a
currents that force the plates to separate sharply pro- variety of ways to reveal fractures, vugs, etc. see
ducing an implosion. EG & G trade name. Figure B-6. BHTV is a Mobil Oil trade name. See
booster: An intermediate explosive that has to be deto- Zemanek et al. 1970 and compare borehole imaging
nated by another explosive often a blasting cap, the and Figure I-1.
borehole-to-borehole measurements 39 bottom-hole pressure
borehole-to-borehole measurements: See crosshole by substituting the first approximation for the unknown
method. wavefield, and so on. Named for Max Born 1882
Born approximation: born A perturbation solution of 1970, German physicist. See Clayton and Stolt 1981
the integral equations for scattering. This involves sub- and Cohen et al. 1986.
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stituting the unperturbed wavefield for the unknown bottom drag: A recording system where receivers are
wavefield under the integral sign, to obtain the first dragged along the bottom into position.
approximation. The second approximation is obtained bottom-hole pressure: The pressure of the fluids in a
FIG. B-5. Boolean algebra. (a) Symbolic representations; (b) truth table showing rules, no and yes represented by 0
and 1 respectively; (c) laws of Boolean algebra; (d) Venn diagram representation by shaded areas; (e) circuit diagram
representations. Gates may have more than two inputs.
bottom lock 40 boundary-value problem
formation, measured by a pressure bomb that is the figure of the Earth. See Chapin 1996 and Figure
lowered on a wire line and includes a precision pressure G7.
guage. Bouguer correction: 1. A correction to gravity data
bottom lock: Situation where Doppler-sonar measure- because of the attraction of the rock between the station
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ments are based on reflections from the sea floor the and the elevation of the datum often sea level or, in
normal operational mode in less than 4001000 ft of the case of stations below the datum elevation, for rock
water, as opposed to the water-scatter mode, which that is missing between the station and datum. The
occurs in deeper water. Bouguer correction is 0.041 92 h mGal (4 h),
bottom-simulating reflector BSR: A reflection that where is the gravitational constant, is the density of
roughly parallels the seafloor reflection, presumably the intervening rock, and h is the difference between the
caused by the contrast between an overlying clathrate station and datum elevations in meters or 0.012 78 h
gas hydrate and underlying gas-saturated sediments or mGal if h is in feet. See Figure G-7. 2. In surface ship
occasionally by opal transition. Especially seen in deep gravity data, the Bouguer correction replaces the sea
water where subseafloor sediments are at low tempera- water with assumed rock density, and in the preceding
ture but under substantial pressure. See Sheriff and expression is the difference in densities of the replace-
Geldart 1995, 128, 131. ment rock and that of sea water. Also called slab
Bott-Smith rule: The depth of a gravity source h correction.
0.86 g max/(dg/dx)max, where g max is the maximum Bouguer gravity: See Bouguer anomaly.
gravity anomaly value and (dg/dx) max is its maximum Bouguer plate: An infinite slab of finite thickness h and
slope. Also called Smith rule. See depth rule. density g/cm3; its gravity effect is 0.041 92 h
Bouguer anomaly: boo ger or bo gar 1. The value mGal if h is in meters.
obtained after latitude correction, elevation correction Bouguer spherical cap: The Earths segment that
including both free-air and Bouguer corrections, includes all rocks above datum usually sea level out to
Eo tvo s correction for marine and aerogravity, and 166.735 km. The sum of the ordinary Bouguer correc-
usually terrain correction have been applied to gravity tion and the Bullard B correction q.v..
data. If a terrain correction has not been made, the Bouma sequence: bau m An idealization of the sedi-
result is sometimes called simple Bouguer. The Bou- ment sequence found in turbidity-current deposits. A
guer gravity field is not the same as the field that would single upward-fining sequence consists of a lower mas-
have been observed at the datum elevation, because the sive sand unit A overlain progressively by parallel
shape of anomalies resulting from remaining density laminations B, ripple or convolute laminations C, plane
irregularities still are appropriate to the elevation of parallel laminations D, and pelagic shale E.
measurement rather than to those of the datum eleva- boundary analysis: A method that delineates density or
tion. Also called Bouguer gravity. 2. Sometimes, a magnetic changes, such as the Blakely-Simpson or
departure from smoothness in the contours on a map analytic-signal methods.
showing Bouguer values i.e., a residual in Bouguer boundary condition: A constraint that a function must
anomaly values. Named for Pierre Bouguer 1698 satisfy along a boundary.
1758, French mathematician who tried to determine boundary-value problem: A differential equation
FIG. B-6. Borehole televiewer. (a) Schematic of a sonde in the borehole. (b) Schematic appearance of two plane
fractures, one with steep south dip and one with gentle west dip, as shown in (c). (From Zemanek et al., 1970, 255 and
257.)
boundary wave 41 bridge rectifier
there are four arms, each containing a rectifier. See such that the speed of the explosion front along the axis
Figure B-8. of the helix is approximately equal to the seismic veloc-
bridle: 1. To connect in parallel a group of amplifiers to a ity in the surrounding medium. Used to increase the
common input. 2. A seismic record produced with the sharpness of a downward-traveling wave and to reduce
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FIG. B-10. Bubble pulses from a small underwater explosion. The time between successive implosions decreases as
energy is dissipated. Successive pulses effectively generate additional records superimposed on the first; the result is
bubble noise. One measure of the effectiveness of a marine source is the ratio of the amplitudes of the primary to the
first bubble. See also Figure S-16. (Courtesy Chevron Oil Co.)
FIG. B-11. Buried focus reflection. (a) Model of a simple syncline showing several raypaths for common source-
detector traces. (b) Schematic time section corresponding to the model. (c) Record section for a 2D model similar to that
shown in (a), showing three branches; the pattern is sometimes called a bow tie. Note the 90 phase shift in the reverse
branch. (Courtesy Chevron Oil Co.)
bubble period 44 byte order
bubble period: The time between oscillations of a bubble, stant velocity, a buried focus occurs if a reflectors
such as an air-gun produces. center of curvature lies beneath the recording surface,
bubble point: The temperature and pressure at which the but less curvature is required for buried-focus effects on
first bubbles of gas appear, where a liquid begins to offset traces. Hence buried-focus effects are more likely
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convert to gas. See Figure H-11. on long-offset traces or deeper in the section. Velocity
bubble sort: To rearrange items until they are in either gradients and curvature of isovelocity surfaces which
ascending or descending order. are apt to occur in structural areas affect buried-focus
buck: To bias q.v.. effects. Buried-focus effects can also be produced by
bucking electrodes: Guard electrodes q.v.. local lateral velocity variations that bring about focus-
Buffalo gun: buf lo An impulsive energy source that ing lens effects.
involves detonation of a blank shotgun shell in a shal- burner: A device for writing data onto a compact disk
low hole. CD.
buffer: 1. An intermediate storage device that accommo- burn-in: 1. To permanently implant data on a chip or CD.
dates differences between the rate at which information 2. To perform an endurance test, sometimes under
is fed into a computer and the rate at which the com- adverse conditions.
puter can receive the information, or which performs burst-out: A large sudden increase in amplitude that
the same function for information output by a computer threatens to exceed the linear capabilities of a system.
or between component parts of a computer. 2. An burst rate: The rate at which a device transfers data after
isolating circuit to prevent a reaction of the circuit that the data have been accessed, as opposed to the effective
is driven from affecting the circuit that is doing the data rate that also involves access time.
driving. A buffer amplifier may follow a critical stage bus: 1. Common connector for electrical power or com-
to isolate subsequent stages from load impedance varia- puter data. 2. A circuit or group of circuits that provide
tions. 3. A solution that minimizes the changes in a communication path between two or more devices,
hydrogen-ion concentration that would otherwise result such as between central processor, memories, and
from a chemical reaction. peripherals.
buffered: Somewhat isolated from effects that would oth- bust: A failure to tie a survey loop within acceptable
erwise occur. standards.
bug: 1. Error or a malfunction in equipment, computer butterfly filter: An f-k velocity filter that rejects a pre-
program, etc. 2. An uphole geophone q.v.. scribed band of apparent velocities or moveouts. As
bug time: Uphole time q.v.. opposed to a pie-slice filter that passes a band of
build rate: The rate of increase of deviation in the curved moveouts.
part of a deviated hole; often measured in degrees/100 Butterworth filter: bd r wrth A type of frequency
ft. filter characterized by a very flat passband, often used
bulge waves: Mechanical disturbances that generate pres- as an alias filter. Sometimes called a maximally flat
sure fluctuations in a liquid-filled streamer. Caused by filter or a trapezoidal filter. The slopes at the edges of
towing vibrations, sea swell, bird hydrodynamics, the bandpass can be set arbitrarily. Filters can be speci-
vibration of the end members of streamer sections, etc. fied by four numbers a,b,c,d, where b and c specify the
bulk shift: Adding or subtracting a constant from all frequency bandpass and a and d specify the frequencies
traveltimes. that are down 3 dB in amplitude. See Sheriff and
bulk modulus: See elastic constants. Geldart 1995, 15.7.4.
Bullard B earth curvature gravity correction: bull button: 1. The small circular electrode on a microresistiv-
rd An adjustment to the Bouguer planar-slab correc- ity or electrical imaging sonde. 2. To turn on or off. 3.
tion which accounts for the Earths curvature. See A tightly grouped array of receivers.
LaFehr 1992. button patch: A geometry used for 3D surveying
bullet: 1. A device for obtaining sidewall cores. 2. A whereby sources are positioned around a receiver but-
device for perforating the casing in a well. ton. Leads to a checkerboard pattern of dense and
bulletin board: An electronic information exchange for empty bins. Arco patent.
computer users. bypassing: Flow of reservoir-flushing fluids around
bump: To increase a count by one. hydrocarbon pockets because of the inhomogeneity of a
buried-focus effect: The effect of energy passing through reservoir.
a focal region before it reaches the recording plane. A byte: bt A small group of binary digits often eight
buried-focus situation commonly causes several across the width of a magnetic tape that are manipu-
branches usually three of a reflection to be observable lated as a unit. See also character.
i.e., several points on the reflector satisfy the law of byte order: The order in which multibyte binary data are
reflection; see Figure B-11. The portion for which stored in a computer memory. In some machines the
raypaths pass through the focus is called the reverse least significant digit is stored in the low byte, in others
branch q.v. and it involves a phase shift; see Sheriff in the high byte. A byte swap refers to changing from
and Geldart 1995, 155-159. For zero offset and con- one type of byte storage to another.
C
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c: 1. Symbol often used for velocity. 2. The velocity of where Z is the Cagniard impedance q.v..
light in a vacuum, 2.997 92510 8 m/s. 3. A seismic Cagniard de Hoop technique: An exact method for a
wave reflected at the Earths mantle-core boundary. synthetic seismogram calculation that involves the use
C: An object-oriented programming language, a of inverse Laplace transforms and iteration in the com-
superset of the C language that was originally devel- plex plane. See Aki and Richards 1980.
oped for the Unix operating system. Supports data Caignard impedance: In the magnetotelluric method, the
abstraction and object-oriented and generic program- ratio of the horizontal electric field component in some
ming, and facilitates modularity in programming. See direction, E x , to the magnetic field, H y , in a perpen-
also Java. dicular direction. For a horizontally layered earth, it is
cable: 1. The assembly of electrical conductors used to independent of the choice of x-direction. See also
connect geophone or hydrophone groups to the impedance.
recorder. See also streamer. 2. The assembly of electri- cake: Mud cake q.v..
cal conductors and tensile members used to support a calculus of variations: The mathematics of finding a
logging sonde wireline, well geophone, or bird. function that will maximize or minimize a definite
cablebreak: An arrival in a well-velocity survey caused integral.
by energy travel in the cable that supports the well caldera: A large circular depression of volcanic origin.
geophone. Wave velocity in cables is 2500-3500 m/s. calibrate: 1. To adjust an apparatus so that it reads values
cable drilling: A method of making a hole in hard rock by correctly. 2. To determine the number of units of a
alternately lifting and dropping a tool. quantity being measured per scale division of the read-
cable strum: Vibration of a marine streamer or ocean- out device. 3. To check equipment readings by measur-
bottom cable produced by occasional sudden tension, ing a known standard. 4. To adjust values so that the
such as might be caused by pitching of a towing ship, integrated traveltime agrees with data from surface
jerks from a tail buoy, or variations in current. A source sources into a well seismometer in the borehole. 5. To
of noise in marine seismic data. transform a logging tool signal into a quantified physi-
cable tools: Equipment for cable drilling q.v.. Occasion- cal parameter, or the result of this transformation
ally used for seismic shotholes in areas of extremely recorded on a log.
hard surface rock. See spudder. calibration factor: A constant used to compensate for
cache: kash A temporary storage place. Computers inaccuracies in electromagnetic field parameters, cur-
include caches at several levels, including cache rent channeling, and static shifts. For transient electro-
memory and disk cache. A cache memory may be on magnetic methods, it depends only on the transmitter-
the same or a separate chip from the microprocessor, receiver distance.
and is faster to access than regular RAM. Disk cache, calibration resistor: A pure resistance of a known value
either a reserved area of RAM or a special hard-disk used to calibrate a frequency-domain transmitter and
cache, may store recently accessed data for fast access. receiver.
RAM can be viewed as a cache. For example, recently calibration tails: Calibration records run before and/or
requested Web pages may be stored in a browsers after a log run and attached to the logs.
cache so that the browser can return to a page from the caliche: k le che A cemented surface layer that forms
cache rather than from the server. in semi-arid temperate zones by the precipitation of
CA code: Coarse Acquisition code used to carry informa- calcium carbonate. Caliche is often a difficult surface
tion for GPS positioning. for seismic acquisition.
CAD: Computer-Aided Design, computer-aided drafting. caliper log: A well log that measures hole diameter. Open-
cadastral survey: k das trl A survey to determine hole caliper logging tools sometimes have four or more
boundary lines. arms. See Figures M-11 and S-13. Tools for studying
CAEX: Computer-Aided EXploration; interactive inter- casing or tubing corrosion use many fingers.
pretation employing seismic, well, and other data. call: An instruction to transfer control to a subprogram.
cage: Perforated steel surrounding a marine energy source camera: A recording oscillograph used to produce a vis-
small explosive or air gun to attenuate the bubble ible pattern representing electrical signals or to make a
effect q.v. by dissipating energy in the turbulent flow visible seismic record on photosensitive paper or film
of water in and out of the cage. See Flexotir and Figure or by xerography. See also plotter.
F-13. camouflet shooting: kam ou fla To generate S-waves
Cagniard apparent resistivity: ca gn yard 1. A resistiv- by asymmetry of P-wave sources.
ity calculated from orthogonal electric and magnetic cannel coal: kan l A sapropelic coal derived from
field measurements, used for magnetotelluric measure- organic residues by putrefaction under anerobic condi-
ments in a layered earth. For more complicated struc- tions rather than petrification. High in volatile compo-
ture, the full tensor impedance must be considered. 2. nents.
In the magnetotelluric method, an apparent resistivity in canonical: Simplest form of a generalized relation.
ohm-meters at period T obtained from 0.2T Z 2 , canonical transformation: A transformation from one set
45
cap 46 catalyst
of coordinates and moments to another set in which the Carpenter electrode array: kar pn tr Four colinear
equations of motion are preserved. equispaced electrodes used in electrical surveying. In
cap: A small explosive designed to be detonated by an the Carpenter-1 or Wenner array, the two central
electrical current, which in turn detonates another electrodes are the potential electrodes; in the
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explosive. Seismic caps are designed to detonate with Carpenter-2 array, one end pair are the potential elec-
little uncertainty in their time of detonation. trodes; in the Carpenter-3 array, the current and poten-
capacitance: The ratio of charge Q in coulombs on a tial electrodes alternate.
capacitor to the potential across it V in volts is the carrier: A radio wave having a characteristic e.g., fre-
capacitance C in farads: CQ/V. quency, amplitude, phase that can be varied by modu-
capacitive coupling: See coupling. lation.
capacitive reactance: Electrical impedance X C resulting carry: 1. In arithmetic operations, the transfer of a value
from capacitance: from a lower order position to the next higher order
position as a result of the lower order having equaled or
X C 1/ 2 f C ohms, exceeded the base of the number system. For example,
where f is frequency in hertz and C is capacitance in if subscripts indicate the base,
farads.
capacitivity: k pas i tiv te
Permittivity, the property 8 10 2 10 0carry 10 10 ;
of a material that enables it to store electrical charge.
Measured in farads per meter. The ratio of the capaci- 1 2 1 2 0carry 2 2 .
tivity of a material to that of free space is the dielectric
constant of the material. Free space has a capacitivity 2. A computer status bit that indicates whether or not
of 8.85410 12 farad/m. See also electric suscepti- the last arithmetic operation resulted in a carry from
bility. high-order bit position.
capex: Capital expenditures. Cartesian coordinates: kar te zhan Rectangular coor-
capillary pressure: The pressure required to displace one dinates where the axes are straight lines and the angles
fluid with another with which it is not miscible. The between them are right angles. Named for R ene Des-
difference in pressure across the interface separating cartes 1596 1650, French scientist and philosopher.
immiscible liquids. cascade: ka ska d To arrange in series.
cap rock: 1. Impermeable sealing rock above a reservoir cascaded filtering: Applying several filters in succession.
rock. 2. The dense anhydrite and gypsum rock above a cascading menu: A list where entries include subentries,
salt dome that results from leaching of the soluble which in turn include sub-subentries, etc.
materials in the salt body. cascaded migration: The sequential implementation of a
caprock effect: A sharp positive gravity anomaly pro- number of migration processes to improve the accuracy
duced by the dense caprock of a salt dome, superim- over a single migration step.
posed on a broader negative caused by the salt dome. casing: Tubes or pipes used to keep a borehole from
Shallow salt is usually denser than surrounding sedi- caving in and to prevent fluids within the hole from
ments, so caprock is not essential to produce a positive entering surrounding formations and prevent formation
gravity anomaly. fluids from entering the borehole. Shot-hole casing is
capture cross section: 1. The atomic capture cross usually in 10-ft lengths that screw together, drill casing
section for neutrons is the effective area within which a in 30-ft lengths.
neutron has to pass to be captured by an atomic casing-collar: The coupling between joints of a casing.
nucleus. It is a probabilistic value dependent on the casing-collar locator: A magnetic or scratcher device for
nature and energy of the particle as well as the nature of locating casing collars, used to correlate cased-hole
the capturing nucleus. Atomic capture cross section is logs and serve as reference depths in completion opera-
often measured in barns (1 barn10 28 m2 ). 2. The tions.
macroscopic capture cross section, , is the effective casing hanger: Device used to support casing within a
cross-sectional area per unit volume for capture of borehole.
neutrons; it depends on the number of atoms present as casing-head gas: Gas produced along with the oil from an
well as their atomic capture cross sections. The unit of oil well.
measure for is cm2 /cm3 10 3 cu, where cu casing point: The lowest depth in a well where casing is
capture unit q.v.. 3. The rate of absorption of set and cemented.
thermal neutrons with a velocity V is V. casing shoe: A short, hollow, heavy, cylindrical steel unit
capture unit: A unit of measure of a macroscopic capture placed at the bottom of a casing string to protect it as it
cross-section; 0.1 m2/m3. Also called sigma unit and is lowered into a borehole.
abbreviated cu or su. CAT: Computerized Axial Tomography. See Scudder
carbonate factory: Conditions of temperature and water 1978.
clarity that favor the generation of carbonates. Gener- catalog: 1. Collection of master curves or type curves
ally, this applies to shallow tropical or subtropical seas q.v. for interpreting magnetic, electrical, and electro-
away from river mouths so that suspended sediment is magnetic survey measurements. Catalog lookup
not present. involves using a library of previously calculated and
carbon-dioxide flooding: See miscible recovery methods. stored data to determine interpretation parameters. 2. A
card: 1. A plug-in printed-circuit module. 2. A punch-card list of computer programs; a menu or library.
used for data storage. catalyst: kat list A substance that promotes a reaction
cardinal theorem: Sampling theorem q.v.. and ends up unchanged.
catcher 47 CEM
catcher: 1. A device to prevent cap wires from being Named for Augustin Louis Cauchy 17891857,
blown out of the hole by the shot and endangering French mathematician.
personnel by making contact with high-voltage power causal: kau zl Not existing before some finite starting
lines. 2. A device to catch a Dinoseis gas gun before it time and having finite total energy.
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falls back to the ground after an explosion, thus pre- causality: The property of a sequence such that there is
venting a second sharp impact that would complicate zero energy before some finite starting time. Minimum-
the waveform. 3. A device used to retain a core in a core phase wavelets are causal but zero-phase ones are not.
barrel. caustic: kau stik A surface to which rays emanating
catching samples: Obtaining and studying samples of for- from a single source and reflected by a curved reflector
mations brought to the surface in the drilling mud. are tangent. A surface formed by adjacent rays.
categorical: kat gor i kl Absolute, unqualified, cave: An immersive environment where an interpreter can
unconditional. sense 3D effects of a data set, usually by projection
cathead: A spool-shaped attachment to a winch around onto three walls, ceiling, and/or floor. The 3D visual-
which a rope can be wound for hoisting or pulling. A ization may be provided by stereo effects, rotation of a
breakout cathead helps in unscrewing drill pipe, a display so that it can be seen from different directions,
makeup cathead for screwing it together. virtual reality, or other ways.
cathode: 1. The electrode where reduction occurs and caving: Collapse or sloughing of the walls of a borehole.
electrons are taken up. The negative terminal of an cavitation: kav, i ta shn The formation and collapse of
electrolytic cell or the positive terminal of a battery. 2. cavities bubbles in a fluid caused by the static pres-
The source electrode for electrons inside a vacuum tube sure becoming smaller than the fluid vapor pressure.
or semiconductor diode device that converts informa- The collapse generates a shock wave by implosion. The
tion into an electron beam and subsequently to light outward momentum of water and gases from an under-
energy to provide a visual display. water explosion and other marine energy sources usu-
cathode-ray tube: A device for viewing waveforms such ally produces such a low-pressure region, the collapse
as voltage as a function of time and other information. of which produces a bubble effect.
Abbreviated CRT or CRO. C-AVO: Variation of amplitude with offset q.v. for con-
cathodic protection: Protection for buried pipelines and verted waves.
other metallic materials subject to electrochemical cor- CBL: Cement-Bond Log q.v..
rosion. The pipeline is made electrically negative with CCD: Charge-Coupled Device.
respect to ground. CCP: Common Conversion Point q.v..
cation: kat n A positively charged ion. Compare CD: Compact Disk, a computer storage device with large
anion. memory capacity.
cation exchange capacity: Number of negative charge CDI: Conductivity-Depth Image q.v..
sites on clay surfaces that can attract sodium ions from CDM: Continuous DipMeter; see dipmeter.
pore fluid. Each sodium ion carries six clay-bound CDP: Common-Depth-Point; see common midpoint.
water molecules. CDR: Compensated Dual-Resistivity tool.
cationic membrane: A membrane that permits the pas- CD-ROM: Compact Disk with Read-Only Memory, to
sage of cations but not of anions. Shale acts as such a which one cannot write data.
membrane, allowing sodium ions but not chloride ions CDT: Conductivity-Depth Transform. See conductivity-
to pass. Important in generating electrochemical SP depth image.
q.v.. celestial equator: s les chl See equinoctial.
catline: A hoisting or pulling line to move heavy equip- celestial latitude: Angular distance north or south of the
ment around a drill rig. ecliptic. Different than declination.
cat push: Line-cutting supervisor. celestial longitude: Angular distance east of the vernal
Cauchy criterion: ko she An optimization criterion equinox measured along the ecliptic. Different from
involving the minimizing of right ascension.
celestial navigation: See positioning.
celestial pole: The projection of the Earths axis onto the
ln 1 d i d i / 2 , celestial sphere.
celestial sphere: An imaginary sphere of infinite radius
where d i are observed and d i are model data. Implies concentric with the Earth on which all celestial bodies
that errors have the probability distribution are imagined to be projected.
Celsius: sel se s A temperature scale where water
1/ 1/ 1 dd o / 2 , freezes at 0 C and boils at 100 C at one atmosphere
pressure; formerly called centigrade. If T C , T K , and
T F are Celsius, Kelvin, and Fahrenheit temperatures,
where is the standard deviation about the maximum
respectively,
likelihood point d 0 . See Amundsen 1991, 2027.
Cauchy-type integral: The function at a point z 0 within a
closed contour C can be expressed in terms of a line T C T K 293.15 5/9 T F 32 .
integral along C if f (z) is a continuous analytic func-
tion: Named for Anders Celsius 17011744, Swedish
astronomer.
f a 1/2 i f z / zz 0 dz.
CEM: Crone Electromagnetic Method; see shootback
method.
cement additive 48 central limit theorem
cement additive: Additives to cement to control the set- the product of the mass and its distance from the
ting time, control the weight, reduce fluid loss, etc. rotation point being considered. 2. Used for other types
cementation factor: The exponent m in the Archie For- of data, e.g., the distribution of CMP points within a
mula q.v.. seismic bin.
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cement-bond log CBL: A well log of the amplitude of centigrade: Celsius q.v..
the acoustic wave that indicates the degree of bonding centipoise: A unit of viscosity, equal to 10 3 kg/(s.m).
of cement to casing and formations. See Figure C-1. The viscosity of water at 20 C is 1.005 centipoise.
Also called an amplitude log. The wavetrain may also central induction sounding: An electromagnetic tech-
be displayed, as in the character log, 3D, microseismo- nique in which the vertical magnetic field is measured
gram, VDL, or acoustic signature log.
as a function of frequency at the center of a large
cement channeling: Uneven movement of a cement
horizontal transmitting loop.
slurry behind casing that then allows free fluid flow
central limit theorem: A statement about the characteris-
through the channels.
cementing: Applying a liquid slurry of cement and water tics of the distribution of the means of random samples.
to form a protective sheath around casing to secure the If we could draw an infinite number of random samples
well casing and prevent the migration of undesirable of a given size where we calculate the mean of each
fluids or for other purposes. In squeeze cementing the sample, a the mean of the means of the samples
slurry is forced through perforations in the casing to equals the mean of the population from which the
isolate formations, seal off water, or repair leaks. samples were drawn; b the variance of the sampling
center-line fault: Fault pick midway between up- and distributions equals the variance of the population
down-thrown terminations. divided by the sample size. c If the original popula-
center of gravity: 1. The point in a material body through tion is normally distributed i.e., is bell-shaped, the
which the gravitational attraction acts regardless of the sampling distribution will also be bell-shaped, and if
orientation of the body. The point about which all the original population is not normally distributed, the
weight moments cancel. The moment of a point mass is distribution will increasingly approximate a normal dis-
FIG. C-1. Cement-bond application of microseismogram log. (a) Before squeeze; (b) after squeeze. If the casing is
poorly cemented, the energy that travels through the steel casing is strong and little energy travels in the formation; if
the casing is well cemented, the casing signal nearly disappears and the formation signal is strong. (Courtesy Welex.)
central processing unit CPU 49 chaos theory
tribution as the sample size increases. Among other discoveries, it established the magnitude
central processing unit CPU: The heart of a computer of the mid-Atlantic ridge.
that controls operations and interprets and executes Chandler wobble: A precession of the Earths rotational
programs. Typically includes the arithmetic logic unit axis about its axis of greatest moment of inertia. Also
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and an instruction processing unit. called the free nutation of the Earth. The wobble
CEP: Circle of Equivalent Probability; the radius of a period is about 435 days and the amplitude is about
circle such that half of the measurements fall within the 0.14 s of arc. Named for Sweth Carlo Chandler 1846
circle. A circle containing 90% of the measurements 1913, American astronomer.
would be 90% CEP. change detection image: An image comparing two
cepstrum: sep strum The Fourier transform of a loga- images acquired at different times, sometimes made by
rithmic frequency distribution. Let indicate a Fourier subtracting the earlier from the latter.
transform operation. If g(t)G( ), the cepstrum channel: 1. A single series of interconnected devices
g ( ) is through which data can flow from source to recorder.
of the material in-filling a channel often differ from
g 1/2
G ln G j e j d . those of the material into which the channel is cut,
which makes the channel observable and sometimes
bends raypaths creating dip and/or velocity anomalies
The inverse transform is in underlying reflections. 4. A feature in seismic data
that is interpreted as indicating erosion and fill by a
g G
g e j d , river system, such as a curvilinear feature on a 3-D
horizon slice see Figure H-8. 5. An allocated portion
of the radio-frequency spectrum. 6. A time gate during
G exp G
, which measurements are made in time-domain electro-
magnetic surveying. Measurements made during sev-
g t G . eral time gates following a source pulse yield several
channels of data. 7. A layer whose velocity is such that
The variable is called quefrency and is called the seismic energy gets trapped; see channel wave. 8. A
saphe being permutations of frequency and phase, as gate with upper and lower energy thresholds followed
cepstrum is of spectrum. The cepstral domain is often by a count rate meter, used in gamma-ray spectrom-
indicated by the hat. The transform can also be eters. 9. A component of a mainframe processor that
expressed as z-transforms; see Sheriff and Geldart supports and controls I/O.
1995, 298 299; 554 555. channel wave: 1. An elastic wave propagated in a layer
cesium clock: See frequency standard. where most of the energy is trapped. a The layer may
cesium vapor magnetometer: se m A type of opti-
ze have lower velocity than those on either side of it so
cally pumped magnetometer q.v.. Sensitive to 0.001 that total reflection can occur at the boundaries, or b
nT. Also spelled caesium. a layer boundary may be a free surface so that the
CFP: Common Focusing Point, involved in imaging. See reflectivity is nearly one. Instead of having a sharp
common-image point. interface as a boundary, a velocity gradient that bends
chain: 1. A unit of length equal to 66 ft. 2. To measure rays that tend to escape back toward the channel may
distances directly with a steel tape chain as opposed to provide a channel. The SOFAR channel q.v. in the
measuring by stadia, electronic distance measurement, deep oceans is an example. However, some energy may
or triangulation. Accuracy of the order of 1:5000 can be escape leaking mode, e.g., by converting to another
achieved with care. 3. An ordinary ordered group of wave mode. See Figure C-2. A channel is also called a
computer records. wave guide and channel waves are also called guided
chain rule: If z(y) and y(t) are differentiable dz/dt waves and normal-mode propagation. Coal seams
(dz/dy)dy/dt. and a surface water layer often carry channel waves
chaining: 1. Measuring distances with a chain. 2. A sys- also called seam waves. See Sheriff and Geldart
tem of storing data records in which each record 1995, 483-487.
belongs to a specific group or chain. chaos theory: ka os Theory dealing with the unpredict-
chainman: A surveyors assistant, who helps to measure ability that is intrinsic to nonlinear systems. The effects
distances with a chain. Chainmen often work in pairs to of a small perhaps unmeasurable perturbation grow
measure out seismic spreads using a steel tape or wire progressively larger and thus prevent long-term predict-
that is as long as the group length. ability. Chaos in a dynamic system can be viewed in
chair display: A display combining vertical and horizon- terms of diverging time-dependent orbits paths, which
tal slices through a 3D volume. See Figure T-6. comprise a finite geometric form that is called the
Challenger expedition: An oceanographic voyage in chaotic attractor or strange attractor. The diverg-
18721875 by HMS Challenger, led by John Murray. ing orbits do not repeat exactly and are confined to
chaos theory 50 chaos theory
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FIG. C-2. Channel waves. (a) The Sofar channel is formed by velocity inversion. The velocity-versus-depth curve
changes with latitude and other factors. (b) Energy from a source in the channel is repeatedly refracted or reflected back
toward the velocity minimum and so undergoes less divergence than normal. (From Ewing et al., 1948.) (c) Phase and
group velocity versus normalized frequency for a liquid layer on an elastic substratum. (From Ewing et al., 1957.) (d)
First-mode wavetrain from a source 4 km distant where the ocean constitutes the channel. (e) The high-frequency
portion of (d), the water wave; its arrival is used in refraction work to determine the range. (From Clay and Medwin,
1977.)
character 51 check sum
finite-phase space; the orbits stretch and fold repeat- charge anchor: A device fastened to an explosive charge
edly. Chaotic attractors are fractals q.v.. Before a to hold the charge in a fixed position in the shothole and
system becomes chaotic, its parameter typically under- prevent it from floating or moving.
goes a cascade of bifurcations in a geometric series. charge-coupled device CCD: An electronic medium in
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character: 1. The recognizable aspect of a seismic event; which data is encoded as the presence of positive or
the waveform that distinguishes it from other events. negative charges.
Usually a frequency or phasing effect, often not defined charged: 1. Filled with hydrocarbons 2. A borehole
precisely and hence dependent upon subjective judg- loaded with explosives or air guns ready for firing.
ment. 2. The recognizable aspect of a graph or picture Chebyshev array: cheb shv A frequency filter or
that identifies it with some situation. 3. A single letter, uniformly spaced linear array in which elements are
numeral, or special symbol in a computer system. See weighted according to Chebyshev polynomials. Such
also byte, with which it is sometimes used interchange- weighting equalizes the amplitude of minor lobes and
ably. gives a sharp cutoff. Called equal-ripple filter. See
characteristic: 1. A distinctive feature of a set, object, or Figure C-3. Also spelled Tchebyscheff array. Named
attribute. Characteristics of a set are its name and type; for Fafnutiy Lvorich Chebyshev 18211894, Russian
of an object is its name; of an attribute are its label, mathematician.
count, representation code, units, and value. See also check: A test of the reliability of data. Check problems
character. 2. The integer part of a common logarithm. with known results are run through computers to verify
3. The exponent number for a quantity expressed in correct functioning. a A summation check consists of
scientific notation. 4. As an adjective or prefix, often adding a set of figures and using the sum check sum
written in the German, eigen, as in eigencurrent, eigen- to verify accuracy and completeness. b A duplication
frequency, eigenfunction, eigenstate, eigenvalue, eigen- check requires that an operation be repeated and yield
vector see individual entries. identical results when repeated. c An echo check is
characteristic curve: An anomaly graph whose shape is used to verify transmitted data; the data are sent back
distinctive of a particular model shape. See type curve. echoed to the source station for comparison with the
characteristic root: Eigenvalue; see eigenfunction. original data. An echo check is also a technique
character log: A sonic log that displays the full wave- whereby a computer prints out values of variables and
form. data used in a program. d Error-detecting checks
characteristic thermal diffusion distance: ( ), search data for forbidden combinations. A parity check
where is thermal diffusivity and is the time for a is such a check; the number of one bits plus a parity bit
temperature change to occur. See Fowler 1990, 229 must add up to an odd number for odd parity or to an
230. even number for even parity. A longitudinal parity
charge: 1. An explosive such as used as a seismic source, check LPC, written at the end of a record, does for
The charge is often the weight of the explosive. 2. To each track what the parity bit does for each byte. e A
increase the stored energy. validity check is a verification that a figure lies within
chargeability M: One of several units of induced polar- a certain permissible range.
ization in the time domain. 1. The ratio of initial decay check bit: Parity bit; see check.
voltage or secondary voltage to primary voltage. 2. check digit: An extra character attached to a number as a
The dimensionless induced-polarization parameter of a means of checking the validity of the number.
material in which there is an induced-current dipole check shots: Direct measurement of traveltime between
moment per unit volume P energized by a current the surface and a given depth. Usually sources on the
density J: PM J. 3. The fractional change in resis- surface are recorded by a well geophone see well
tance measured on a decay curve, as a function of time: shooting to determine time-to-depth relationships at
M (t)/ . 4. The integrated area under an IP decay the well location.
curve between times t 1 and t 2 , normalized by the check sum: A summation check; see check.
primary voltage V p . Units are millivolt-seconds per
volt.
M 1/V V t dt.
check valve: A valve that allows flow in only one direc- rine and relatively insensitive to formation porosity.
tion. The main replacement for the chlorine log has been the
chemically enhanced recovery: An enhanced oil recov- neutron-lifetime log and thermal-decay-time log.
ery q.v. method that involves injecting polymers, sur- choke: An orifice that restricts the flow of fluids.
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factants, or alkaline substances to improve oil produc- chopper: 1. An electrical switching device sometimes
tion. Polymers increase the viscosity of injected water including an oscillator, used to interrupt a dc or low-
thickens the water so that the water matches that of frequency ac voltage so that it can be measured by an
the reservoir oil as close as possible, thus making fluid ac voltmeter or amplified by an ac amplifier. 2. A
flow more uniform. Surfactants break down the surface helicopter.
tension of oil that has collected in droplets so that it can chopping filter: A high-pass filter q.v..
be produced. Usually a small amount of surfactants are Christmas tree: The casing-head assembly of pipes,
injected and are followed by polymer flooding and valves, etc. that controls the flow of fluids from a
finally by untreated water. Alkaline flooding is similar producing well.
to surfactant flooding except that the surfactants are Christoffel equation: kris tof l A form of the wave
generated in the reservoir by reacting with petroleum equation for plane waves used for calculating velocity
acids. and slowness surfaces:
chemical remanent magnetism CRM: See remanent
magnetism. 2 CT u 2 u,
chemisorption: chem, sorp shn Adsorption caused
by chemical rather than simply electrostatic causes. where is wavenumber, is the direction cosine
Cheops pyramid: ke ops The surface given by the matrix, C is the stiffness tensor, u the particle displace-
double-square-root equation q.v. that describes the ment vector, the density, and the angular frequency.
traveltime surface of a point diffractor in offset space The quantity in parentheses is called the Christoffel
where the velocity is constant; see Figure D-20. matrix.
cherry pick: To select the easiest. chromatograph: kro mad graf See partition gas chro-
chessboard technique: 1. A grid arrangement used in matograph.
solving the acoustic wave equation. See Claerbout chron: The time of a reversal of the Earths magnetic
1976, Fig. 10-1. 2. A potential-field continuation polarity; a period of reverse polarity would be marked
method for converting level-flown data to drape-flown by a chron at the top and another at the bottom.
and vice-versa. Level-flown data are continued to a chronographic chart: See chronostratigraphic chart.
series of levels that span the drape range, giving a set chronostratigraphic chart: kro n, strat graf, ik A
like stacked 3D chessboards; interpolation is carried out diagram that summarizes conclusions from seismic-
vertically to give drape profiles. sequence analysis. Geologic time increases upward and
child, children: A node pointed to by an element in a tree the geographic distribution of units is plotted horizon-
structure. A child can access all of parents memory but tally. See Figures C-4 and S-5. Also called chrono-
does not affect other childs children. A child can graphic chart.
become a parent. Also called daughter. chronostratigraphy: Classification of sedimentary rock
chimney: See gas chimney. strata according to time of deposition. Seismic reflec-
chip: 1. A solid-state circuit or circuit element; an inte- tions generally indicate constant times of deposition.
grated circuit or IC. 2. The minimum time interval for The study of the age of strata and their time relation-
a one or a zero in a binary pulse code. ships, contrasted with lithostratigraphy, which is based
chirp: Signal of continuously varying frequency. Often on the mineralogic composition and grain size. Com-
implies a linear change of frequency with time. A pare lithostratigraphy and see Figure S-5.
vibroseis-like technique for shallow penetration gener- CI: Contour Interval q.v..
ally using higher frequencies. CIP: Common Image Point q.v..
chi-square: k A quantity distributed as circle shooting: A marine technique for acquiring 3D data
over the flanks of a salt dome or similar structure,
21 22 2k , wherein the boat track forms a spiral centered on the
where 1 , 2 ,..., k are independent, Gaussian, with dome. This technique avoids time lost in changing from
zero mean, and with unit variance. The chi-square test one line to another. It also lessens the CMP smearing.
is a statistical test of data distribution. If f i are circular error probability CEP: Circular error prob-
observed, frequencies of occurrence and e i are the ability is the radius of a circle such that half of the
expected number of occurrences, the goodness of fit y measurements fall within the circle. A circle containing
is 90% of the measurements would be 90% CEP. Where
the probability is anisotropic, it becomes an ellipse.
y f i e i 2 /e i . circular frequency: Angular frequency 2 f, where
f ordinary frequency.
The goodness of fit can be related by the use of tables circular patch: Receivers arranged approximately in a
to the probability that the observed data fit the model circle.
with the assumed number of degrees of freedom. circulation: 1. The integral along a closed loop, V,
chlorine log: A log based on the counting rate of gamma where V is fluid velocity and is a segment of a loop
rays produced by capture of thermal neutrons by chlo- that moves with the fluid. 2. The movement of drilling
rine in the formation. By limiting the count to a certain fluid from a mud pit through pump, drill pipe, annular
energy range, the tool is made more sensitive to chlo- space in the hole, and back into the mud pit.
circulation loss 53 Clarke ellipsoid
circulation loss: Loss of drilling fluid into a porous for- C-language: A general purpose programming language
mation. that combines powerful capabilities with structured
circumferential wave: Seismic wave that travels parallel syntax. See also C. Bell Laboratories tradename.
to the Earths surface. Clarke ellipsoid: clark The basis for the North Ameri-
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cis : Eulers identity: can geodetic datum, the reference datum in most of the
cis cos i sin e i . Western Hemisphere; the Clarke 1866 ellipsoid. There
FIG. C-4. Chronostratigraphic chart. (a) Cross section interpreted from seismic line with unconformities interpreted as
sequence boundaries. (b) Chronostratigraphic chart corresponding to (a). (c) Coastal onlap chart (called relative sea
level in early papers) interpreted from (a). (After Vail et al., 1977.)
classification 54 coding
is also a Clarke 1880 ellipsoid that is used in Africa. and there are forced correlations between parameters.
See Figure G-2. Named for Alexander Ross Clarke An example of a closed data set would be values
1828 1914, British geodesist. expressed as percentages of a whole.
classification: Assigning data to categories on the basis of closure: 1. The property of a structure whereby it has a
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measurements of several quantities. Supervised classi- closing contour. Vertical closure is the vertical distance
fication uses foreknowledge of the actual identification from the apex to the lowest closing contour; areal
of certain areas to classify similar areas. Used to train closure is the area contained within the lowest closing
neural networks. contour. Compare trap. 2. The cumulative error around
class 1, 2, 3, 4 reservoirs: A classification of reservoir a survey loop; mis-tie q.v.. 3. The condition where
sands according to their normal-incidence impedance radioactive daughters are created and preserved, or lost
contrasts with surrounding rocks and their AVO at a known rate, so that counting them can be used for
responses. Also written with Roman numerals: class I, age determination. Closure occurs at different tempera-
II, III, IV. See amplitude variation with angleoffset tures for different minerals.
AVAAVO, Figure A-12, and Rutherford and Will- cluster: 1. Natural grouping of data. 2. A computer made
iams 1989. of a number of interconnected computer processors
clastic rock: A rock composed of fragments derived from often pentium or alpha chips for massive parallel
other rocks. processing, such as a Beowulf cluster.
clathrate: klath rat Gas hydrate q.v.. cluster analysis: Analysis to see if data sort out into
clay smear potential: A ranking of the probability that separate regions defined by combinations of variables.
clay will be smeared out sufficiently along a fault clustering: Nonuniform distribution of fold, offsets, or
surface to prevent the flow of fluids across the fault. azimuths in a 3D survey.
clean: 1. Containing no appreciable amount of clay or clutter: 1. Coherent interference, in contrast to incoherent
shale. Applied to sandstones and carbonates. Antonym: nonrepeatable interference. 2. Noise on a radar screen
dirty q.v.. 2. To remove soft magnetization so that resulting from unwanted echoes or scattering such as
hard remanent magnetization may be studied. See from a rough sea or from rain.
degaussing. cmos: se mos Complementary metallic oxide semicon-
click: 1. Activating some operation of the matrix element ductor MOS. A technology that employs both nega-
corresponding to the location of a cursor on a video tive and positive MOS to minimize power and cooling
display. 2. A kilometer or kilometer per second. requirements.
client: A program or process that does data processing or CNL: Compensated Neutron Log.
computing. coagulation: Grouping of data that have values close to
clinoform: Inclined deltaic foreset or fan deposition. Cli- each other. Especially used prior to making a color
noforms progradational patterns may produce dis- display in which different colors are assigned to differ-
tinctive seismic reflection patterns. See Figure D-6. ent groups.
clip filter: A space domain filter that sets values that coarsening: Increasing in particle size. The direction of
exceed some threshold to the threshold value or, more coarsening tends to be characteristic of different strati-
often, to zero. graphic situations. The portions of gamma-ray or SP
clipped: Distorted because amplitude exceeded a maxi- borehole-log curves that indicate coarsening upward
mum permitted amount. Clipping in analog systems are called funnel shaped; see Figure C-6.
usually occurs because of saturation of some element of coastal onlap chart: A chart made in sequence strati-
the system, resulting in distortion of the waveform; see graphic analysis that qualitatively indicates eustatic
Figure C-5. Digital clipping loss of a bit may have changes; see Figure C-4.
variable effects depending on what the lost bit repre- coastline effect: Distortions in electromagnetic ground
sents i.e., whether it is the sign, the most significant waves and natural magnetic fields produced by the
bit, a complement code, etc.; the clipped signal some- contrast in electrical conductivity between land and
times bears little resemblance to the unclipped signal. highly conductive ocean water.
clock: A generator of the basic timing signal pulses to COBOL: ko bol Common Business-Oriented Lan-
which system operations are synchronized. guage, one of the first languages designed for commer-
clock rate: The time between clock pulses. Used in elec- cial data processing incorporating commonly used
trical work to synchronize transmitter and receiver. English nouns, verbs, and connectives.
closed data set: Data whose values are subject to a con- COCORP: COnsortium for COntinental Reflection Pro-
straint so that the parameters are not all independent filing, a program of seismic work to study the Earths
deep crust and upper mantle by low-frequency,
common-midpoint techniques.
coda: 1. The concluding portion of an earthquake seismic
record after identifiable waves have passed, presumably
caused by scattering, etc. 2. The trailing waveshape that
follows the onset of a wave arrival.
code: 1. A system of characters and rules for representing
information in a language capable of being understood
by a computer. See source program and object pro-
FIG. C-5. Clipping. Loss of a digital bit can cause various gram. 2. A set of program instructions.
effects depending on how the data are formatted (e.g., the coding: 1. Formatting; see format. 2. The process of writ-
sign bit might be lost). ing a computer program.
coefcient of anisotropy 55 coherence analysis
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FIG. C-6. Coarsening-upward often produces a funnel-shaped pattern with gamma-ray or SP logs. Resistivity logs
(right trace), commonly plotted to the right of the depth scale, tend to produce the mirror response. Fining-upward
(dirtying-upward) produces the opposite pattern. (After Emery and Myers, 1996, 69.)
coherence analysis 56 coherence analysis
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FIG. C-7. (a) The color aspects of hue, saturation, and density shown on a color cube. The choices available are usually
displayed on a color pallette at a work station. (b) The selection of colors can enhance or obscure features. The channel
indicated by dark red on this horizon slice is nearly obscurred by use of too many colors. (c) Color compared with
variable area permits visualization of both positive and negative amplitudes in like manner to avoid the polarity bias
associated with variable-area displays. Bright spot and flat spot are shown here. Color enlarges the effective dynamic
range. (From Brown 1999, 28, 29, 40, 41, 34.)
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coherence analysis
57
changes in correlation, perhaps because of faulting, collar log: Casing-collar locator q.v..
stratigraphic change, etc. Common coherence measures collateral data: k lat r l Secondary data pertaining to
include crosscorrelation, semblance, and eigenvector an area of interest.
analysis; see Figure A-24d. Coherence cube is an collet: kal t A cone-shaped sleeve used to hold a rod-
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Cole-Cole plot: A plotting convention for in-phase versus
quadrature measurements in which frequency relax- comb t tnt ,
n
ation appears as a semicircle. Useful for dielectric
relaxation, seismic velocity, and induced polarization
measurements. See Argand diagram.
Cole-Cole relaxation model: ko l ko
l A model for
induced polarization IP effects in which the effective
impedance varies as a power of the frequency. The
complex resistivity is given by
R o 1m 11/ 1i c ,
comb t comb f ,
where R o is the dc resistivity, is the time constant, and
c is the frequency dependence. Typical ranges for where frequency f 1/t if t is time and indicates a
parameters are m0.1 to 1.0, depending on the min- Fourier transform operation. See Figures C-8 and F-19.
eral content, 10 4 to 10 4 depending on grain size, If the impulses are spaced T apart,
and c0.2 to 0.6 depending on the particle size dis-
tribution. Compare Warburg impedance, for which the comb t/T comb T f .
value of c is 0.5. Combisweep: A vibroseis sweep technique using several
collar: A coupling device to connect two lengths of pipe. sequential linear sweeps separated by short listening
commercial 59 common-source gather
periods used to reduce correlation ghosts. A Prakla- common-midpoint gather: The set of traces that have a
Seismos tradename. common midpoint q.v..
commercial: See resource. common-midpoint CMP method: A recording-
common-azimuth migration: Migration of data obtained processing method where each source is recorded at a
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within a narrow angular range of source-to-receiver number of geophone locations and each geophone loca-
directions. tion is used to record from a number of source loca-
common-conversion point CCP: The common reflect- tions. After correcting these data for statics, normal
ing point where mode conversion from P- to S-waves or moveout, and DMO q.v. since dipping reflections do
vice-versa occurred for a set of data. Reciprocity the not involve a common reflecting point, they are com-
conversion point being the same when source and bined stacked to provide a common-midpoint sec-
receiver are interchanged does not apply unless tion that approximates the traces that would be
source and receiver modes are also interchanged. See recorded by a coincident source and receiver at each
Figure C-13. location, but with improved discrimination against
common-depth point CDP: The reflecting point that is noise. The objective is to attenuate random effects and
common to a subset of data. The use of this term for events whose dependence on offset is different from
common-midpoint q.v. is discouraged because the that of primary reflections. See Figure C-9.
reflecting point is not in common if reflectors dip. See common-midpoint stack: A stack q.v. of common-
Figure C-9. midpoint gather traces.
common-depth-point gather: Common-midpoint gather common mode: Having signals that are identical in phase.
q.v.. For example, signals that appear simultaneously at both
common-depth-point stack: Common-midpoint stack input terminals of a differential amplifier.
q.v.. common-mode rejection: A differential amplifier that
common-focus point: Common-imaging gather q.v.. ignores a signal that appears simultaneously at both
common-geophone gather: A set of seismic traces having input terminals.
the same geophone location. Also called a common- common-offset gather: 1. A side-by-side display of traces
receiver gather. See Figure C-9. that have the same source-to-geophone distance off-
common-image gather: A gather of traces from various set; see Figure C-9f. 2. A side-by-side display of
offsets or angles, adjusted for traveltime differences crosswell traces in a receiver well that have the same
from zero offset, in time or depth. If the events are not elevation difference with respect to source elevations.
flat in time or depth, the resulting stacked image will common-offset stack COS: A stack of traces that have
not be optimum. the same offset and which are located within a limited
common-imaging-point gathers: The set of data that are range of midpoint locations.
reflected at the same point after prestack migration. common-range gather: Common-offset gather q.v..
common-imaging point CIP: See common-imaging common-receiver gather: Traces from different source
gather. See Figure C-9g. locations into a single receiver; see Figure C-9e. Used
common-midpoint CMP: Having the same midpoint in borehole-to-borehole measurements.
between source and detector. See Figure C-9. Some- common-reflection point: 1. A point in the subsurface
times erroneously called common-depth-point or where energy is reflected for certain reflectors and
common-reflection-point. certain source-receiver pairs; see Figure C-9c. 2. Often
used erroneously for common-midpoint q.v. because
CMP reflection points are not common where there is
dip.
common-reflection-point gather, common-depth-point
gather: A collection of the seismic traces that all
reflect from the same point, often corrected for normal
moveout velocity. After correcting for various pos-
sible velocities, events on the gather are horizontal
when the velocities are correct. Same as depth gather.
Differs from common-midpoint gather q.v. if there is
dip or lateral velocity changes.
common-scatterpoint CSP gather: A collection of
prestack migrated traces that involve the same scatter-
point. The maximum offset is limited by the migration
aperture and the fold may be large. The gathers, formed
with an inaccurate velocity model usually are analyzed
by conventional techniques such as semblance analy-
sis to yield a more accurate velocity model. conven-
tional NMO corrections, scaling, and stacking of a CSP
gather is the same as Kirchhoff prestack migration.
common-shot gather: See common-source gather.
common-source gather: 1. A side-by-side display of
traces that have the same source location; such as a field
record; see Figure C-9d. 2. A side-by-side display of
crosswell traces at different depths in the receiver well
communication 60 compaction
that have the same source location. directional; e.g., to reverse every other cycle of an
communication: 1. Different locations connected so that alternating current.
fluids can flow freely between the locations. 2. The commutative: Operations that yield the same results
ability to interchange data, as when two computers regardless of the sequence in which they are performed.
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have communication with each other. compaction: Loss of porosity with increasing differential
commutate: kom y ta t, To periodically reverse the
pressure, usually in a nonelastic way, e.g., by grain
direction of an electric current for example, by peri-
odically changing connections so that it becomes uni- deformation, repacking, recrystalization, etc. The nor-
FIG. C-9. Common-midpoint method. (a) In six-fold shooting with 24-geophone groups and the source point moved
two group intervals between successive shots; the same subsurface is sampled six times (A23, B21, C19, D17,
E15, F13). (b) A reflector that dips does not have a common reflecting point and common-midpoint stacking results
in reflection-point smearing unless DMO (q.v.) processing or migration precedes stacking. (c) To achieve a common-
reflection point in the case of dip requires unequal surface spacing. (d) A common-source gather is a collection of
traces having the same source; (e) common-receiver gather; (f) common-offset gather. (g) If there are horizontal
velocity variations, prestack migration is required to form a common-imaging-point gather. Compare Figure C-13. All
diagrams assume constant velocity.
compaction correction 61 complex resistivity
mal porosity of shales given by the Hubbert-Rubey also ones complement and twos complement.
law is complementary error function erfc:
o e c P , erfc t 1erf t ,
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where o is the initial porosity the Atterberg limits, where erf(t) is the error function q.v..
q.v., c is a constant, and P is the differential pressure, complementary filter: A filter that complements another
the difference between the overburden pressure and the filter. For example, a 2000-m low-pass filter can be
formation fluid pressure. This leads to a pressure-with- complemented by a 2000-m high-pass filter to show the
depth curve that is roughly logarithmic: high frequencies that the low-pass filter rejected.
complement of chargeability: An IP time-domain mea-
P 1/c ln / o . surement of the area under a decay curve; integrating
Compaction is nearly irreversible, i.e., relieving the over the interval between 0.45 and 1.75 s on a
pressure that compacted a rock does not uncompact it, Newmont-type receiver.
but releaving the pressure is apt to produce a small completion: See well completion.
change unloading effect. complex delta function: See impulse.
compaction correction: An empirical correction applied complex frequency: A damped wave can be expressed as
to porosity values such as derived from the sonic log the product of an absorption factor e t and a periodic
in uncompacted formations. Undercompaction is indi- factor e j t :
cated by low velocities in adjacent shales. See also
differential compaction.
Ae t e j t Ae j j t ,
comparative interpretation: The comparison of survey where ( j ) is the complex frequency.
data with type curves that have been calculated for complex impulse: The complex delta function, *(t)
bodies of assumed contrasts and geometry. (t)( j/ )t, where (t) is an impulse q.v..
comparator: A circuit that compares two signals and indi- complex number: A number with both real and imaginary
cates the result of the comparison. parts, such as
compass: Magnetic compasses are located at strategic
points along streamers to help determine the streamer zx jyAe j ,
position. Gyrocompasses are used to determine vessel where j 1. The symbol i is also used to indicate
orientation. 1. The modulus or magnitude of the above com-
compensated log: A well log made with a sonde designed plex number is A(x 2 y 2 ) 1/2 and the angle indicat-
to correct unwanted effects or one that has been cor- ing its direction with respect to the real axis is
rected. The compensated density log uses the signal
from a secondary detector to correct for the effect of tan1 y/x .
mud cake and small irregularities in the borehole wall. A graph of a complex function or quantity such as a
The BHC compensated sonic log uses dual transmit- frequency spectrum is shown in Figure C-10.
ters and receivers to reduce the effects of irregularities complex ratio: See Turam method.
in borehole size and sonde tilt. complex relative permittivity: See dielectric constant.
compensation test: Aircraft maneuvers to derive compen- complex resistance: Impedance q.v..
sation coefficients to correct for the effects of the air- complex resistivity: Representation of apparent resistivity
craft on magnetometer measurements. At high altitude as having real and imaginary parts. Complex resistivity
the aircraft flies in different directions heading test is the proportionality between voltage and current
and undergoes oscillating pitch, roll, and yaw of 510 where the two are not in-phase. It is used to accomodate
to determine a figure of merit, which should be 12 variations in resistivity with frequency as observed in
nT. A new figure of merit has to be determined with
each change of aircraft configuration. After proper com-
pensation, the magnetic effects of the aircraft should
cancel out regardless of the aircrafts flight direction.
See also lag test.
competent: kom pi tnt A bed that retains its strati-
graphic thickness under stress. It folds or breaks under
stress, in contrast to an incompetent bed that tends to
flow.
compiler: km p lr A program for converting a source
program in a high-level language to an object program
in machine language prior to loading and running. A
program for converting concurrently with running the
program is called an interpreter.
complement: kam ple mnt The difference between a
particular value and full scale. In the decimal system,
the complement of x is (10 x), where is a fixed
number; and in binary the complement of x is (2 FIG. C-10. A complex function (such as a frequency
x). Adding the complement of x is equivalent to spectrum) requires 3-D representation. The distance from
subtracting x, and computers often find it easier to the frequency axis gives the modulus, and the angle with
generate the complement and add than to subtract. See the real plane is the phase.
complex spectrum 62 condensed section
and diversity of fossils, and hence is useful for age straint, as an initial condition or boundary condition
dating. Often the distal part of a maximum flooding q.v.. 3. See condition number.
surface q.v. and the top of a transgressive system tract conditional jump: An instruction causing a transfer to an
q.v.. See also Figure S-32. instruction other than the next sequential instruction
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condition: 1. Treating drilling mud with additives and only if a specific condition is satisfied. The next sequen-
circulating mud through a borehole to make the mud tial instruction is executed if the condition is not satis-
uniform throughout the system. 2. A restriction or con- fied. See branch.
FIG. C-11. Complex-trace analysis. Real (a) and quadrature (b) traces for a portion of a seismic trace. The envelope
is shown as the dotted line in (a) and (b). Instantaneous phase is plotted in (c), instantaneous frequency in (d), and
weighted average frequency as the dotted curve in (d). (e) Isometric diagram of a complex trace. (From Taner et al.,
1979.)
conditional probability 64 conjugate function
conditional probability: P(E C i )probability of E if profiles of surface or airborne EM data. See also para-
C i has already occurred. Bayess theorem gives the a section.
posteria probability: conductivity log: Induction log q.v..
conductivity tomography: Using a transmitter and
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xx xy xz C-12.
conical wave: 1. A head wave q.v.. Also called Mach
yx y y yz . waves. 2. A head wave generated by tube waves.
xz yz zz coning: ko n ng The upward encroachment of reservoir
water into the oil column at a well because of a high
If one of the coordinates is in the direction of maximum rate of production, or the downward encroachment of
conductivity and one in the direction of minimum con- gas into the oil column.
ductivity, nondiagonal elements vanish. In isotropic conjugate: kon j ga t, The conjugate of a complex
materials xx y y zz . number is the number with the sign of the imaginary
conductivity: The ability of a material to conduct electri- part reversed. Often designated by a superscript asterisk
cal current. In isotropic material, the reciprocal of resis- or superscript bar.
tivity. Sometimes called specific conductance. Units
are siemens per meter. If Za jbAe j , then Z*Z
a jbAe j .
conductivity-depth image: A diagram showing conduc-
tivity as a function of distance and depth, derived from conjugate function: Any 2D function F(z) may be writ-
conjugate gradient method 65 continuous-velocity log CVL
ten in terms of orthogonal conjugate functions (x,y) console: The computer operators control panel. Generally
and (x,y): includes start-stop keys, keyboard for entering instruc-
tions or data, and display. Also, a work station.
F z F xiy x,y i x,y . constant separation traversing: Electric profiling q.v..
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F x,y,z
z
2 F x ,y ,0
R3
dx dy .
contour: kon toor A line separating points whose values reversed. Used to switch large currents in IP transmit-
are higher than the contour value from points lower, ters. When the semiconductor is silicon, a controlled
representing the locus of a constant value on a map or rectifier is called SCR. A GTO gate turn-off switch
diagram. Allowance has to be made for uncertainties so controlled rectifier can be turned on and off indepen-
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that noise is not contoured, and a contour value of C i dently of the current through the diode.
can be thought of as marking the middle of a zone that controlled-source electromagnetics CSEM: An elec-
contains values C i N, where N is the mean noise tromagnetic sounding or prospecting system that uses
level. Often the smallest meaningful contour interval is artificially generated fields with prescribed characteris-
about twice the noise level so that uncertainty ranges do tics rather than natural fields. Includes all electromag-
not overlap. See Sheriff 1989; 1321. netic techniques that use their own transmitters.
contour interval CI: The difference in value between controller: 1. See depth controller. 2. A computer periph-
two adjacent contour lines. eral that handles multiple devices of the same kind
contourite: A mound-like or lenticular sediment mass e.g., a tape controller or a disk controller.
deposited along a contour by along-slope bottom control station: A point whose position horizontally
currents, in contrast with turbidity deposits that are and/or vertically is used as a base for a dependent
deposited by currents flowing down slope. survey or as control for adjusting survey errors.
contrast: The difference in value or tone between high- control total: A sum obtained by adding the numbers in a
light and shadow in an image. field; used for checking to avoid dropout.
contrast stretching: Increasing the contrast to use the full convection: Transfer of energy or mass by motion of the
range of a display by expanding the original range of medium. A transport phenomenon where the field varies
values or tones. in time with the aid of motion of the medium. Examples
control: 1. Accurately known data that can be used to include heat transport because of nonuniform heating
check the validity or accuracy of a series of measure- and chemical concentrations in an unstable liquid. Con-
ments. 2. The data on which a map or section is based. trast with diffusion q.v..
Posting the control on a map or section allows one to convergence: 1. The condition when calculated values
evaluate the interpretation as to what happens between approach finite-limiting values as the number of terms
control points. 3. The section of computer code that is or iterations used increases. 2. In iterative operations,
currently executing. such as modeling, the condition when calculated values
control character: A nonprinting character that controls become sufficiently close to observed values. 3. The
an operating function. effect of computing a survey on a curved surface as if
control lines: Survey lines usually orthogonal to the the surface were plane. Applying convergence correc-
traverse lines; commonly acquired with larger spacing, tion changes from assumed rectangular coordinates to
to control line-to-line instrument variations. Also called geodetic coordinates.
tie lines. convergence correction: See convergence.
controlled mosaic: A composite aerial photograph made convergent margin: Active margin q.v..
by rephotographing component vertical photographs to conversational mode: An interactive procedure in which
compensate for scale variations resulting from tilt and each entry from a terminal elicits a response from the
variations in flight altitude. computer and vice-versa.
controlled rectifier: An electronic circuit element consist- conversion point: The reflecting point where P-waves
ing of a controlled diode or solid-state switch. The convert to S-waves or vice-versa. The set of data that
diode is usually turned on by a small voltage from an have the same conversion point constitute a common-
external circuit and turned off when the voltage is conversion-point CCP gather; after NMO correction,
FIG. C-13. Conversion point. (a) Where P-waves convert to S-waves upon reflection (i.e., C-waves), reflecting angles
r are smaller than incident angles i, and interchanging source and receiver changes the reflecting point. (b) For common
source and receiver points, the conversion point generally moves toward the receiver for shallower reflectors.
converted wave 67 corer
they can be stacked together to display converted convolutional model: The concept that a seismic trace
waves. The conversion point is moved when the source f (t) can be represented by the convolution of an
and receiver are interchanged. See Figure C-13. embedded equivalent wavelet w(t) with a reflectivity
converted wave: Seismic energy that has traveled partly function r(t) plus random noise n(t):
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convolution theorem: The Fourier transform of the con-
g t * f t g f t d . volution of two functions is equal to the product of their
individual transforms or multiplying their amplitude
spectra and summing their phase spectra. See Figures
Convolution is not restricted to one dimension. For F-20 and F-22.
example, in two dimensions, cookbook: A method that is prescribed step-by-step.
cool colors: The blue and green colors as opposed to the
g x,y * f x,y g , f x ,y d d . red and yellow colors.
Cooley-Tukey method: A Fourier-analysis algorithm that
considerably reduces computing time; see fast Fourier
2. Linear filtering. If a waveform g(t) is passed into a transform and Cooley and Tukey 1965.
linear filter with the impulse response f (t), then the cooperative inversion: See joint inversion.
output is given by the convolution of g with f. In coordinate transform: See Figure C-14.
discrete form where the input is a series of impulses of copy: The degree to which events or traces look alike.
varying size, each will generate an f (t) of proportional core: 1. A rock sample cut from a borehole or retrieved
amplitude and the output will be the superposition of from the sea floor. See core analysis. 2. The Earths
these. This can be expressed as core is the central portion bounded by the Gutenberg
L discontinuity 2900 km deep that separates it from
g t* f t gf
k0
k tk .
the mantle. The cores radius is 3500 km; it is pre-
sumed to be composed predominantly of iron and sili-
cates. See Figure E-1. Divided into outer core which
This expresses that the output of a linear filter at the will not transmit S-waves and inner core, the radius of
instant t is a weighted linear combination of the inputs. the inner core being about 1220 km. The inner core was
L is the convolution operator length and (L1) is the discovered by Inge Lehmann in 1936. 3. A material of
number of points in the operator. A simple computer high magnetic permeability placed in the center of a
program is shown in Figure F-14. The frequency- coil of wire. Used in the flux-gate magnetometer for
domain operation equivalent to time-domain convolu- measuring magnetic fields. 4. A magnetic core q.v. is
tion consists of multiplying frequency-amplitude curves a device that used to be used in rapid-access memories.
and adding frequency-phase curves. Convolution is core analysis: Cores from boreholes are analyzed for
sometimes done by a replacing each spike of the porosity, permeability, fluid content, and fluid identifi-
input with a proportionately scaled version of the cation water and/or oil saturation, residual oil, lithol-
impulse response and superposition forms the output; ogy, and structure fractures, cross bedding, etc..
b folding where the impulse response of the filter is Results are often illustrated on a log or graphed against
reversed in time and slid past the input, the output for depth.
each position of the impulse response being the sum of coregionalization: ko gn l za
re . shon The mutual
the products of input and folded impulse response for spatial behavior between two or more regionalized vari-
corresponding points; c multiplying z-transforms of ables.
the input and of the impulse response to give the corer: A device for obtaining a solid sample of rock from
z-transform of the output; or d multiplying Fourier a borehole or from the ocean bottom. A core barrel is
or Laplace transforms to give the Fourier or Laplace a hollow cylinder attached to a special bit, used to
transform of the output. See Sheriff and Geldart 1995, obtain a continuous core section from the bottom of a
279 81 and 5402. Well logs may be thought of as the borehole. Cores are obtained from the bottom of a
convolution of the response of the earth adjacent to the borehole with a wireline corer, the core barrel being
borehole with the logging sonde impulse response. 3. retrievable without having to trip out of the hole. A
Convolution in two dimensions is used with gravity, sidewall corer obtains a sample from the borehole wall
magnetic, and other data to produce grid residual, sec- by firing a hollow cylindrical bullet from a tool sus-
ond derivative, continuation maps, etc.; see Fuller pended in the borehole. A core slicer using diamond-
1967. edged blades cuts a triangular core about 1 inch on a
Coriolis acceleration 68 corner reflector
side and up to 3 ft-long from the side of a smooth Earth with a velocity V is 2 V sin where
borehole. A box corer usually penetrates less than 3 ft angular rotation of the Earth and latitude. A
into the sea floor and has a spade-like device that Coriolis acceleration of a moving gravimeter is
retains a sample. A gravity corer penetrates the ocean involved in the Eo t v o s effect q.v.. Named for
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floor solely by its own weight. The piston in a piston Gustave Gaspard Coriolis 17921843, French math-
corer retracts as the cylinder penetrates the sediments. ematician.
The jaws of a grab sampler seize a portion of the sea corner frequency: a The frequency at which a graph of
bottom for retrieval. the logarithm of the frequency response has an abrupt
Coriolis acceleration: kor, e o lis 1. A velocity- change of slope. Also called break frequency. b For
dependent acceleration in a reference frame that is a seismic wave generated by an earthquake, the fre-
moving with respect to an inertial reference frame. quency at which the spectral field begins to decrease. It
Specifically, the acceleration of a body in motion with is related to the dimensions of the source.
respect to the Earth resulting from the rotation of the corner reflector: A radar reflector made of sheets of metal
Earth, as seen by an observer on the Earth. The Coriolis or metal screen at right angles to each other. It reflects
acceleration on a body moving on the surface of the like a mirror at normal incidence no matter from which
FIG. C-14. Coordinate transforms. Unit vectors in x, y, z, , directions are indicated by i, j, k, , (a) Rectangular-
cylindrical conversion; (b) rectangular-spherical conversion. (c) Vector operations in rectangular, cylindrical, and
spherical coordinates.
correction 69 COST well
FIG. C-16. Corridor stack. Corridor stack means the outer corridor unless inner precedes it. (1) Median-filtered
VSP; (2) inside corridor; (3) inside-corridor stack; (4) outside-corridor stack; (5) outside corridor (reversed in direction).
(After Hinds et al., 1996.)
coulomb: koo lom An ampere second, the SI unit for series capacitive element. A dc or direct coupling may
electrical charge. Named for Charles A. Coulomb allow all components to pass, or it may exclude higher
1736 1806, French physicist. frequency signals by using a capacitive element
Coulombs law: A force F exists between electrical shunted across the inputs. Capacative coupling may
charges Q 1 and Q 2 that are separated by the distance r. occur because of mutual capacitive impedance, as
The force is attractive for charges of unlike sign and between the wires in IP circuits or between a wire and
repulsive for charges of like sign: ground. Inductive coupling occurs because of mutual
FkQ 1 Q 2 /r 2 Q 1 Q 2 / 4 r 2 ; inductive impedance, such as between grounded IP
transmitter and receiver circuits, especially at higher
k is 910 9 newton.meter2 /coulomb2 .
frequencies, greater distances, or lower earth resistivity.
couple: Two parallel forces that act with equal magnitude
but in opposite direction on opposite ends of a bar, This may give rise to false IP anomalies. Also called
producing torque. electromagnetic or EM coupling. Resistive coupling
coupled wave: A mode of wave propagation that involves in IP surveying is caused by leakage between wires,
the transfer of energy back and forth between two between a wire and ground, or through the resistance of
different wave-propagation modes with the same appar- the ground itself between two grounded circuits.
ent phase velocity. covariance: ko ver e nc 1. A measure of the difference
coupler: 1. The telephone cradle used in connecting a between two quantities; a crosscorrelation function that
computer or teletype unit with a telephone line, such as is not normalized. A mean of zero is implied. See Kirlin
used in time-share computer connections. See acoustic and Done 1999. 2. For a variogram, the difference
coupler. 2. A device for connecting explosive charges between the sill and the variogram model; see Figure
together to make a larger explosive. V-1. Kriging weights are based on correlogram values.
couplet: Doublet q.v.. covariance matrix: An indicator of the fit between a
coupling: kup lng Interaction between systems. 1. A calculated curve the solution and measured data
device for fastening together, as a plug for connecting
that indicates the confidence bounds for a solution. It is
electrical cables. 2. Aspects that affect energy transfer.
Thus the coupling of a geophone to the ground a step toward calculating a correlation matrix that
involves the quality of the plant how firmly the two are shows the correlation between parameters. See Raiche
in contact and also considerations of the geophones et al. 1985.
weight and base area, because the geophone-ground cpi: Characters Per Inch.
coupling system has natural resonances and introduces cps: 1. Cycles Per Second; hertz, which is the preferred
a filtering action. 3. The type of mutual electrical rela- SI terminology. 2. Characters per second, a measure of
tionship between two closely related circuits. An the speed of data transfer.
ac-coupling would exclude dc voltages by employing a CPU: Central Processing Unit q.v..
crab 71 cross borehole
crab: To maintain an angle between a ships heading and CRIP: Complex-Resistivity Induced Polarization.
the desired course, such as to compensate for a cross- critical angle: Angle of incidence c for which the
wind or cross sea. Compare yaw, which is oscillation of refracted ray grazes the surface of contact between two
the ships heading. media of velocities V 1 and V 2 :
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regional attitude, possibly indicating a closure. 2. Dip
b1 a 12 ... a 1n in the direction that is most critical in establishing
closure.
x 1 1/ b 2 a 22 ... a 2n critical distance: 1. The offset at which the reflection time
... equals the refraction time, that is, the offset for which
reflection occurs at the critical angle; see Figure C-17.
a 12 b1 ... a 1n 2. Sometimes incorrectly used for crossover distance
x 2 1/ a 22 b2 ... a 2n q.v., the offset at which a refracted event becomes the
first break.
... critical point: 1. The pressure-temperature combination
above which the distinction between gas and liquid no
a 11 a 12 ... a 1n
longer exists. 2. The set of conditions pressure, tem-
a 21 a 22 ... a 2n perature, composition at which two phases become
... indistinguishable. See Figure H-11.
critical porosity: Porosity above which grain-to-grain
This is usually not the most economical way for com- contact is lost and hence shear strength vanishes. It is
puters to solve simultaneous equations. Named for often of the order of 50%.
Gabriel Cramer 1704 1752, French mathematician. critical pressure: The pressure needed to condense a
Cramer-Rao multipliers: Multipliers equivalent to vapor at its critical temperature.
changing parameter values that transform a model critical reflection: A reflection at the critical angle.
curve to fit a data curve. See Raiche et al. 1985. Amplitude may be exceptionally large in this vicinity.
Crank-Nicholson method: A finite-differencing method Reflection at angles in this vicinity is called wide-angle
of numerically solving partial differential equations reflection. See Figure C-17.
such as the heat equation that uses differences to critical surface: A major geological contrast where the
approximate derivatives. Specifically, a method of solv- character changes dramatically; e.g., the top of crystal-
ing the acoustic wave equation Claerbout, 1976. See line basement.
Strang 1986. critical temperature: The highest temperature at which a
crash: Destructive failure of a memory device or of a fluid can exist as a liquid and above which its vapor
computer program. cannot be liquified regardless of the amount of pressure
crater: 1. A funnel-shaped cavity on the sea floor pro- applied. See Figure H-11.
duced by escaping gas; a pockmark. 2. A funnel- CRM: Chemical Remanent Magnetism q.v..
shaped cavity at the top of a borehole resulting from CRO: Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope.
loose material falling into the borehole, especially Crone shootback: See shootback method. Named for the
resulting from the detonation of a shot in the borehole. company that developed the method, Crone Geophys-
3. The result of an impact such as a meteor crater, ics.
sometimes called an astrobleme. 4. To crash q.v.. crooked line: A seismic acquisition line that differs from
craton: A large ancient stable portion of the Earths crust. straight by a significant amount. Care must especially
creep: 1. Time-dependent strain. Gradually increasing the be exercised where a the offset source-to-geophone
deformation of a body under a stress. Creep often distance is sufficiently different from distances mea-
becomes important at 4050% of the temperature at sured along the line that normal-moveout corrections
which a phase-change occurs. 2. Slow aseismic slip are significantly in error, or where b cross-dip is large
along a fault. enough to confuse inline dip measurements and cause
crest: 1. The highest point on a structure. 2. The peak of significant error in dip calculations. Crooked lines tend
a seismic or other wave. to result in crossline smear. Lines are sometimes delib-
crevasse splay: A small sediment distributary system sec- erately made crooked so that cross-dip as well as inline
ondary to a main channel, formed by flow through a dip can be determined. Figure C-18 shows a crooked-
break in a natural river levee, usually during a flood. line plot, also called a scattergram.
Crevasse splays can also occur for submarine channels. cross: Cross-spread q.v..
crew: Party q.v.. cross borehole: See crosshole tomography.
crosscorrelation 72 crosscut
crosscorrelation: A measure of the similarity of two plished by reversing one function in time and convolv-
waveforms, of the degree of linear relationship between ing:
them, or of the extent to which one is a linear function
of the other. For two waveforms G(t) and H(t), the ab a t *b t .
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normalized crosscorrelation function GH ( ) is given The equivalent operation in the frequency domain
as a function of the time shift between the functions involves multiplying the amplitudes of common fre-
by quencies and subtracting phase-response curves. See
Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 287288 and 541543.
G t H t dt
GH . cross-correlation filter: Matched filter q.v..
G t dt H t dt
crosscorrelation theorem: The Fourier transform of the
crosscorrelation of g 1 (t) and g 2 (t) is
For digital data this becomes
12 f G
1 f G 2 f 12 f ,
G k H k
GH . where G 1 ( f ), G 2 ( f ), 12 ( ) are the Fourier trans-
G k H k
forms of g 1 (t), g 1 (t), 12 ( f ), and the superscribed
The denominator in the above two expressions is the bar indicates a complex conjugate. Here 12 ( f ) is
normalizing factor and is often omitted as in Wiener called the cross-energy spectrum. See Figure F-22 and
filtering. When normalized, a crosscorrelation of 1 Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 285, 538, and 541542.
indicates a perfect match, values near zero indicate very cross-coupling effect: The effect in shipboard gravity
little correlation, and negative values indicate that one measurements produced by simultaneous accelerations
of the wavelets is inverted. Normalized crosscorrelation in two different directions.
is also called correlation coefficient. See also autocor- crosscut: A horizontal passageway driven from a drift to
relation. Nonnormalized crosscorrelation can be accom- an ore body.
FIG. C-17. Critical distance. Curvature of the reflection is hyperbolic if velocity above the reflector is constant. Reflec-
tion amplitude is often large in the vicinity of critical reflection and the phase of the reflection generally changes beyond
the critical distance.
cross dip 73 crossover
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FIG. C-18. Crooked-line plot (computer drawn). Source points (squares) and geophones are laid out along a road,
there being one source point every third geophone group. Midpoints show as dots. A synthetic line made in processing
has cross-dashes showing the output trace spacing. The black boxes show midpoint locations that might be combined
to make a single trace by projecting (a) perpendicular to the line or (b) along strike. (Courtesy Grant Norpac.)
cross dip: The component of dip in the direction perpen- wave projections using sources and receivers in differ-
dicular to a seismic line. ent boreholes. Traveltime tomography is based on
crossed dipole: A dipole array with orthogonal dipole arrival times, attenuation tomography on amplitude,
transmitters and receivers activated. Sensitive to azi- and diffraction tomography q.v. on the scattered
muthal velocity variations that may be related to wavefield. See also tomography.
fracture-induced stresses or anisotropy. cross information: Information about the direction from
cross-energy spectrum: The Fourier transform of a cross- which an event approaches the spread, specifically the
correlation; see crosscorrelation theorem. component outside the plane of the section i.e., outside
cross-equalizing: 1. Filtering one channel to match the of a vertical plane that includes the line. The objective
frequency spectrum of adjacent channels. The matching is to determine the orientation of the reflector in space;
involves a phase shift as well as an adjustment of the see Figure C-19. Cross information is obtained with
amplitude of frequency components. Tends to align cross-spreads, from intersecting seismic lines, from
coherent events better but may increase short-period crooked-line data, or in other ways.
reverberations. 2. Filtering one data set to match the crossing-points: Graphs of horizontal and vertical deriva-
frequency spectrum and arrival times of another data tives of the magnetic field intersect at critical points that
set, as may be done with time-lapse sets in an effort to have interpretation significance. Plots cross at two
match regions that have not been changed. points over dikes, at one point over contacts.
crossfeed: Crosstalk q.v.. crossline: 1. The direction at right angles to the direction
crosshole method: 1. A technique for investigating the in which the data were acquired. 2. Generally the direc-
region between two or more boreholes by measuring tion parallel to that of the source lines in 3D surveys,
the transit times and/or amplitudes of P- and/or where receiver lines are perpendicular to source lines,
S-waves from a source located in one borehole to the direction of the receiver lines. 3. A vertical section
geophones in other boreholes. Usually implies cross- extracted from a 3D data volume in the crossline direc-
hole tomography q.v.. Three-component geophones tion. 4. A cross-spread q.v..
may be used. 2. A technique for resistivity or electro- crossline smash: Stacking corresponding offset values for
magnetic measurements between boreholes, used for velocity analysis.
fracture and cavity detection, reservoir studies, and crossover: 1. The reversal of the dip direction of the
orebody delineation. electromagnetic field over the apex of a conductor. The
crosshole tomography: Reconstruction of an object from undisturbed electromagnetic field of stations in the
crossover distance 74 cross-spread
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FIG. C-19. Cross information. Resolution of data from two nonorthogonal lines. The apparent dip seen on each line
is the component of dip in the direction of the line. For observation point A, reflecting point B is updip as indicated by the
dip-strike symbol.
plane of a vertical source loop that is horizontal. In the distance depending on the type of interaction. See cap-
presence of a subsurface conductor, the field will be ture cross-section.
horizontal over the apex but will have vertical compo- cross-spectrum: The expression of the mutual frequency
nents in opposite directions on either side of the con- properties of two time functions or series. The cross-
ductor. 2. The intersection of two curves. 3. The inter- spectrum is in general a complex-valued function and
section of two lines. hence involves a pair of real relationships; such as the
crossover distance: The source-to-receiver distance at amplitude and phase as functions of frequency. The real
which refracted waves following a deep high-speed part of the cross-spectrum is also called the cospec-
marker overtake direct waves or refracted waves that trum and the imaginary part the quadrature spec-
follow shallower markers. See Figure C-17. trum.
crossplot: A graph used to determine the relationship cross-spread: 1. A spread that makes a large angle often
between two different measurements. For example, a a right angle with the line of traverse. The objective is
crossplot of porosity measured from one type of log
against porosity from another type of log Figure C-20
is used to show lithology or secondary porosity that
affects the two logs differently.
crosspower spectrum: The Fourier transform of the
crosscorrelation function.
cross product: 1. A type of vector multiplication. If i, j,
and k are mutually orthogonal unit vectors so that two
vectors A and B may be expressed in terms of compo-
nents in these directions:
Aa 1 ia 2 ja3 k and Bb 1 ib 2 jb 3 k,
then the cross product AB is orthogonal to both A
and B:
AB a 2 b 3 a 3 b 2 i a 3 b 1 a 1 b 3 j
a 1 b 2 a 2 b 1 k.
Also called outer product. 2. The terms in an algebraic
multiplication that involve elements of different kinds;
e.g., 2ab is the cross product term in (ab) 2 a 2
2abb 2 .
cross section: 1. A diagram showing the spatial relation of
elements in a vertical plane. 2. A geological diagram
showing the formations and structures cut by a vertical
plane. 3. A plot of seismic reflection events along a
seismic line. Events are usually but not always
migrated and the vertical scale is usually depth but FIG. C-20. Crossplot of different measurements on the
occasionally time. See plotted section. 4. A concept to same samples. In this example porosity from neutron-logs
represent the probability of collision between particles. is plotted against porosity from density-logs, showing
A particle has to pass within a certain distance of responses for different rock types. (Courtesy Schlum-
another particle for the two to interact, the effective berger.)
crosstalk 75 current waveform
to obtain cross information, i.e., information about dip lines, lease lines, roads, buildings, power lines, etc.
perpendicular to the line, which will permit determining cultural editing: Removing cultural effects; deculturing.
the true direction from which energy reaches the spread cultural magnetic anomalies: Local magnetic fields
so that the true position of the reflector in space can be caused by man-made features such as transmission and
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determined. See Figure C-19. 2. A spread in the shape telegraph lines, electric railways, steel drill casing,
of a cross; for example, a number of groups laid out in pipelines, tanks, etc. Also called artificial magnetic
line and perpendicularly. See Figure S-18. anomalies.
crosstalk: 1. Crossfeed, interference resulting from the cultural noise: Man-made noise including the effects of
unintentional pickup of one channel of information or industrialization such as power lines.
noise on another channel. 2. Specifically, interference curie: kyoor e A unit of radiation equal to 3.710 10
between the two sides of an acoustic system such as disintegrations/second, the number resulting from 1
side-scan sonar. gram of radium. Named for Maria Sklodowska Curie
cross-track: Perpendicular to a seismic line. 18671934, Polish-French physicist.
cross validation: Estimating the reliability of kriged/ Curie depth: The depth in the earth at which the Curie
cokriged data by comparing predicted with actual val- point q.v. is reached, of the order of 30 km. Named for
ues at locations that have not been involved in the Pierre Joliot-Curie 18591906, French physicist.
estimating process hidden data. Curie point: The temperature at which a material loses its
crosswell: See crosshole method. ability to retain magnetism, that is, where it changes
crown block: See drill rig. from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic behavior. Below
CRP: 1. Common Reflection Point. 2. Common Receiver this temperature, atoms interact so that their magnetic
Point. moments couple and behave collectively. At the Curie
CRP gather: A set of traces having the same reflection temperature the atoms thermal energy equals the cou-
point. pling energy, and above this temperature the atomic
CRT: Cathode-Ray Tube; also CRO Cathode Ray magnetic moments are not coupled and the substance
Oscilloscope. behaves paramagnetically. The Curie temperature of
crude oil: Unrefined petroleum, i.e., oil as it comes from most rocks is approximately 550 C which is usually
the ground. reached at depths of 30 40 km. The analogous point
crust: The outermost shell of the Earth; the portion above with antiferromagnetic materials is the Neel point.
the Moho. The crust has a P-wave velocity that is Curies law: Magnetic susceptibility is inversely propor-
usually 7 km/s and a mean density of 2.8 to 2.9 tional to the absolute temperature. This law applies
g/cm3. Continental crust acidic crust or sial is gra- where dipoles are far enough apart that their interaction
nitic to gabbroic; oceanic crust basic crust or sima is is small, as in solutions of paramagnetic salts. In para-
basaltic. See Figure E-1. magnetic solids the susceptibility is inversely propor-
crustal flexure hypothesis: A hypothesis that allows tional to the difference between the temperature and the
some isostatic balance to be accommodated laterally by Curie point, this latter fact being called the Curie-
the surrounding region rather than only vertically. Also Weiss law.
called the Vening Meinesz hypothesis. See isostasy. Curie-Weiss law: See Curies Law.
cryogenic magnetometer: kr, o gen ik A magnetome- curl: The curl of the vector A is given by the vector
ter that operates at the temperature of liquid nitrogen. operation:
See SQUID magnetometer.
cryptochron: Very rapid magnetic-field reversal. curl AA,
crystal clock: A clock that uses a crystal oscillator as a
reference frequency.
CSAMT: Controlled Source Audio-Magneto Telluric where is the operator del q.v.. Curl A is expressed
technique. A technique similar to magnetotellurics in in rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates in
the range 1 to 20 kHz using a source transmitter at least Figure C-14.
five skin-depths distant from the receiver. current channeling: Concentration of electrical current
CSD: U.S. Continental Scientific Drilling Program. flow observed in a magnetotelluric or controlled-source
CSEM: Controlled-Source ElectroMagnetics q.v.. EM survey caused by lateral variations in the local
CSP: Common Source Point. resistivity structure. Also called current gathering.
CSP gather: See common-scatterpoint (CSP) gather. Compare static shift.
CT: Computerized Tomography q.v.. current density: Current per unit cross-sectional area,
cu: Capture Unit q.v.. determined by the velocity and density of charge carri-
cube: A 3D volume of data, not generally cubic. A cube ers. Current density is a vector quantity, measured in
view is a display that conveys the 3D aspect, such as a amperes per square meter.
perspective view. current electrode: The A or B electrode in electrical log-
cubic packing: A 3D arrangement of atoms described in ging, resistivity, or IP surveying; see Figures A-18 and
rectangular coordinates, with particles centered at each E-10. Low electrical resistance of such contacts is
location (n,m, p) and only at such locations, desirable to maximize the current into the ground.
where a constant and n,m,p are integers. Cubic current waveform: Electrical current as a function of
packing is not gravitationally stable. time as injected by a transmitter. A bipolar waveform
cuesta: An erosional remnant with steep dip and scarp of positive and negative square-wave pulses separated
slopes. by off-times is used to avoid electrode polarization
culture data: National/state/county/province boundary effects.
cursor 76 cylindrical
cursor: kur sr An aiming device, such as a symbol low-frequency cutoff at 18 Hz and a high-frequency
indicating the active point on a display or moveable cutoff at 57 Hz.
cross-hairs on a digitizer. cuttings: Rock fragments dislodged by a drill bit and
curvature: The rate of change of direction of a curve or brought to the surface by the drilling mud.
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surface; the reciprocal of the radius of curvature R. CVL: A Continuous-Velocity Log or sonic log q.v..
CVL is a Birdwell tradename.
Curvature1/R d 2 y/dx 2 1 dy/dx 2 3/2 .
CVS: Constant Velocity Stack q.v..
See Figure C-21. CW: Continuous Wave where successive cycles are
curvature correction: Correction to gravity data to com- nearly identical. Usually but not necessarily means
pensate for Earth curvature because the Bouguer cor- steady-state sinusoidal.
rection assumes a planar slab. See Bullard B gravity C-wave: 1. Converted wave q.v., especially where mode
correction. conversion occurs at the reflector; a PS- or SP-wave.
curvature of gravity: A vector calculated from torsion- See Figure C-13. 2. Coupled wave q.v..
balance data indicating the shape of an equipotential cyan: s n One of the subtractive primary colors q.v..
surface. It points in the direction of the longer radius of cybernetics: s br ned iks 1. Study of systems that
curvature. exhibit characteristics of human behavior. 2. The sci-
curved path: A seismic raypath that is curved because ence of control and communication between machines,
refraction changes the direction of the ray as the veloc- animals, and organizations. 3. The interaction between
ity changes. Increase in velocity with depth makes a automatic control and humans.
raypath concave upward. cycle: 1. The interval or distance before a function or
curve fitting: Finding an analytic equation that approxi- series repeats itself. Where the variable is time, a cycle
mates a set of data. The most common curve-fitting is one period; where the variable is distance, a cycle is
technique is least-squares but other methods such as a one wavelength. See Figure W-2. 2. A period of time
quadratic spline are also used. during which sea level falls from a highstand position
curve matching: An interpretation method whereby through a lowstand and returns to a highstand Van
observations are compared with master or type curves Wagoner, 1995. 3. Milankovitch cycles q.v..
q.v.. Achieving a close fit implies that the actual cycle breadth: Period q.v..
situation is similar to the model that the type curve cycle-redundancy check: An error-detection scheme,
represents; this is not necessarily true because of inher- usually hardware implemented, in which a check char-
ent ambiguity. acter is generated by the remainder after dividing the
curve of maximum convexity: A diffraction curve q.v.. sum of all the bits in a block of data by a predetermined
curvilinear coordinates: A coordinate system that is not number. The remainder is recalculated later to verify
rectangular. Cylindrical and spherical coordinates are that data have not been lost.
the most common orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. cycle skip: 1. Jumping a leg in correlating events, as may
See Figure C-14. occur in matching noncorresponding peaks in auto-
cusp: The pointed end of a line segment, especially the matic statics programs. 2. In sonic logging, the first
points where two arcs intersect and terminate. The arrival may be strong enough to trigger one receiver but
limiting points where the direction sense reverses, as in not the other receiver, which may then be triggered by
a triplication. a later cycle. The consequence is an abnormally high
cut: To dilute, as may happen to drilling mud if formation calculated transit time. 3. Missing a cycle while count-
water or gas enters the hole. ing.
CUT: Coordinated Universal Time, same as Greenwich cycle stealing: A characteristic of direct memory access
time q.v.. devices. An input/output I/O device can delay CPU
cutoff: The frequency at which a filter response is down use of the I/O bus for one or more cycles while it
by a predetermined amount, usually 3 dB. The cutoff accesses memory.
points designate the filter; e.g., an 18-57 filter has a cycle time: 1. The time required by a computer to cycle a
resource such as the arithmetic logic unit or memory.
The fundamental clock period of that resource. 2. The
time required by a computer to read from or write into
the system memory.
cyclic steam injection: An enhanced recovery method
where steam is injected into a formation to make vis-
cous hydrocarbons flow more readily. Steam is injected
for a time, followed by a soak period during which the
heat energy affects the surrounding formation, and then
the hydrocarbons are produced from the same well. The
pattern then repeats. Also called huff and puff.
cyclographic diagram: s klo graf, ik A sterographic
projection showing planes as great-circle intersections
of a sphere. Used in 3D structural representation. Also
called beta diagram. Compare pole diagram.
cylindrical: 1. Having symmetry so that measurements do
FIG. C-21. Curvature is the reciprocal of radius of curva- not depend on azimuth angle. 2. Two-dimensional
ture. For small arcs, curvature is approximately 2h/S 2 . q.v..
cylindrical coordinates 77 cylindrical hydrophone
cylindrical coordinates: See Figure C-14. cylindrical hydrophone: A voltage is generated between
cylindrical divergence: Decrease in the amplitude of a the outside and inside of a hollow cylinder of piezo-
wave with distance because of geometrical spreading. electric material when subjected to radial pressure.
The energy spreads out as a wavefront expands in a Such hydrophones are very stable and durable and their
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larger circle and hence the energy density varies sensitivity is independent of operating depth. Most
inversely as the distance. Surface waves undergo cylin-
streamer hydrophones are of this type. See Figure H-12.
drical divergence whereas body waves undergo spheri-
cal divergence.
D
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DA: Digital-to-Analog q.v.. ing optimum damping that is 0.66 c , which provides
D & A: Dry and Abandoned; refers to an abandoned well. the most rapid convergence. 2. Site damping is con-
daisy chain: A method of propagating signals along a bus, cerned with natural resonances and the response to
often used in applications in which devices not request- standing-waves. Site damping can be thought of as
ing a signal respond by simply passing the signal on. either the rate of amplitude decrease after cessation of
The first device requesting the signal breaks the daisy- excitation or as the decrease in amplitude response as
chain continuity. A daisy-chain scheme assigns priori- the excitation frequency differs from the resonant fre-
ties based on the electrical position of a device along quency. Measuring damping and Q generally requires
the bus. the use of controlled vibrators.
damped error multipliers: The ratio of damping factors Daniell window: dan yl See Figure W-12.
to the spectral value, indicating the change of param- darcy: dar se A unit of permeability; the permeability
eters during successive iterations. See Raiche et al. that will allow a fluid flow of one milliliter per second
1985. of one centipoise viscosity fluid through one square
damping: 1. A slowing down or opposition to oscillation centimeter under a pressure gradient of one atmosphere
caused by dissipation of the oscillation energy. a per centimeter. The unit commonly used is the milli-
Critical damping, c , is the minimum damping that darcy.
will prevent oscillation from taking place. b The Darcys law: A relationship for 1D fluid flow rate q:
damping factor is the ratio of the system friction to
that necessary for critical damping, or the quotient of q kA/ p/x,
the logarithm of the ratio of two successive oscillations where kpermeability, Across-sectional area,
if the system is underdamped. The damping factor is viscosity, and ppressure differential across the
one for critical damping, less than one for an under- thickness x. For radial flow into a cylindrical bore-
damped system which will oscillate, and greater than hole,
one for an overdamped system. See Figure D-1. c
Most geophones are slightly underdamped, often hav- q k/ 2 rh /r ,
where rradial distance and hheight of the cylinder.
dar Zarrouk: dar zar ruk The name given by Maillet to
resistivity parameters or curves that deal with layered
anisotropic materials. The dar Zarrouk variable is the
transversal unit resistance ( T ), the depth integral of
the transverse resistivity perpendicular to the strata; the
dar Zarrouk function is the longitudinal unit con-
ductance (1/ L ), the depth integral of the conductivity
parallel to the strata; and the dar Zarrouk curve is a
plot of the mean resistivity ( T ) of the formation down
to the depth z, plotted versus the anisotropy coefficient
times z( T L ) 1/2 :
T i z i and 1/ L z i / i ,
where z i are layer thicknesses. See Maillet 1947.
DAS: Deconvolution After Stack.
data bank: A database q.v..
database: 1. Computerized record-keeping system with
the purpose of maintaining information and making it
available on demand. 2. A collection of data organized
and managed by a central facility, not necessarily digi-
tal or computer based. A database management sys-
tem DBMS is a centralized computer facility to man-
age and provide consistent and secure access to a
database.
data compression: A scheme for packing data into a
smaller space.
data dimensionality: The smallest number of variables
that could be used to represent the data in a set.
FIG. D-1. Damping. (a) Effect of damping on an impulsive data fusion: Merging data, often at different scales.
input. (b) Effect of damping on the amplitude of a periodic data harvesting: 1. Retrieving data that has been stored
input. temporarily at a geophone or ocean-bottom seismom-
78
data influence matrix 79 decay curve
eter or other type of station. 2. Collection of data from dBASE: A file format and data-management software
a storage unit. dBm: Decibels less than 1 milliwatt of power. Used, for
data influence matrix: See Jacobian. example, in specifying sensitivity for a certain input
data link: A communication channel for transforming impedance, such as 50 dBm at 5000 ohms.
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data between two points. DBMS, DBS: Acronym for DataBase Management Sys-
data mining: Algorithms to search existing data sets to tem. See database.
locate data with certain attributes of interest. dBoctave: Unit for expressing the slopes of filter curves.
data model: A description of data and data relationships. dc: Direct Current
data preparation: Translating data into machine-readable dc component: The amplitude of the Fourier analysis
form. component at zero frequency.
data reduction: Transforming experimental data into a dc coupling: See coupling.
useful, ordered form, e.g., by correcting for known dc exponent: A quantity used in overpressure studies.
effects such as elevation differences, measurement sys- dc pulse method: See pulse method.
tem characteristics, etc. DDH: Diamond Drill Hole.
data set: 1. A set of data. 2. A device for converting dead: 1. Not electrically connected, as a geophone whose
signals from a terminal into a form suitable for trans- connection to the cable has pulled loose. 2. Having no
mission and vice-versa. 3. A named collection of data signal, as a dead trace. 3. Said of an area that has no
on a computer storage medium. economical value. 4. Dead oil contains no dissolved
data storage capacities: Liner 1999 lists current data gas.
storage capacities using B for bytes as: 9-track tape, dead man: A buried anchor to which guy wires are
200-700 MB; CD-ROM disk, 650 MB; optical disk, 2 attached.
GB; digital audio tape, 2-5 GB; DVD disk, 5 GB; dead oil: Crude oil containing very little dissolved gas.
digital linear tape, 10-15 GB; magnetic hard disk, 50 dead reckoning: Determining position by extrapolation of
GB. the track and direction from a previously known point.
datum: da dm 1. An arbitrary reference surface, the Inertial navigation and Doppler sonar are sophisticated
reduction to which minimizes local topographic and versions of dead reckoning. See positioning.
near-surface effects. 2. Elevation datum, the reference debris flow: d bre A mass of fragments that are larger
level for elevation measurements, often sea level. 3. than sand size that flowed into place. Similar to a
Seismic datum, an arbitrary reference surface, the mudflow or turbidite except for larger particle size.
reduction to which minimizes local topographic and debug: To search for and remedy malfunctions or errors,
near-surface effects. Seismic times and velocity deter- as with instruments or computer programs.
minations are referred to the datum plane usually but decade: A factor of 10 or 1/10, used, for example, in
not necessarily horizontal and planar as if sources and comparing two frequencies.
geophones had been located on the datum plane and as decade-normalized PFE: See percent frequency effect.
if no low-velocity layer existed. 4. A paleo-datum is decay constant: The time for an exponentially changing
used in an attempt to restore strata or reflections to the voltage to vary by 1/e or to change 63% from its
structural positions held at some ancient time. initial value. Also called time constant.
datum correction: A calculation of the time required for a decay curve: 1. A graph of the decay of a quantity as a
seismic pulse to travel from the source to the datum function of time. An IP induced potential voltage
plane and from the datum plane to the geophone. This decay curve may be characteristic of a particular mate-
value is subtracted from observed reflection times to rial. In theory it can be transformed to a resistivity
give the arrival time as if sources and geophones had spectrum. See Figure D-2. 2. The return of spinning
been located on the datum surface without any low or nuclei to their prior state after a superimposed magnetic
irregular velocities below the datum. See static correc-
tion q.v..
datum correction velocity: The velocity assumed
beneath the datum surface, often the subweathering
velocity.
datum elevation: See datum.
datuming: da tm ng 1. The arbitrary flattening and
straightening of a particular reflection for use as a
reference on a cross-section, i.e., using a paleo-datum;
flattening see Figure F-12 thereby assuming that
everything was horizontal at the time of the paleo-
datum. The result emphasizes differences between this
and other reflections. 2. Changing the reference plane
of a wavefield.
datumized section: See flattened section.
datum plane: See datum.
daughter: An isotope formed by radioactive decay of a
parent isotope. FIG. D-2. Decay curve for material containing two radio-
day number: The number of a day within a calendar year, nucleides. The decay curve can be decomposed into the
referred to Greenwich. two component curves and the slopes of a and b give their
dB: DeciBel q.v. and see Figure D-3. respective half-lives.
decay lifetime 80 deflagration
field has been removed, as in nuclear magnetic reso- the effects of filtering from a filtered waveform; decon-
nance logging q.v.. Related to relaxation time. volution q.v.. 4. Deriving resistivity stratification from
decay lifetime: See pulsed neutron-capture log. a kernel function.
Decca: One of several radio positioning systems available deconvolution: de kon vo lu
shn 1. A process designed
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from Decca Survey Ltd. to restore a waveshape to the form it had before it
decibel dB: des bl A unit used in expressing power underwent a linear filtering action convolution;
or intensity ratios: 10 log10 of the power ratio. An inverse filtering. The objective of deconvolution is to
amplitude ratio of 2 which represents a power ratio of nullify objectionable effects of an earlier filter action
4 is equivalent to 6 dB. Also expressed as 20 log10 of and thus improve the recognizability and resolution of
the amplitude ratio. See also Figure D-3. 1 dB reflected events. May mean a system deconvolution
0.1151 neper. Named for Alexander Graham Bell to remove the filtering effect of the recording system;
18471922, inventor. b dereverberation or deringing to remove the filter-
decibeloctave: The change in response between frequen- ing action of a water layer; see also Backus filter and
cies that are an octave apart, i.e., between frequencies gapped deconvolution; c predictive deconvolution to
having the ratio either 1/2 or 2. Used to describe filter attenuate multiples that involve the surface or near-
slopes. surface reflectors; d deghosting to remove the effects
decile: Partitioning into tenths, e.g., values between 90% of energy that leaves the source in the upward direction;
and 100% are the tenth decile. In a distribution, P 90 e whitening or equalizing to make all frequency
would include 90% of the elements, i.e., all except the components within a band-pass equal in amplitude; f
highest 10%. shaping the amplitude-frequency and/or phase
decimate: des ma t To resample systematically to
response to match that of adjacent channels; or g
reduce the number of samples used to represent data. wavelet processing q.v.. Deconvolution results may
decision rule: The criterion used to establish discriminate
vary markedly with different phase assumptions, gate
functions, developed during the learning training
locations or widths, or operator lengths. Often involves
stage of a supervised classification.
Wiener filtering q.v.. Also called decomposition. See
declination: dek l na shun 1. The angle between geo-
Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 285 and 292303. 2. Poten-
graphic north and magnetic north. Angles east of geo-
tial maps, well logs, and other data sets besides time
graphic north are considered positive, west of north
series may be deconvolved.
negative. 2. The angle between the celestial equator and
a celestial body. Differs from celestial latitude. decorrugation: Removing herringbone effects see her-
decoder: A logic device that converts data from one num- ringbone that result from mislocation or datum-shifts
ber system to another e.g., an octal-to-decimal in acquisition, such as may be employed in aeromag-
decoder. Decoders are also used to recognize unique netic data reduction.
addresses such as a device address and bit patterns. decoupling: With respect to vibrators, when the pad loses
de collement: da kol ma or da kol ma A detachment contact with the ground. Generally peak ground force is
surface across which structural deformation styles dif- set to not exceed 90% of the hold-down weight.
fer. Usually involves slippage along a bedding-plane dedicated: Devoted exclusively to; for example, a dedi-
thrust faulting and/or plastic flow. cated power generator might supply the power for a
decomposition: Separating into components. 1. Separat- seismic recording system only, another dedicated gen-
ing effects of different kinds or attributable to different erator might power the navigation equipment, both
causes. 2. Separating a potential e.g., gravity map into being separate from a ships normal power supply.
regional and residual; residualizing q.v.. 3. Removing deep porosity density: Density farther away from the
borehole as measured with a borehole gravimeter q.v.
rather than with a density log.
Deep Sea Drilling Program DSDP: An international
Amplitude Energy program from 1963 to 1983, which resulted in drilling
dB ratio ratio 624 boreholes in the deep ocean floor from the drill ship
120 106 1012 Glomar Challenger. See also JOIDES. The Ocean Drill-
ing Program (ODP) q.v. succeeded it.
80 104 108
deep seismic sounding DSS: A seismic profile usually
40 0.01 104 refraction that has the objective of studying the crust,
20 0.1 0.01 Moho, and upper mantle.
10 0.316 0.1 DeepStar: A consortium of oil and service companies
6 0.501 0.251 begun 1992 that tries to develop production technol-
3 0.708 0.501 ogy for use in deep marine areas.
0 1 1 deep tow: A sensor towed by a boat at larger-than-usual
3 1.413 1.997 depth, so as to be closer to features being imaged.
deep water: Water over a depth of 600 ft.
6 1.995 3.980
default: A specific action or value to be taken in case an
10 3.162 10 instruction or value is omitted.
20 10 100 deflagration: def la gra , shn An oxidation that pro-
80 104 108 ceeds at less than shock-wave velocity, often 1000
FIG. D-3 Decibel conversion. m/s. When it travels at shock wave velocity it is called
detonation.
deflection angle 81 delta function
deflection angle: See angles (surveying) and Figure A-13. delay time: 1. In refraction work, the additional time
deflection of the vertical: The angular difference between required to traverse a raypath over the time that would
a plumb line the vertical and a perpendicular to the be required to traverse the horizontal component at the
geodetic ellipsoid. Produced by irregularities in the highest velocity encountered on the raypath. Compare
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Earths mass distribution. See Figure G-1. intercept time. See Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 439. The
deformation coefficient: A measure of rock deformation concept implies that the refractor is nearly horizontal
based on the ratio of its in-situ resistivity, velocity, or under both source point and detectors. Delay time is
fracture porosity to that when undeformed. often assigned separately to the source and geophone
degaussing: de gous ng Demagnetization q.v.. ends of a raypath. See Figure D-4. 2. Delay produced
degeneracy: de jen r se
The situation where more by a filter; see filter correction. 3. Time lag introduced
than one eigenfunction is associated with the same by a delay cap. 4. In induced-polarization work, the
eigenvalue, as where two vibration modes have the time interval between the off instant of the charging
same frequency. S-waves have a degeneracy of two current and the instant a measuring voltmeter oscillo-
SH- and SV-waves in isotropic media. graph is turned on. Delay times up to 500 or 1000 ms
deghosting: See deconvolution. may be necessary to allow dissipation of transient volt-
degree: The highest power that a variable assumes in a ages that are not related directly to the polarization
polynomial expression, such as yABxCx 2 ... decay voltage.
For a differential equation, the power of the highest delimiter: A special character in a string used to denote
derivative. Linear implies that the degree is one and units of various kinds e.g., blanks delimit words, peri-
that all terms beyond Bx are zero; quadratic, that it is ods, commas, delimit sentences, delimit parameters,
two and terms beyond Cx 2 are zero; cubic, three; etc..
quartic, four; etc. delineation well: Appraisal well q.v..
degrees of freedom: The minimum number of indepen- delta , * : * is one of the Thomsen anisotropic
dent variables that must be specified to define a system. parameters q.v.:
del : The vector gradient operator. In rectangular coor-
dinates, * delta* 1/2c 2 33 2 c 13 c 14 2
i /xj /yk /z, c 33 c 44 c 11 c 33 2c 44 ,
where i, j, k are unit vectors in the x, y, z directions. U where c i j indicate elements in the elastic constants
is the gradient of the scalar field U. The operator 2 , matrix. Another Thomsen anisotropic parameter is ,
the Laplacian, appears frequently: and with weak anisotropy, , which is independent of ,
2 2 /x 2 2 /y 2 2 /z 2 . is generally used instead of * ; it is the most critical
factor for transverse isotropy:
As an operator on a vector field V, V is called the
divergence, and V is called the curl. Del is also delta 1/2 * / 1 2 / 2
called nabla and the vector operator. See also Figure c 13 c 14 2 c 33 c 44 2 /
C-14 for expressions using del in cylindrical and
spherical coordinates. 2C 33 c 33 c 44 .
delay cap: A cap that detonates a fixed time after an
electrical current is applied. Several seismic expressions involve , such as the
delay filter: See linear-phase filter. short-offset moveout correction to the vertical velocity,
delay line: A device capable of retarding a signal by a V NMO (1 ). For long offsets, another anisotropy
fixed time interval. Electrical delay lines may use parameter, eta captures the deviation of long-offset
capacitive and inductive elements. Coaxial cables and P-wave moveout from what it would have been for
transmission lines delay signals by the transit time isotropicity:
through the lines. / 12 .
delay lock: A technique whereby a received code is com-
pared with an internally generated code and is time delta function: 1. An impulse q.v.. 2. Kronecker delta
shifted until the two match. q.v..
FIG. D-4. Refraction delay time. At the critical angle: source delay timeSB/V 1 AB/V 2 SE/V 1 ; geophone delay
timeCG/V 1 CD/V 2 FG/V 1 . Source delay timegeophone delay timehead-wave intercept time.
delta t t 82 density
delta t t: Moveout or stepout. 1. The time difference 16671754, English mathematician. Also spelled De
between the arrival times at different geophone groups. Moivre.
See dip moveout and dip calculation. t ordinarily DeMorgans theorems: See Boolean algebra. Named for
does not imply normal moveout unless specifically Augustus DeMorgan 1806 1871, English mathema-
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FIG. D-5. Density log. (a) Schematic of compensated density logging sonde. (b) Log showing the density b and the
correction for mudcake, etc., . (Courtesy Schlumberger.)
density basement 83 departure curve
density basement: Where a very large density contrast topographic feature having appreciable relief that is not
exists so that anomalies resulting from deeper contrasts associated with density variations or structure, the
are lost in the noise. object being to determine the best density factor for
density contrast: The difference in density between two elevation corrections; Nettletons method. The most
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formations or rock units. Lateral density contrasts are appropriate density is the one that minimizes the cor-
responsible for lateral changes in the Earths gravity. relation of gravity values with elevation. Method
density log: A well log that records formation density. The devised by L. L. Nettleton. See triplets and Telford et
logging tool consists of a gamma-ray source e.g., al. 1990, 18.
Cs137 and a detector so shielded that it records back- density slicing: Converting the grey tones of an analog
scattered gamma rays from the formation. This second- image into a series of discrete tonal ranges.
ary radiation depends on the density of electrons, which dep: DEParture q.v..
is roughly proportional to the bulk density. The com- departure dep.: The east or west component of a line
pensated density-logging tool FDC includes a second expressed in linear units; the difference of the longi-
detector that responds more to the mud cake and small tudes of the ends of the line measured at a given
borehole irregularities; its response is used to correct latitude. For a line directed toward the northeast or
the readings of the main detector. See Figure D-5. southeast quadrant, the departure is positive or easting;
Sometimes called gamma-gamma log. Compare it is negative or westing for a line directed toward the
nuclear cement log and photon log. southwest or northwest quadrant.
density profile: A line of gravity readings taken over a departure curve: A graph that allows one to correct for
FIG. D-6. Depositional patterns resulting from the combination of relative sea level changes and depositional influx.
These patterns are sometimes resolvable in seismic data. The progradational patterns are called clinoforms. (From
Emery and Myers, 1996, 25.)
dephasing 84 depth rule
measuring conditions or situations that differ from both vertical and lateral velocity variations although
standard. Such curves, for example, might correct most programs are limited in dip. Depth migration
well logs for differences in temperature, hole diameter, outputs an accurate image relative to the subsurface,
mud type, adjacent beds, invasion, etc. usually in depth, occasionally in vertical two-way trav-
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FIG. D-8. Depth of investigation and resolution for logging tools. Reflection seismic resolution is of the order of
10100 m. (From Bourke et al., 1989, 31.)
faults: half the width between points where the anomaly assuming no lateral velocity changes. 2. The result of
is one-quarter and three-quarters amplitude see Figure applying a wavelength filter to potential field data to
H-1. 2. Rules used in magnetic interpretation include emphasize anomalies around some depth.
a the straight-slope-measurement rule q.v.; b the depth slicing: A filtering technique used to emphasize
Peters rule for dikes: depth5/8 of the horizontal gravity and magnetic features with a particular apparent
distance between points where the slope is half the depth. Based on power-spectrum slopes. Also called
maximum slope; c the Tiburg rule for magnetic pseudodepth slicing. See Ruder 1997.
poles: depth2/3 of the horizontal distance at half the depth sounder: Fathometer q.v..
maximum amplitude; d the Hannel rule for magnetic depth sounding: Sounding q.v..
poles: depthhalf of the horizontal distance at a third depth stretched: Changing a seismic section from evenly
the maximum amplitude; e the Thalen rule: the depth sampled in time to evenly sampled in depth, i.e., from
of a magnetic source is 0.7 the horizontal distance linear with arrival time to linear with depth assuming
between maxima and minima; and other such rules. See no lateral changes in velocity. A processing step
also automated depth estimation and radial power employed before frequency-domain migration.
spectrum. depth-velocity ambiguity: Conversion from a time sec-
depth sampling interval: 1. The interval z for sampling tion to a depth section requires better knowledge of the
a sonic log to make a synthetic seismogram. Generally velocity than is usually available, so that uncertainties
in depth result from the uncertainties in velocity. Depth
zV mint/2,
migration q.v. attempts to remove this ambiguity by
where V minminimum velocity and ttime sam- adjusting the velocity model to achieve the sharpest
pling interval. 2. Time sampling interval q.v. except image.
after conversion from time to depth. 3. In depth migra- Deregowski loop: der e gow sky A technique used
tion, the interval for sample outputs. where the velocity varies slowly in the lateral direction.
depth section: A seismic cross section or record section Depth-migrated gathers are corrected with a local
where the vertical scale is linear with depth. Usually velocity function and then reanalyzed for velocity to
but not necessarily the data have been migrated so update the velocity field.
that their horizontal and vertical locations represent as dereverberation: de ri vur, b ra
shn Deconvolution
nearly as possible the true positions of features. q.v. to attenuate seismic energy that bounces back-
depth slices: 1. Horizontal slices through a 3D depth- and-forth in a surface water layer or other near-surface
migrated volume, sometimes a 3D time-migrated vol- layer. Also called deringing. See also Backus filter.
ume where arrival time has been converted to depth deringing: See dereverberation.
derivative map 86 designature
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FIG. D-9. Depth point. a Midpoint, b reflecting point, and c refraction depth point. Where reflector dips, the
reflecting point is not under the midpoint and the subsurface coverage on the reflector is not exactly the difference
between midpoints.
derivative map: A map of one of the derivatives of a field difference methods from values measured at gridded
of values such as gravity, magnetics, time structure, etc. points on a map, often using a residualizing template
The objective of a derivative map is to emphasize short based on polar representation of the Laplacian or by 2D
wavelength high-frequency anomalies. 1. Dip and convolution with such a template. See Cordell and
azimuth maps generally involve the first horizontal Grauch 1985.
derivative. 2. With potential fields the second vertical derrick: See drill rig.
derivative based on Laplaces equation, 2 /z 2 Descartes law: da kartz Snells law q.v.. Named for
(2 / x 2 2 /y 2 ) was once used widely, but it Rene Descartes 1596-1650, French philosopher and
has largely been replaced by the total gradient or total scientist.
horizontal derivative. The horizontal derivatives, designature: Deconvolution to remove the embedded
2 /x 2 and 2 /y 2 , are usually estimated by finite- wavelet or a measured or modeled wavelet, i.e., to
FIG. D-10. Depth rules showing where various measurements are made on an anomaly curve. Sokolov distance
horizontal distance between intersections of maximum-slope line with the regional and with the line parallel to the
regional through the maximum. Peters distancehorizontal distance between half the maximum slope points. Maxi-
mum-slope distancehorizontal distance over which the curve is approximately a straight line with the maximum
slope. Hannel distancehorizontal distance between points having the maximum amplitude and 1/3 of that amplitude.
Half-width distancehorizontal distance between points having the maximum amplitude and 1/2 of that amplitude
[sometimes half width (q.v.) is defined differently].
design gate 87 diamagnetic
estimate what would have resulted from an impulsive detrital remanent magnetism DRM: See remanent
source with broad bandwidth. magnetism.
design gate: The aperture or window that contains the detuning: Adjusting amplitudes to remove variations
data from which parameters are to be determined. caused by the tuning effect q.v. in the vicinity of a
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are evident only because other magnetic sources are so were acquired at different times, the difference time-
far away. Compare paramagnetic and ferromagnetic. lapse mapsection shows the changes that have
diamond array: A type of geophone or source point array occurred. 2. Where the two maps are of different hori-
in which the elements are laid out on a grid of lines at zons, the difference isotime or isopach map repre-
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about 45 to the seismic line, the pattern having the sents the thickness of the intervening interval. Thick-
general shape of a diamond. See Figure A-20. ness changes may suggest changes in deposition or
diapir: d per A flow structure whose mobile core has removal subsequent to deposition.
pierced overlying rocks. Salt and shale are the most differential: 1. A difference between quantities. Thus, a
common sedimentary rocks involved in diapirs. Intru- differential voltmeter measures the difference between
sive rocks can also form diapir-like features but dia- voltages. 2. A differential input on a voltmeter helps
piric is usually restricted to plastic flow. reject noise that originates from the ground. See
dichroic: d kro ik A beam-splitting mirror that effi- common-mode rejection.
ciently reflects certain wavelengths while transmitting differential compaction: Uneven settling of sediments as
others. a result of loss of porosity. Differences in the irrevers-
dictionary: A database in which identifiers are structured ible volume change that rocks suffer when put under
and regulated. Identifiers have persistent meaning in all pressure, as by the weight of sediments deposited on
logical files in which they occur. top of them. Reefs, for example, are often less com-
die-away: See pulsed neutron-capture log. pactable than surrounding shales; the greater compac-
dielectric constant : d, lek trik A measure of the tion of the shales thus produces a drape structure over
capacity of a material to store charge when an electric the reef, and the amount of the vertical expression of
field is applied. It is the dimensionless ratio of the the drape features becomes smaller gradually with
capacitivity or permittivity, the ratio of the electrical height above the reef.
displacement D to the electric field strength E, of the differential curvature: For a gravitational equipotential
material to that of free space:
surface, this is the difference between the curvature of
DE. the surface in the direction in which it curves the most
and the curvature at right angles to this direction, mul-
Also called specific inductive capacity. It is frequency tiplied by the gravitational constant. Measured by the
and temperature dependent. Typical values are 1.0 for torsion balance. Also called horizontal directive ten-
air, 80 for water, 5-20 for granite, 3-100 for dry-to- dency HDT.
moist sand. A complex relative permittivity * is differential Global Positioning System DGPS: A Glo-
sometimes used: bal Positioning System q.v. method for locating a
mobile station that employs a nearby fixed reference
* j , station at a known location to remove unaccounted-for
deviations in a satellites location or in the travel path of
where is the dielectric loss factor, a measure of the
its signal through the atmosphere.
loss of energy through conductivity, polarization cur-
differential normal moveout: 1. The difference between
rents, etc.
the normal moveouts of adjacent channels within a
dielectric log: A class of high-frequency, electric-logging
gather. 2. Sometimes refers to residual normal moveout
sondes that operate at a single frequency in the MHz to
q.v., the normal moveout that remains after an incor-
low GHz range to measure formation effects of phase-
shift, amplitude, and attenuation on a transmitted elec- rectly assumed amount is removed. 3. Also, may refer
tromagnetic wave. Phase shift, related to dielectric per- to the difference between the normal moveout for pri-
mittivity, is treated as propagation time, t p , a quantity mary events and that for multiples.
virtually independent of salinity for water but signifi- differential pressure: 1. The effective stress on a rock,
cantly lower than for oil, gas, or rock materials. If the the difference between the pressure of a rocks pore
lithology is known, t p corrected for attenuation may fluid and that produced by the weight of the overbur-
allow porosity determination. The dielectric log offers a den. It is important in drilling boreholes, controlling
means to calculate residual hydrocarbon saturation in compaction, and determining seismic velocity. Also
the shallow flushed zone. called Terzaghi effective stress. See normal pressure.
dielectric loss: The energy loss per cycle in a dielectric 2. What drillers mean by differential pressure is usually
material resulting from conduction and slow polariza- the difference in fluid pressures across the borehole
tion currents or other dissipative effects. wall, the difference between the pressure induced by
dielectric permittivity: Dielectric constant q.v.. the mud column and that of the formation fluid.
dielectric polarization: The response of a dielectric mate- differential weathering correction: The difference
rial to an electric field, producing an induced dipole- between the weathering corrections at two locations, for
moment per unit volume. In an insulating dielectric example, at two nearby geophone groups.
material, no net electric charge need be transferred by differentiation: 1. A mathematical operation giving the
the exciting field. By some definitions, induced polar- rate of change slope of a function with respect to
ization is a lossy type of dielectric polarization with a some variable. The equivalent operation for discrete
long time constant. series is convolution with the operator 1, 1. 2.
dielectric susceptibility: See electric susceptibility. Separation according to some criteria, such as particle
difference section, difference map, difference volume: size. 3. Separation of a magma into fractions of differ-
The result of subtracting one section, map, or volume ent bulk composition.
from another. 1. Where two maps/sections/volumes differentiator: Convolution with 1,1, which thereby
diffracted reflection 89 digital recording
determines the slope between adjacent samples for a ity function, used to identify diffraction events on
sample interval of unity. unmigrated seismic sections.
diffracted reflection: The diffraction resulting from diffraction stack: A weighted stack of all the elements
reflected energy striking a diffracting point; its curva- along a diffraction curve, which yields a migrated sec-
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ture is appropriate to the diffracting point depth, not to tion to the extent that the data were 2D; the Kirchhoff
the arrival time. method of migration of reflection seismic data.
diffraction: di frak shn or dif frak shn A redistribu- diffraction tomography: Tomography q.v. that relaxes
tion in space of the intensity of waves resulting from the assumption that energy propagates as a ray, using
the presence of an object. 1. Penetration of wave energy wave-equation propagation for finding the physical
into areas forbidden by geometrical optics, e.g., the properties under investigation. 1. A technique for cross-
bending of wave energy around obstacles without obey- hole tomography q.v. based on analysis of the scat-
ing Snells law, as explained by Huygens principle. tered wavefield. 2. An inverse scattering technique that
The phenomenon by which energy is transmitted later- images diffracted and scattered data. See Devaney
ally along a wave crest. When a portion of a wavetrain 1982.
is interrupted by a barrier, diffraction allows waves to diffuse layer: The outer, more mobile ions of an
propagate into the region of the barriers geometric electrolyte-solid interface that together with the fixed
shadow. See Figure D-11. 2. An event observed on layer constitutes a double layer. Also called diffuse
seismic data produced by diffracted energy; see Figure zone, diffuse double layer, or outer Helmholtz
D-12. Such events result at the termination of reflectors double layer.
as at faults and are characterized on seismic records diffuse reflector: A surface that reflects incident rays in
and sections by a distinctive curved alignment. A many directions.
simple diffraction lies along a diffraction curve whose diffusion: 1. The motion of ions or molecules in a solution
curvature depends on the velocity distribution above resulting from the presence of a concentration gradient.
the diffracting point. Phantom diffractions involve 2. A method of heat conduction resulting from the
energy that reaches the diffracting point by a longer motion of molecules.
route than the direct one as with a diffracted reflec- diffusion distance: The time-domain equivalent of skin
tion; they have more curvature than appropriate for depth q.v..
their arrival time. Diffractions generated by a line diffusion equation: 1. A simplification of the wave equa-
source that is not at right angles to the line appear to tion for EM-waves in a good conductor:
have less curvature, becoming flatter as the line gener-
ating the diffraction becomes parallel to the line of 2 E j E or 2 H j H.
observation. A reflection can be thought of as the where angular frequency, magnetic perme-
interference result of diffractions from points lying on ability, and electric conductivity. 2. An equation for
the reflector. When correctly migrated, a simple diffrac- the rate of temperature change as a consequence of heat
tion collapses at the location of the diffracting point. diffusion:
See Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 63-8 and 159-161.
diffraction curve: A curve of maximum convexity, the T/t k/ c p 2 T,
relation between the arrival time and observer position
for primary energy that has been diffracted from a where Ttemperature, ttime, kthermal diffusiv-
point. See Figure D-13. One should speak of a diffrac- ity, density, and c p specific heat at constant pres-
tion surface to emphasize the 3D aspect. The cur- sure. See Fowler 1990, 222223.
vature of reflected energy cannot exceed this curvature diffusion impedance: See Warburg impedance.
except for reverse branches and certain situations such diffusion potential: Liquid junction potential q.v..
as diffracted reflections. Diffraction curves are specific diffusion rate law: See Ficks law.
for a particular velocity function, like the wavefront Digihem: dig hem, A helicopter-mounted electromag-
chart to which they are related and from which they can netic method; see electromagnetic.
be constructed. Diffraction curves are used in identify- digital: Representation of quantities in discrete quan-
ing simple diffractions, locating the diffracting points tized units. A digital system is one in which the infor-
see Figure M-11, in determining velocity from the mation is contained and manipulated as a series of
diffraction curvature, and as migration operators in discrete numbers, as opposed to an analog q.v. sys-
Kirchhoff migration q.v.. Errors in interpreting dif- tem, in which the information is represented by a con-
fractions can result if the diffracting point lies to the tinuous flow of the quantity constituting the signal.
side of the seismic line, if the diffraction event results digital clipping: Loss of the most significant bit of a
from a line diffractor that is not normal to the seismic number, such as that produced by overflow. Produces a
line, or if the diffraction is not simple. See Hagedoorn different result from ordinary clipping and generates
1954. spurious high frequencies. See Figure C-5.
diffraction function: The function (sin x)/x digital computer: See computer.
sinc x; a sinc function. digital filter box: A special-purpose computer to carry out
diffraction knot: Where diffraction q.v. energy is convolution q.v..
approximated by straight line segments and migrated digital geophone: A seismic sensor where signals are
properly, the migrated segments cluster in an asterisk- digitized at the sensor rather than subsequently.
like knot. digital recording: Any method of recording data in digital
diffraction overlays: A set of diffraction curves such as form, such as a series of magnetized or nonmagnetized
shown in Figure D-13, constructed for a specific veloc- spots coded to represent numbers.
digital-to-analog DA 90 dike
digital-to-analog DA: Conversion of a digital usually other parameters to a form that can be read by a digital
binary number into a corresponding voltage. computer, as with an X-Y reader q.v..
digitize: To quantize. 1. To sample a continuous voltage at digitizer: Equipment for sampling curves, seismic traces,
discrete regular time intervals, quantize the measure- or other data recorded in analog form.
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FIG. D-11. Diffraction of a plane wave from a semi-infinite barrier. Schematic diagram showing the amplitude at time
t after the onset of the wave struck the tip of the barrier. Shown is the reflected wavefront, the wavefront that missed the
reflector, and diffractions from the reflector termination. Arrows point in the raypath directions. (Courtesy Chevron Oil
Co.)
dike 91 dike
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FIG. D-12. Diffractions generated by the termination of three horizontal reflectors. The diffraction curvature becomes
smaller as depth increases. The diffractions under the reflector (the backward branch) have reversed polarity to the
branches that extend beyond the reflection (forward branch). The crest of a diffraction curve locates the diffracting point
and its curvature depends on the depth and the velocity above the diffracting point. Reflection amplitude decreases to
one-half at the point where the reflection is tangent to the diffraction curve and the diffraction-curve amplitude is
antisymmetric about this point of tangency. Amplitudes and waveshapes are continuous at the point of tangency. The
diffraction curve is hyperbolic if the velocity above the diffracting point is constant. (Courtesy Chevron Oil Co.)
DIL 92 diodic moveout
Vertical and dipping dike models are used commonly in all seismic data seen through it and distorts the normal
potential-field calculations. 2. Igneous rock that cuts moveout of deeper events by velocity focusing.
across adjacent rock. Also spelled dyke. See Figure dim spot: A local decrease of the amplitude of a seismic
M-15. event. Where a significant acoustic impedance contrast
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DIL: Dual Induction resistivity Log. occurs in the absence of hydrocarbons as in a reservoir
dilatancy: d lat n se
Volume increase caused by a with higher acoustic impedance than the surrounding
crack opening when a rock is under triaxial loading. rock, the presence of hydrocarbons may lessen the
dilatancy theory: A hypothesis for the changes in rock acoustic impedance contrast and hence the amplitude of
volume near a fault as the result of microfracturing a reflection. See Figure H-10. Antonym: bright spot.
preceding an earthquake and consequent changes in the Dinoseis: A seismic energy source in which a plate is
ratio of the velocities of P- and S-waves, which are driven against the ground by a confined explosion of
used as earthquake predictors. gas. An ARCO Oil and Gas tradename.
dilatation: 1. Volumetric strain, change in volume per unit diode transistor logic DTL: A family of semiconductor
of volume. 2. A rarefaction q.v.. logic formed by diode gates that are diode-coupled to
dilatational wave: P-wave q.v.. the base of the output transistor. DTL logic is charac-
dilation: A transformation that changes only the size of a terized by medium speed, low power dissipation, high
geometric figure. drive capability, and low cost.
dilution of precision: The geometrical contribution to the diodic: d d ik 1. Behaving differently in different
uncertainty in a kinematic position fix. directions, i.e., like a diode. 2. The traveltimes of
dimensional analysis: Equating units in a physical rela- common-conversion point PS-waves change if shot in
tionship so that the dimensions as well as the number opposite directions unless also changing P-source to
values balance. S- and S-receiver to P.
dimensionless induction number: See induction number. diodic moveout: With C-wave gathers the moveout will
dimensionless units: Ratios that do not depend on the not be symmetric and the arrival time expression is
units in which quantities are measured. For example,
distance is often measured in terms of wavelengths,
frequency is often expressed as a ratio to natural fre-
quency, etc. Often the same as normalized units; see
t 2c x t C0 2 [1C 1 x
t C0 V CNM O
2 2
x2
t C0 V CNM O
normalize.
x 2
C 4 x/ t C0 V CNM O 4
dimple: A shallow velocity anomaly such as might result C 1 ,
from local permafrost variation that depresses or raises t C0 V CNM O 1C 5 x/ t C0 V CNM O 2
FIG. D-13. Diffraction curves or curves of maximum convexity. (From Hagedoorn, 1954, 116.)
dip 93 dipole
that is, it involves odd as well as even powers of x see dip log: A dipmeter q.v. log. Diplog is a Dresser Atlas
Thomsen, 2002: 51. tradename.
dip: The angle that a plane surface makes with the hori- dip map: A horizon slice color coded to indicate the dip
zontal. 1. The angle that bedding makes with the hori- magnitude.
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zontal. 2. The angle that a reflector or refractor makes dipmeter: The tool for measuring the dip of formations,
with the horizontal. 3. Apparent dip is the angle i.e., for making a dipmeter log q.v.. The resistivity
between horizontal and the component of dip in the dipmeter includes a three or more microresistivity
plane of a section. 4. Electromagnetic pitch q.v.. readings made using sensors distributed in azimuth
dip-angle method: An electromagnetic surveying method about the logging sonde, b a reading of the azimuth of
in which the dip angle of the total magnetic field is one of these, c a reading of the hole deviation or drift
measured. The secondary field resulting from eddy angle, d its bearing, and e one or two caliper mea-
currents in a conducting body changes the direction of surements. Earlier dipmeters used three SP curves,
the total field horizontal in the case of a vertical three wall scratchers, etc.
transmitter loop which would be measured in the dipmeter log: 1. A well log from which the magnitude and
absence of the conductor. See Keller and Frischknecht azimuth of formation dip can be determined; see Figure
1966. D-14a. The microresistivity curves are correlated to
dip-azimuth map: Displays of the azimuth of the dip determine the differences in depth of bedding markers
along horizon slices following correlated reflection
on different sides of the hole and dip calculations are
events through a 3-D volume of seismic data, usually
based on such correlations. 2. A log showing the for-
displayed by color encoding. Also called azimuth map.
mation dips calculated from the above, such as a tad-
Sometimes a display incorporating both dip magnitude
dip map and dip azimuth. pole plot or stick plot; see Figure D-14b.
dip calculation: Calculation of the dip or dip component dip migration: See migration.
of a reflecting or refracting interface from observations dip moveout: 1. A change in the arrival time of a reflec-
of the variation of arrival time of seismic events as the tion because of the dip of the reflector. The quantity
observing point is moved. May involve resolving cross- t d /x in Figure R-9. 2. See also DMO processing.
spread q.v. data. The dip angle for a reflection mea- dip needle: A magnetic needle free to rotate about a
sured at the surface is usually less than the angle at the horizontal axis.
reflector because of raypath curvature. dipole: d po
l 1. A pair of equal charges or poles of
dip decomposition method: A Fourier-domain method of opposite signs that ideally are infinitesimally close
DMO processing q.v., superceded by the log-stretch together. 2. In resistivity and IP surveying, a pair of
trick q.v.. See Jakubowicz 1984. nearby current electrodes that approximates a dipole
dip filter: See velocity filter. field from a distance, or a voltage-detecting electrode
dip line: A seismic line that is perpendicular to the strike pair. Where the electrode separation is large, it is some-
of reflecting interfaces of interest. times called a bipole. 3. In electromagnetic surveying,
FIG. D-14. Dipmeter log. a Log of field data. b Calculated dipmeter log or tadpole plot. (Courtesy Schlumberger.)
dipole array 94 direct modeling
an electric- or magnetic-field transmitting or receiving q.v.. Named for Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac 1902
antenna which is small enough to be represented math- 1984, British physicist.
ematically as a dipole. The near fields electric and direct arrival: Energy that travels by straight or shallow
magnetic from a magnetic and electric dipole respec- diving raypaths from source to detector.
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tively vary as the inverse cube of the distance. direct coupling: See coupling.
dipole array: Dipole-dipole array q.v.. direct current apparent resistivity: See apparent resis-
dipole-dipole array: Inline electrode array used in tivity.
induced polarization, electrical, and electromagnetic direct detection: A measurement never direct that
surveying, where both current and potential-measuring may indicate the presence or absence of hydrocarbons.
electrodes are closely spaced. See Figure A-19. Sometimes considered synonomous with bright spot
dipole field: The major part of the magnetic field of the q.v.. Effective under some circumstances, but no uni-
Earth q.v.. versal method has been found. Also called direct
dipole moment: Two equal charges q or poles p of hydrocarbon detection or indication DHD or DHI.
opposite sign separated by the distance x giving a See hydrocarbon indicator and Figure H-10.
dipole strength of q x or p x . direct interpretation: 1. Solution of the direct problem
dipole moment per unit volume: A measure of the inten- q.v. or forward solution. 2. Direct mathematical
sity of polarization of a material. Units are ampere- solution of a potential-field problem without use of
meters per cubic meter. precomputed curves or models.
dipole sonic log: A sonic array tool in which sources are directional charge: 1. An explosive charge or charge
dipoles as opposed to radially symmetric monopoles, so array in which the explosion front travels at approxi-
that it generates both P- and S-waves in formations. mately the velocity of seismic waves in the surrounding
Analysis involves mode identification and analysis of rock, so that energy traveling in a desired direction
dispersion curves and yields both P- and S-wave veloci- usually vertically adds constructively as opposed to
ties. A variant crossed dipole mode is an orthogonal that traveling in other directions. The charge must
set of horizontal dipole transmitters and an array of either be shaped to focus the energy in the desired
orthogonal dipole receivers to measure azimuthal direction or have a length that is a significant fraction of
anisotropy. This arrangement is suitable for detecting a wavelength to achieve appreciable directivity. Some-
azimuthal velocity variations in a borehole. The dipole times involves the use of broomstick charges, delay
sonic imager DSI is a multiconfigurable tool that can caps, impulse blasters, or sausage powder. In refraction
emulate a BHC sonic, a standard monopole array tool, shooting, a horizontal directional charge detonating at
or an array dipole tool. Modes are configured to meet the refractor velocity is sometimes used to concentrate
the logging conditions presented by different borehole the energy traveling as a head wave. 2. Shaped charges
environments. While monopoles work well in hard as used for armor piercing or perforating casing.
directional derivatives: The derivative of in the direc-
formations where mode conversion is required for
tion r1 is r1.
S-wave recording, dipoles excite flexural modes
directional drilling: Intentionally drilling a well in a
directly and are efficient for generating Stoneley waves
direction other than vertical.
in slow formations. The analysis of the proper disper-
directional survey: 1. Measurement of drift, which is the
sion curves modes leads to the estimation of S-wave
azimuth and inclination of a borehole from the vertical.
velocities in slow formations. Dipoles are directional
Often made from dipmeter survey data. Sometimes
and are sensitive to azimuthal velocity variations. involves a continuous log and sometimes measure-
dipole strength: See dipole moment. ments made only at discrete levels. 2. An IP or
dip resolution: 1. Calculation of true dip from cross- resistivity-survey method starting from a position such
spread data. 2. Recognition and separation of events as a drill hole to find the trend direction of an anoma-
having nearly the same dip. lous subsurface body.
dip shooting: 1. A seismic field method wherein the pri- directivity graph: 1. A plot often in polar coordinates of
mary concern is determining the dip of reflectors. May the relative intensity versus direction of an outgoing
involve either isolated or continuous profiles or cross- seismic wave such as that resulting from a directional
spreads. 2. An attempt to acquire data so that the charge or from a source pattern; see Figure D-15a. The
source-receiver directions parallel geologic dip. directivity results from the interference of the waves
dip spectrum: 1. A graph showing the frequency with from the various components of the pattern. 2. A plot of
which different dips occur. 2. Sometimes used for a the relative response of a geophone pattern or of direc-
sonograph that displays coherent energy as a function tivity resulting from mixing; see Figure D-15b. Direc-
of apparent velocity or dip and arrival time. tivity graphs may be specified in various units apparent
dip sweeping: See Rieber mixing. velocity for a certain frequency, apparent wavelength,
dip time slice: See dip map and double time slice. frequency arriving from a certain direction, apparent
dip vector: An arrow on a map pointing in the direction of velocity, etc., as indicated in Figure D-15b. The verti-
dip. The arrow length sometimes indicates a the dip cal scale is often logarithmic i.e., given in dB rather
magnitude, sometimes b the contour spacing, and than linear. The effect on wavelets can be very different
sometimes c the portion of the line over which such a from the effect on a sinusoidal wavetrain so that use of
dip direction is evident. steady-state patterns can be misleading. A plot in f-k
Dirac comb: A comb q.v.; a series of equally spaced space is a form of directivity graph showing also the
delta functions. frequency-dependency. See also Figure C-3.
Dirac function: di rak A delta function or impulse direct modeling: Calculating the effects of a model q.v..
direct problem 95 discrete Fourier transform
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FIG. D-15. Directivity graphs. a Polar plot showing the relative amplitude of a radiated wave (or the relative sensitivity
to waves approaching a geophone array from different directions). The horizontal axis can be expressed in various
ways. b Directivity of five inline geophones spaced 10 m apart. c Response of a tapered array of five geophones
spaced 20 m apart and weighted 1:2:3:2:1; such weighting could be achieved with nine geophones distributed as the
weighting. (d) Response of nine geophones equally spaced 5.5 m apart. The solid curves are for harmonic (steady-
state) waves, the dashed curves for a transient with a bell-shaped spectrum peaked at 30 Hz and a width of 30 Hz.
(From Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 249.)
direct problem: Computation of the effects of a certain maxima and minima. Named for Peter Guster Dirichlet
model; as opposed to the inverse problem of determin- 18051859, German mathematician.
ing a possible model from observation of effects. See Dirichlet problem: An initial-value problem where the
Figure M-14. Also called forward problem. behavior of the points bounding a spatial region of
direct push: The use of the weight of a truck or other interest are specified as a function of time.
heavy vehicle to push a metal probing device into the
dirty: Shaly; containing appreciable amounts of shale dis-
ground. The force required to move the probe down-
ward is sometimes monitored to produce a vertical log persed in the interstices. Such shale lowers the perme-
of penetration resistance. The probe is often instru- ability and effective porosity and affects the readings of
mented with geophysical logging tools to obtain physi- many types of logs. A composite electrolyte system of
cal parameters of engineering or environmental interest. clay and sand can be responsible for membrane polar-
No soil or rock samples are brought to the surface with ization effects. Clay particles in the sand act as selective
this technique. The hole may be backfilled with grout as ion sieves and surface conduction along the clay min-
the probe is removed from the ground. Sometimes erals causes low resistivity.
referred to as a Geoprobe technique, which is a trade DISC: Distinguished Instructor Short Course, one of the
name. SEGs annual lecturer series and corresponding books.
direct recording: Magnetic tape recording in which the disc hydrophone: A piezoelectric hydrophone similar to a
magnetization intensity is proportional to the signal bender. Two piezoelectric discs are supported around
strength or signal strength plus a bias.
their circumference so that pressure tends to bend them,
direct wave: A wave that travels directly by the shortest
path. Other waves traveling by longer routes may arrive causing stresses that generate a voltage across the disc
earlier because they travel at higher velocity. thickness.
Dirichlet conditions: dir kla The necessary and suf- disconformity: An unconformity in which formations on
ficient conditions for a Fourier series: In any region: a opposite sides of it are parallel to the unconformity.
f (x) is continuous except for a finite number of finite discovered: See resource.
discontinuities and b it has only a finite number of discrete Fourier transform: A Fourier transform q.v.
discriminant function 96 display
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FIG. D-16. Dispersion. a Change in wavelet shape because of dispersion in a Voigt solid. Amplitudes have been
normalized. b Change of waveshape because of energy shifting to later cycles. The axes of time and offset could be
interchanged on either graph. (From Balch and Smolka, 1970.)
calculated for a wavelet over a finite interval so that from the norm. See statistical measures. 3. Angular
values are given only for the fundamental frequency dispersion is variation of velocity with direction, as in
the reciprocal of the interval and its harmonics. an anisotropic medium. Leads to the concept of ray
discriminant function: One of a set of mathematical rela- velocity distinct from phase velocity; see Figure A-14a.
tions used to divide measurement space into decision dispersion curve: A plot of wave velocity as a function of
regions in classification. Such functions usually result frequency. See normal modes.
from the study of a learning training set. dispersion equation: A relation between angular wave-
discriminator: An electronic circuit that responds only to number , angular frequency , and velocity V:
-ray energies greater than some threshold value.
disharmonic folding: dis har mon, ik Folding in which 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 2 /V 2 .
there is an abrupt change in fold profile across a dec- See Hilbert transform and Yilmaz 2001, 489.
ollement surface. dispersive filter: A phase-shifting filter that does not
disjunction: dis jungh shn The logical operation, affect the amplitude spectrum.
either A or B written A B, performed by an OR displacement: 1. The distance a particle is removed from
gate. Also called union. See Figure B-5. its equilibrium position, as in the ground motion asso-
diskette: A floppy disk q.v.. ciated with a seismic wave. 2. Relative movement of
dispersion: 1. Variation of velocity with frequency. Dis- the two sides of a fault. 3. The amount by which
persion distorts the shape of a wavetrain; peaks and refraction data are displaced horizontally from the geo-
troughs advance toward or recede from the beginning phone positions to indicate where the head-wave energy
of the wave as it travels. Leads to the concept of group presumably left the refractor. Sometimes called offset
velocity U distinct from phase velocity V. Where or transplacement. See Figure O-1. 4. See displacement
wavelength, f frequency, and Vphase velocity, current.
displacement current: A current that is proportional to
V f f / 1/ .
the time rate of change of electric flux density. In most
Ud f /d 1/ . earth materials, displacement currents are negligible
compared with conduction currents for the range of
The dispersion of seismic body waves is very small frequencies used in electromagnetic methods, but dis-
under most circumstances, but surface waves may show placement currents dominate in radar methods.
appreciable dispersion in the presence of near-surface display: 1. A graphic hard-copy representation of data,
velocity layering. See Figure D-16. The dispersion of especially of seismic data. See Figure D-17. A graph of
electromagnetic body waves is large in most earth amplitude as a function of time gives a wiggle trace,
materials. For ground roll and channel waves see Fig- squiggle, or conventional display. Variable area dis-
ure C-2c, d, phase velocity decreases with frequency, play has the area under the wiggle trace shaded to make
sometimes called normal dispersion, and where veloc- coherent events more evident; it often involves a bias
ity increases with frequency, inverse dispersion. 2. A and trace clipping. A variable density display repre-
statistical term for the amount of deviation of a value sents amplitude values by the intensity of shades of
disseminated sulfide mineralization 97 distortion point
represented by color encoding see Fig. C-7, and in ity; if E f is the rms voltage of the fundamental and E n
other ways. Color displays of different types are shown is the rms voltage of the nth harmonic, the percent
in Figures D-18 and H-8. 2. A soft-copy representation harmonic distortion is
of data on a cathode-ray tube or similar nonpermanent
1/2
device.
disseminated sulfide mineralization: Sulfide minerals 100 E n2 Ef.
scattered as specks and veinlets through rock and con-
stituting not over 20% of the total volume. c Intermodular distortion is a nonlinear distortion
distal: dis tl Referring to the portion of a sedimentary characterized by the appearance in the output of fre-
unit remote from the sediment source. quencies equal to the sum and difference of integral
distance meter: A device for measuring line-of-sight dis- multiples of the component frequencies present in the
tances, generally by transmitting a light pulse to a prism input. d Nonlinear distortion is caused by a devia-
reflector at a station and timing the arrival of the tion from a linear relationship between input and out-
reflected light. put. e Phase distortion results when phase shift is not
distortion: An undesired change in waveform, as opposed linear with frequency over the bandpass or where it is
to desired changes in waveshape like those from modu- linear but where the zero frequency intercept is not a
lation. a Amplitude distortion is caused by undesired multiple of . Where the intercept is a multiple of n ,
the waveshape is not changed in n is even and is
inverted if n is odd, although the entire waveform may
be delayed. See linear-phase filter.
distortional wave: S-wave q.v..
distortion point: The input amplitude for which the
distortion-generated third harmonic becomes a certain
percentage, generally 3% but sometimes 1%. For
smaller inputs the system is nearly linear.
distortion tail: A correlation ghost. Harmonic distortion diversity stack: A stack in which amplitudes that exceed
with vibroseis surface sources produces spurious corre- some threshold are excluded; amplitudes less than this
lations, especially for the second harmonic which may threshold may not be affected. Used with vertical stack-
be very large. This produces a distortion tail that ing to prevent occasional large bursts of noise such as
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follows the correlation for a downsweep and appears as traffic noise from dominating the stacked record, and
a forerunner for an upsweep. also used with common-midpoint stacking to discrimi-
distributed: Referring to electric circuits, the smearing nate against ground roll and similar high-amplitude
out of resistive, capacitative, or inductive circuit ele- wavetrains.
ments such as with a transmission line. Opposite of diving waves: Refraction in a strong velocity-gradient
lumped. zone may reverse the downward component of seismic
distributed computing: Use of multiple, loosely coupled ray travel and bend the rays back to the surface. Such
processing systems to accomplish a task; distributed refraction arrivals have apparent velocity appropriate to
processing. that at their greatest depth of penetration even when
distributed systems: 1. A seismic recording system where they have no appreciable path through a distinctive
signals from one or more geophone groups are col- refractor. See Figure D-19. If there are no velocity
lected at remote units before transmitting them to the reversals, diving waves may be used to derive the
recording truck. 2. At-the-geophone digitization rather velocity distribution by means of the Wiechert-Herglotz
than each geophone group having its own dedicated integral. See Meissner 1966, Sheriff 1989, 217 and
channel to the recording system. 262, and Blondeau method.
distribution function: A relationship that describes the divining: di vn ng Use of a forked stick or other
probability that a quantity will have a value less than a device that allegedly bends toward water, petroleum or
particular value. It is thus the cumulative integral of the other sought-for accumulations; used meaning unsci-
probability density P[x] of the random variable x entific.
which is not necessarily a proper function: Dix formula: dicks For reflections from a sequence of
flat, parallel layers and small offsets, the interval veloc-
ity in the nth layer V n is given by
F x P x dx.
diurnals: d ur nls Phenomena with a periodicity of
about one day. Changes in the geomagnetic field related
V n V 2n t n V 2n1 t n1
t n t n1
1/2
,
principally to the rotation of the Earth in the magneto-
sphere q.v. and also involving amplitude and phase where V n1 and V n are the stacking velocities from the
variations with season and latitude by as much as 100 datum to reflectors above and below the layer and t n1
nT; records from a stationary magnetometer are used and t n are reflection arrival times. This formula is often
for their removal. Average daily changes in radio-wave misused to calculate interval velocities in situations that
propagation because of diurnal changes in the iono- do not satisfy Dixs assumptions. Named for C. Hewitt
sphere affect radio-positioning systems. Published Dix 19051984, American geophysicist. See Dix
tables allow one to correct for major skywave varia- 1955. Some call this the Postma equation.
tions with systems like Omega, but unpredictable local D-layer: 1. The innermost layer of the ionosphere. It
skywave variations and sun-spot effects remain. occurs at heights of 50 to 90 km during daylight hours,
diurnal variation: Daily fluctuations, also called diurnals reflects ELF, VLF, and LF waves, absorbs MF waves,
q.v.. and partially absorbs HF waves. Some consider the
divergence: 1. The decrease in amplitude of a wavefront D-layer as starting at 70-80 km and merging with the
because of geometrical spreading. The energy in body E-layer. See Figure A-22. 2. A layer within the Earth;
waves spreads out as the spherical wavefront expands, see Figure E-1.
causing the energy density to vary inversely as the DMO dip moveout processing: A seismic processing
square of the distance spherical divergence. With operation to correct for the fact that, for dipping reflec-
surface waves the energy density varies inversely as the tions, the component traces of a CMP gather do not
distance cylindrical divergence. Tube waves do not involve a common reflecting point. Dip-moveout pro-
suffer energy loss because of divergence. Energy den- cessing creates apparent common-reflection-point gath-
sity also decreases because of raypath curvature, ers by a convolution applied to adjacent common-
absorption, and other reasons. 2. The divergence of a midpoint gathers, with the feature that the moveout
vector field is expressed in Figure C-14 for rectangular, with offset for reflections from a dipping bed no longer
cylindrical, and spherical coordinates. depend on the dip angle see Figure C-9b. DMO
divergence theorem: The flux through a surface or the effectively corrects for the reflection-point smear that
integral of the vector flux density g over a closed results when dipping reflectors are stacked by the CMP
surface equals the divergence of the flux density inte- method. After DMO is applied, events with various dips
grated over the volume contained by the surface: stack with the same velocity. DMO stands for dip
moveout, but it is different from the classical dip
gds g dx dy dz.
moveout that is simply the effect of dip on arrival
times. DMO can be performed in a number of ways,
including prestack partial migration Yilmaz and Claer-
Commonly called Gausss theorem. bout, 1980, time-domain, finite-difference methods
divergent reflections: A reflection configuration see Fig- offset continuation Bolondi et al., 1982, Fourier-
ure R-8 indicating differential subsidence. domain implementation Hale, 1984, integral Kirch-
DMO dip moveout processing 99 DMO dip moveout processing
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FIG. D-19. Diving waves. a Raypaths are curved because of vertical velocity gradient. The inverse of the slope of the
time-distance curve indicates the velocity at the bottom of the travel path. b A large velocity gradient can produce a
reverse branch on traveltime-versus-distance curves. c An inversion of velocity may produce a gap in the time-
distance curve, but the gap (if small) may not be evident because diffracted energy may fill the gap. The lower velocity
layer constitutes a hidden layer (q.v.). d Diving waves reflected on their upward travel are called turning waves (q.v.);
they often show negative moveout with offset. Turning waves are sometimes used to map the overhanging flank of a salt
dome or the footwall of a fault.
DMO dip moveout processing 100 DMO dip moveout processing
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FIG. D-20. DMO. a Depth section showing the updip movement of the reflecting point for an offset geophone for
constant velocity; (h 2 /D)cos sin , where is the dip (Levin, 1971). To avoid reflection point smearing, an offset
trace should be gathered with the updip zero-offset trace at a distance G(h 2 /D)sin , but such a gather is not
hyperbolic; the DMO correction makes this gather hyperbolic. b A diffraction in location-offset space, a Cheops
pyramid, is not a hyperboloid. c Applying NMO changes the Cheops pyramid into a saddle-shaped surface. d
Applying DMO along with NMO yields data that can be stacked without reflection-point smear. e NMO corrects for the
time delay on an offset trace assuming horizontality, DMO moves the data to the correct zero-offset trace for a dipping
reflection, and migration further moves it to its subsurface location. (After Deregowski, 1986, 13.)
DNAPL 101 Doppler sonar
hoff methods Deregowski, 1985. Velocity-dependent D-21. A count of the number of cycles in a given time
DMO is usually applied after velocity-dependent NMO. interval Doppler count along with knowledge of the
Gardners DMO Forel and Gardner, 1988 applies satellites position in its orbit which the satellite broad-
velocity-independent DMO prior to velocity-dependent casts can be used to determine an observers location
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NMO. See Figure D-20 and double square-root equa- and velocity. This forms the basis of the Global Posi-
tion. tioning System q.v., as it did with the Transit system
DNAPL: Dense NonAqueous Phase Liquids, the most q.v.. 2. Doppler counting is also used in connection
commonly found environmental pollutants, typically with Doppler radar and Doppler sonar.
chlorinated solvents that are denser than water. Their Doppler effect: Apparent change in frequency of a wave
flow may be controlled by geology and gravity inde- caused by motion of a source with respect to a receiver
pendently of groundwater flow. Compare LNAPL. and/or vice-versa. Frequencies are increased if the
DNMO: Differential Normal MoveOut q.v.. source and receiver are approaching, decreased if they
document: A unit of information sent from servers to are moving apart; see Figure D-21. For sound and water
clients; a file. waves, the observed frequency f o is given in terms of
DOD: U.S. Department Of Defense. the source frequency f s the velocity of propagation V,
DOE: U.S. Department Of Energy. the velocity of the source V s , and the velocity of the
doghouse: The hut or cab that contains seismic or well- observer V o components of velocity toward each
logging recording instruments in the field. other:
dog-leg: An abrupt angular change in direction, as in a
VV o
survey traverse or in a borehole. f o f s .
dolomitization: do , l md za shn The process by VV s
which limestone is converted to dolomite or dolo- The relationship for light and radio waves is slightly
mitized limestone by magnesium carbonate replacing different because of relativistic effects and the con-
calcium carbonate. Usually produced by flushing with stancy of the velocity of electromagnetic waves irre-
magnesium-bearing meteoric water or seawater. spective of any motion of source and observer:
domain: 1. The set of elements to which a mathematical
or logical variable is limited; the set on which a func-
tion is defined; the set of values that an independent
variable may take. 2. The class of terms that have a
f o f s VV o V s
VV o V s 1/2
.
given relation to something is called the domain of See Doppler navigation. Named for Christian Johann
that relation. Thus, when we speak of a seismic trace Doppler 18031853, Austrian physicist.
in the time domain, we mean that time is the indepen- Doppler navigation: Positioning in which frequency shift
dent variable; in the frequency domain, frequency is because of the Doppler effect is involved. Usually
the independent variable; in the f,k domain or f,k refers to Doppler radar for aircraft or Doppler sonar
space, frequency and wavenumber are the independent for ships, occasionally to satellite navigation see
variables; etc. 3. A region of magnetic polarization in a Doppler count.
single direction magnetic moments parallel that Doppler radar: A radio-navigation system used by air-
behaves as a unit during change in magnetization. The craft. A radio beam transmitted from the aircraft and
dimensions of magnetic domains are about 1m. 4. The reflected back by various landscape features is received
areal extent of a given lithology or environment. 5. The at the aircraft. Because the aircraft transmitter and
region occupied by a cluster set in cluster analysis. receiver are in motion, the signal undergoes a frequency
dome: A structure where all of the beds dip away from a shift the Doppler effect which is measured and con-
central area; e.g., a salt dome. verted to aircraft velocity. A computer on the aircraft
Domenico effect: do A few percent of gas in a
men i co determines the planes position by integrating the
rocks pore space may have more effect on seismic velocity over time. Actually, two transmitter-receivers
velocity than complete saturation; see Domenico beam to the ground ahead of and behind the aircraft to
1974. determine the forward speed and two transmitters beam
dominant frequency: The dominant frequency is usually to the right and left of the aircraft to determine the
determined by measuring the time between successive crosstrack speed. The arrangement is similar to that
peaks or troughs and taking the reciprocal. See Figure used with Doppler sonar Figure D-21b. The Doppler
W-2. data combined with a compass heading give the direc-
dominant wavelength: The wavelength associated with tion of the aircraft. Velocity can be measured to about
the dominant frequency q.v.. 0.5%, somewhat less over water because the surface of
donor: See n-type semiconductor. the water may itself be in motion.
doodlebugger: A geophysicist engaged in field work. Doppler shift: 1. Change in observed frequency because
Originally used derisively to mean unscientific. of the Doppler effect q.v.. 2. The shift toward lower
doors: Paravanes, devices that hold streamers apart. frequencies that results from stretching long-offset seis-
doping mud: Adding paramagnetic material to drilling mic traces in the removal of normal moveout.
mud to kill the mud influence on NMR measurements. Doppler sonar: A sonic location system used by ships,
Generally not required with modern instrumentation. based on the Doppler effect. See Figure D-21b. Velocity
Doppler count: dop lr 1. The apparent frequency of a measurements together with gyro-compass direction
constant frequency signal broadcast by a satellite varies may be integrated to give position. Signals are reflected
because of the velocity of the satellite with respect to from the sea floor or from the water mass volume
the observing station Doppler effect, q.v. see Figure reverberation or water-track mode, often when the
Doppler sonar 102 Doppler sonar
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FIG. D-21. a Doppler effect in observing a satellite. Along with knowledge of the satellites orbit, s, the time of closest
approach of a satellite in near-polar orbit gives the latitude and the rate of change of frequency gives the longitude. The
quantity measured is often the beat frequency (offset frequency) between the signal from the satellite and a reference
frequency. b Doppler sonar uses four transducers to send sonar beams fore and aft and to each side, and to receive
the reflections of these beams from the sea floor. The use of four beams allows the effects of the ships roll, pitch, and
yaw to be reduced. The ships velocity is computed from the Doppler-effect frequency shift of the reflected beams.
(Courtesy Marquardt.)
DOS 103 double-square-root equation
water is deeper than 6001000 ft, but resulting in double layer: The layers of molecular ions and charged
poorer accuracy. dipoles at a solid/solution interface. It is electrically
DOS: Disc Operating System q.v.. Often refers to an analogous to a capacitor in that there is charge separa-
IBM-compatible operating system used with personal tion between the solid electrode and the charge center
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computers. IBM trade name. of the oriented ions or dipoles. Next to an electrode
DOSECC: Deep Observation and Sampling of the Earths there may be an adsorbed fixed layer of ions called the
Continental Crust, a National Science Foundation pro- inner Helmholtz double layer. A diffuse layer outer
gram to increase knowledge of the continental lithos- Helmholtz double layer in the electrolyte contains an
phere, particularly by deep drilling for scientific pur- excess of ions that is usually of the same charge as the
poses. electrode but opposite to that of the fixed layer. The
dot chart: A chart used to hand-compute the theoretical thickness of the double layer is less than 100 A ng-
gravity or other potential effect of a 2-D mass distri- 8
stroms (10 m). The double-layer capacitance is
bution; see Figure D-22. The number of dots within the effectively in parallel with the Warburg impedance.
mass outline when a chart is superimposed on a scaled double-layer weathering: Situation where corrections
cross-section of the mass multiplied by the anomalous must be made for two distinctive near-surface low-
density is proportional to the gravity effect at the chart velocity layers.
origin. Also called graticule. double precision: The retention of twice as many digits
double: Two joints of drill pipe or casing screwed bits to specify a quantity as the computer normally
together. uses.
dot product: The dot product also called inner product double refraction: See birefringence.
of the vectors X[x 1 ,x 2 ,x 3 ,...,x n ] and Y double-run: A resurvey of a traverse to tie back to the
[y 1 ,y 2 ,y 3 ,...,y n ] is same reference point, to reinforce the certainty that
errors have not been made. Used where tie to an inde-
XY x 1 y 1 x 2 y 2 x 3 y 3 ...x n y n . pendent reference point is not feasible.
The dot-product reverse is double-square-root equation: The traveltime surface of a
point diffractor in offset space where raypaths are
x 1 y n x 2 y n1 x 3 y n2 ...x n y 1 . straight and the source and receiver are not coincident;
see Figure D-20b. If xmidpoint location and y
Compare cross product. offset source-geophone distance, it is the surface
double Bouguer correction: 1. The Bouguer correction t(x,y)
q.v. to sea level for measurements made on the ocean
floor involves a correction to replace the upward attrac- t h/2V 2 my/2 2 /V 2 1/2
tion of the sea water above the meter with the replace-
ment density of rock. 2. Corrections for measurements h/2V 2 my/2 2 /V 2 1/2 ,
made in mines or in boreholes, usually involving mea-
surements made both above and below a layer. where minline distance from diffracting point to the
double coverage: Reverse control q.v.. midpoint and h its depth. The surface is called a Cheops
double dipole array: Dipole-dipole array q.v.. pyramid ke ops. This equation contrasts with the
FIG. D-22. Dot chart (2D). The gravity effect at the origin of a mass anomaly of a given cross-section is k n, where
k is a scale constant, is the density contrast, n is the number of dots lying in the anomalous mass when superim-
posed on the dot chart.
doublet 104 drag window
hyperbolic single-square-root equation for a zero- used as the reference electrode instead of a reference
offset CMP section, electrode at the surface. Used in the case of bad SP
interference from electrical surface facilities or telluric
t h/V 2 4m 2 /V 2 1/2 . currents. Also called a bridal.
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DMO processing transforms a Cheops pyramid so that downhole method: 1. Measuring near-surface velocity
a cylindrical hyperbola see Figure D-20d is obtained with geophones or hydrophones in a borehole and a
after normal moveout correction with the correct veloc- source on or near the surface. 2. Engineering seismol-
ity. After a transformation yUt that constitutes slic- ogy measurement of P-and S-wave velocities using a
ing the pyramid by radial planes containing the x-axis, source at the surface and a clamped triaxial geophone in
NMO can be applied correctly. a borehole. S-wave energy is often enhanced by use of
doublet: dub lit 1. Two closely spaced peaks on a directional sources. 3. Induced-polarization method that
seismic trace, between which the trace does not cross explores the region near a drill hole using a single
the zero-amplitude axis. 2. A two-stick wavelet a,b, potential or current electrode in the drill hole and other
whose z-transform is abz. If a b , a,b is mini- electrodes on the ground surface. Compare in-hole IP
mum phase; if a b , maximum phase. Sometimes method.
called a dipole. 3. See doublet modulation. 4. The first downhole motor: A method for rotating drill bits without
derivative of the Dirac delta function. rotating the entire drill string. Used to drill horizontal
doublet filter: A digital filter containing only two nonzero holes, laterals, etc.
values, such as the differentiating filter 1, 1. downhole source: A seismic source located in a borehole.
double time slice: Two time slices at nearby times dis- downlap: Angular termination of a reflection event in the
played together but in different colors, so that the dip down-dip direction against an older reflector; the termi-
direction and magnitude is evident. Also called a dip or nal event in a clinoform. See Figures R-8 and S-32.
two-level time slice. See Figure D-18b. downlap surface: An unconformity characterized by the
double refraction: See birefringence. events above it downlapping onto it. Occurs in the
doublet modulation: A phase-modulation scheme. Used middle of a seismic sequence, usually within fine grain
to encode the message broadcast in transit satellite sediments. See Figure S-32a.
navigation. A phase shift of 60 for 2.5 ms Figure download: To retrieve files and applications from the
D-23 is followed by a phase shift of 60 so that there Internet.
is no net phase shift. A bit consists of two such doublets downscaling: Making units smaller to show more detail.
in opposite sense following each other by 5 ms. downstairs: In the denominator of a fraction.
double 2-D migration: Migration by first migrating in downstream: Refining, marketing, and transportation
one direction and then migrating this intermediate operations, as opposed to upstream operations of
result in the cross direction to approximate 3D migra- exploration and production.
tion. downsweep: Vibroseis sweep in which the frequency
double zig-zag: A recording geometry involving two zig- decreases with time.
zag paths for the sources. downtime: Time when data is not being recorded.
Douglas sea state: A scale of sea wave heights. See downward continuation: 1. Determining the value of a
Figure B-2. potential e.g., gravitational field at a lower elevation
downbuilding: The concept that a salt structure does not from values measured at a higher elevation, based on
pierce its way up through the sediments but rather that the field continuity. A potential field is not continuous
the salt stays relatively stationary while the sediments across the boundaries of anomalous masses. As the
around it subside. depth from which an anomaly originates is approached,
downdip: The direction of the gradient, e.g., the direction its expression becomes sharper and tends to outline the
of surveying in which reflectors or refractors dip toward mass better until its depth is reached; beyond this point
the geophones. the field computed by continuation becomes erratic.
downhole: Measurements made in a borehole. Noise data often precludes successful application.
downhole ground: A long electrode often attached to the Sometimes used in depth estimation. See continuation.
logging cable some distance perhaps 100 ft above an 2. Calculating over a surface at depth the values of any
electrical logging sonde or hung just below the casing, quantity that can be determined from shallower mea-
surements. Often refers to calculating the seismic wave-
field at depth, as is done in finite-difference migration.
DOWS: Downhole Oil-Water Separator.
dowser: dou zr One engaged in divining q.v..
drag: 1. See drag window. 2. To pull a seismic cable into
position, especially a seafloor cable. 3. The movement
of vibroseis sources between stations of a single source
array.
drag bit: A type of drill bit q.v. characterized by fixed
teeth. See Figure D-26a.
drag window: A rectangle of data on a monitor screen
that can be selected and then moved about on the
screen; see Figure D-24. Used to determine how pat-
FIG. D-23. Doublet phase-modulation code used for the terns of events correlate across faults, from line to line,
message from some navigation satellites. etc.
drainage 105 drape planting
drainage: The region around a borehole from which fluids cable into place rather than drag it into place.
are being produced. draped image: A display in which one quantity often
drape: 1. Sag in bedding around a feature such as a reef, shown in color is superimposed on the display of
usually as a consequence of differential compaction, another quantity.
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sometimes because of initial dip. 2. To drop a bottom drape planting: Geophones in an ocean-bottom cable
FIG. D-24. Drag windows allow data from different parts of a display to be moved to a different region to aid in
correlating, such as across faults. a Two drag windows at the bottom have been enlarged (zoomed) and juxtaposed.
b Sometimes a small portion of a display (the left rectangle) is moved to another part of a section to see how it
matches. (Courtesy G.S.I.)
drape survey 106 drill
dropped onto the seafloor rather than dragged into of glacial deposits. Glacial drift may vary with position
place. and hence may require a variable correction on seismic
drape survey: An airborne geophysical survey flown at a records, the effect being similar to that of a weathering
somewhat smoothed constant distance above the sur- layer. Drift often requires a double-layer weathering
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face rather than at a constant elevation above mean sea correction part for the entire drift layer and part for the
level. lower-velocity layer of the top part of the drift. 3. The
draw-down test: Observing the lowering of pressure as a attitude of a borehole. The drift angle or hole devia-
well produces fluids. tion is the angle between the borehole axis and the
drawworks: The lifting equipment for pulling the wire vertical; the drift azimuth is the angle between a
ropes, usually located on the floor of a drill rig. vertical plane through the borehole and north. 4. A
drift: 1. A gradual and unintentional change in the refer- shoran measurement of location with respect to one
ence value with respect to which measurements are fixed point. Measurement with respect to a second fixed
made. If drift is slow and fairly uniform in time, the point is called rate or range. Both drift and rate values
difference produced by drift can be determined by are necessary to establish a fix. 5. A horizontal opening
subsequently rereading the value of the quantity being driven from a shaft to an ore body, generally along
measured and prorating the difference over other read- strike. Crosscuts are driven from it. 6. In geostatistical
ings made in between. Gravity-meter drift may be analysis, a trend in data.
caused by gradual heating up of the meter as the day drill: A device for boring holes. Seismic shot-hole drills
progresses, creep in the spring, elastic aging, hyster- are usually mechanically driven rotary drills see Figure
esis, lunar tide, etc. Drift is different from tare, which D-25, often truck mounted but at times portable. They
is a sharp, sudden change in reference value. 2. A layer generally include the same elements as used for drilling
oil wells see drill rig and Figure D-28, a means for The log consists of self-potential SP and short and
rotating the drill pipe and a pump for circulating a fluid long normals. The tool is lowered through the drill pipe
mud. Water jets, auger, spudder q.v. or percussion and the flexible electrode assembly is pumped out
cable tools, and air-blast equipment are also used through a port in the bit. The log is recorded by a tape
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under certain conditions. recorder within the tool during the process of coming
drill bit: The element on the end of a drill pipe that out of the hole. The tape is played back to obtain the
actually does the cutting see Figure D-26. Drill bit log. Welex tradename.
diameters are often 12.25 in. 31 cm, 8.5 in. 21 cm, drill rig: The equipment for rotary drilling a borehole
or 6 in. 15 cm. A drag bit or fish-tail bit has teeth that Figure D-28. Usually consists of hoisting, rotating,
cut and tear soft formations as the bit is rotated. A roller circulation, blow-out prevention, and power systems.
bit has hardened teeth on wheels that alternately put Hoisting usually involves a derrick generally
formations under pressure and relieve the pressure, assembled at the site or a mast mostly preassembled
which causes rock pieces to flake off. A diamond bit topped with a crown block an assembly of pulleys or
uses industrial diamonds set into the cutting surfaces to sheaves and a traveling block a pulley assembly that
drill very hard formations. Core bits are designed to can move up and down that supports the swivel that
retrieve rock cores. allows the kelly to rotate freely. Drawworks for pull-
drill-bit seismic: Use of drill-bit noise as a seismic ing the wire ropes are usually located on the rig floor. A
source. See Tomex. rotary table and kelly bushing to rotate the kelly and
drill collar: See drill rig and Figure D-27. drill stem is usually located in the center of the rig floor.
drillers log: A record that describes formations encoun- The kelly is a heavy steel pipe often square or hexago-
tered and their depths. Lists the drilling time relative to nal in shape that passes through the rotary table and is
depth, usually in 5- to 10-ft intervals. connected to the drill stem; it transmits torque from the
drillers report: A record of what happened during each kelly bushing to rotate the drill stem drill pipe. The
shift tour: footage drilled, tests run, unusual circum- rig floor is usually elevated to leave room for blow-out
stances, etc. preventors valves that can be closed in event high-
drilling: 1. Making a borehole; see drill and drill rig. 2. pressure fluids threaten to eject material from the bore-
Electric drillingsounding q.v.. hole. A drill bit q.v.; see Figure D-26 to cut or bore
drilling break: A sudden increase or decrease in the rate the hole is located at the lower end of the drill stem. A
of penetration by the drill bit. It sometimes indicates heavy drill collar to put weight on the bit is located
that the bit has penetrated a high-pressure zone and thus immediately above the bit and additional down-hole
warns of the possibility of a blowout. tools are often located immediately above the drill
drilling recorder: An instrument that records hook load, collar Figure D-27. Circulation is accomplished by
penetration rate, rotary speed and torque, pump rate and pumping fluid mud, q.v. down through the drill stem
pressure, mud flow, and so forth, during drilling. and bit and up in the annulus surrounding the drill stem.
drilling-time log: A record of the time to drill a unit The mud that emerges from the annulus is sampled, its
thickness of formation. viscosity and density are measured, and gas and matter
drill pipe: The pipe that is rotated by a drill, to which a bit suspended in the mud are removed to clean up the mud
is attached and through which the drilling fluid circu- and condition it for being pumped back through the
lates. drill stem. Other types of drills are also used, including
drill-pipe log: A well log that is obtained from an instru- the use of downhole motors often powered by the
ment that has a self-contained recording mechanism. circulating mud.
FIG. D-26. Drill bits. a Drag bit or fishtail bit; the teeth on drag bits tear into soft formations like sand and clay as the
drill stem is rotated. b Rock bit or roller bit; teeth on rock bits are on wheels that turn as the drill stem is rotated, so that
they alternately put pressure on the rock and relieve the pressure, which causes rock pieces to flake off. c Diamond
bits containing diamonds embedded in the bottom can be used in very hard formations.
drillstem 108 dual polarity display
drillstem: The length of tubular pipes that make up the seismic wave; see thumper. 2. To eliminate, as in drop-
drilling assembly from the surface to the bottom of the out q.v..
hole. Composed of the kelly, the drill pipe, and drill drop-dead time: The latest time when something must be
collars. done to affect an outcome.
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drillstem test: A procedure for determining the potential dropout: A loss of information upon reading or writing on
productivity of a reservoir while the drillstem and mud magnetic tape. Usually caused by defects in the mag-
are in the uncased borehole. The tool includes packers netic tape or dirt on the tape surface or recording head.
to isolate the section to be tested, a chamber to collect dropped coverage: Portion of a seismic line not shot,
the formation fluid, and a pressure-measuring device. usually for permit or access reasons or because of
After the packer is set, a port on the tool allows the danger of doing damage.
trapped pressure to bleed off, exposing the formation to drop-point: 1. The surface location where a weight drop
atmospheric pressure and allowing the well to produce. occurs, usually simply called a source point. See
Hydrostatic, flow, and shut-in pressures are recorded. thumper. 2. The point where one drops an ocean-
drill string: Drillstem q.v.. bottom seismometer or ocean-bottom cable.
drive: The energy source that causes fluids to flow. Natu- drop rate: The rate of decrease of deviation in the curved
ral drives include expansion of a gas cap, gas coming part of a deviated hole; often measured in degrees/100
out of solution as the pressure is lowered solution ft. Antonym: build rate.
drive, water drive, and gravity drive. Natural drives are drowning: A term for depositional environment changes
supplemented by secondary and enhanced recovery that stop reef growth, usually turbidity, temperature
efforts; see secondary recovery and enhanced oil recov- change, areal exposure, hardly ever excessive water
ery EOR. depth since reef growth can be extremely rapid.
driver: Operating-system software that controls a periph- drum: 1. A 50 or 55 gallon steel container for liquids. 2. A
eral attached device such as a printer or tape drive.
cylinder upon which wire rope is wound.
DRM: Depositional or Detrital Remanent Magnetiza-
drunkards walk: A simulated annealing algorithm to
tion; see remanent magnetization.
find an optimum in model space by sometimes taking
dromochrone: dro , m chro
n A time-distance curve, as
steps in random fashion but gradually biasing the walk
for first arrivals. From the Greek for running time.
by taking more steps in the uphill direction assum-
drop: 1. To drop a weight on the ground to generate a
ing a maximum is sought.
dry: Incapable of producing hydrocarbons.
dry gas: Gas containing less than 3 gallons/MCF of con-
densable hydrocarbons.
dry hole: 1. A well judged to be incapable of producing
oil, gas, or geothermal fluids in economic quantities.
Operations on such a hole are terminated by its being
plugged and abandoned abbreviated P&A instead
of being completed. 2. Any unprofitable exploration
venture.
dry steam: 1. Steam that lies above the vapor curve for
water, that is, has an enthalpy greater than that for
equilibrium with water at the existing pressure. 2.
Where the total mass is all steam. See steam quality.
DSDP: Deep Sea Drilling Project.
DSO: Digital Storage Oscilloscope.
DSS: Deep Seismic Sounding q.v..
DST: DrillStem Test q.v..
DTL: Diode Transistor Logic q.v..
dual completion: A well in which two separate forma-
tions can be produced at the same time without mixing
their fluids.
dual induction log: An induction log q.v. consisting of
two induction curves with different depths of investi-
gation. Usually run with a resistivity device that has a
shallow depth of investigation, such as a shallow Lat-
erolog or spherically focused log. Dual induction tools
operate around 20 kHz and measure phase and ampli-
tude. Also known as Dual-Phase Induction Log Baker
Atlas tradename. Now superceded by the array induc-
tion log q.v..
dual polarity display: A section or map on which both
FIG. D-27. Drill-collar usage. A heavy drill collar puts peaks and troughs are shown without one predominat-
weight on the bit without bending the drill pipe. Increasing ing as happens on variable area displays where the
the weight on the drill bit by pushing on the drill stem might peaks are usually shaded while the troughs remain
cause it to bend, resulting in a crooked hole. unshaded. Troughs may be colored red and peaks blue
dual recording 109 dummy variable
or black, or some other combination of colors may be recorded separately at each receiver station and are
used. combined in processing to attenuate ghost reflections
dual recording: Parallel recording from the same input and water-column reverberation.
data. dual-vessel operation: Marine survey using more than
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FIG. D-28. Drill rig. A drilling rig includes component systems for hoisting the drill pipe and other equipment, a system
for delivering energy to (and rotating) the drill bit, and a circulation system for removing rock fragments, plastering the
drill hole, controlling formation pressure, cooling the bit, etc. (From Gerding, 1986, 112.)
dump 110 dynamic gravity
data storage such as a magnetic tape. 2. Unintentional Greek for powerful; in contrast to kinetic, from the
shutdown of a computer, as by loss of power. Greek for motion.
duplex: Simultaneous and independent transfer of data in dynamic bin: A term used in marine data collection for a
both directions. Compare half-duplex and simplex. data window that varies dynamically with the line spac-
duplication check: See check. ing.
duricrust: dur krst A resistive, hard crust formed on
dynamic correction: Normal-moveout corrections q.v.;
the surface of soil in semi-arid climates by minerals that
which depend on record time.
move upward by capillary action of groundwater and
are then deposited as the water evaporates. dynamic correlation: A velocity-analysis operation that
duty cycle: 1. The proportion of time a switch is on. 2. involves cross-correlating traces for different offsets,
The percent of time in which current is delivered during summing the cross-correlations for similar pairs of
a complete cycle of a transmitter such as an IP trans- traces over a number of nearby subsurface points, dis-
mitter. playing the cross-correlations for successive differences
DVD: Digital Video Disc. A storage device with about 10 of offset squared, picking alignments on this display,
times the capacity of a CD. and computing the residual normal moveout and stack-
dwell: The additional sweep effort applied to high fre- ing velocity for such alignments.
quencies in nonlinear sweeps. dynamic equalization: Adjusting the gain of different
DWT: A Deep Well Thermometer, a sonde for recording time windows so that all are comparable.
temperature logs. dynamic gravity: Gravity measurements made from a
FIG. D-29. Dynamic range concerns the magnitude of signals that can be recorded and recovered faithfully. For a
binary-gain recording system, the shaded area represents nonrecoverable signals.
dynamic memory 111 dynode
moving platform, such as a surface ship at sea or an cess rather than the recording equipment only. 3. For
aircraft. direct recording magnetic tape, the noise level is for
dynamic memory: A type of semiconductor memory in unrecorded tape; bandwidth should be specified
which the presence or absence of a capacitive charge because selected narrow bandwidths may give
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represents the state of a binary storage element. The improved dynamic range. The maximum range of stan-
charge must be refreshed periodically. dard magnetic tape is about 50 dB, of high output tape
dynamic positioning: Remaining at the same location by about 60 dB. 4. Instantaneous dynamic range or
powering motors that receive their instructions from significance is the smallest signal that will cause a
navigation readings such as GPS. measurable change in the presence of a large signal.
dynamic range: 1. The ratio of the maximum reading to Word length imposes a limitation 14 bits represents
the minimum reading the minimum often being the about 84 dB.
noise level which can be recorded by and read from an dynamic resolution: To read a weak signal in presence of
instrument without change of scale. 2. The ability of a large signal; see dynamic range and resolution.
system to record very large and very small amplitude dynamic similarity: A ratio of masses, involved in physi-
signals and subsequently recover them. The smallest cal modeling. See modeling theory.
recoverable signal is often taken to be the noise level of dynamic structure: A data structure that may expand or
the system, and dynamic range as the ratio of the largest contract during execution of a program.
signal that can be recorded with no more than a fixed dynamite: A high explosive, originally one made with
amount of distortion often 1 to 3% to the rms noise; nitroglycerin and a cellulose material, but now used for
see Figure D-29. However, sometimes signals that are any high explosive.
buried in the noise can be extracted. The definition dynode: d no
d An intermediate electrode in a photo-
sometimes considers the entire signal extraction pro- multiplier q.v.. See Figure S-2.
E
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E: 1. Exa, the SI prefix for 10 18 . 2. The electric field structure that generated the wave pattern. See hologra-
vector. phy and Hoover 1972.
: Epsilon q.v.. 1. Dielectric permittivity; see Maxwells Earths magnetic field: See magnetic field of the Earth
equations. 2. One of the Thomsen anisotropic param- and normal magnetic field.
eters q.v.. Earth model: A numerical representation of some prop-
: Eta q.v.. 1. Electric susceptibility q.v.. 2. One of the erty e.g., seismic velocity or density as a function of
Thomsen anisotropic parameters q.v.. location. Geophysical models of the whole Earth often
EAGESEG 3D models: See SEG/EAGE 3D models and assume that it consists of concentric, homogeneous, and
Figure S-3. isotropic layers within each of which the velocity varies
E&P: Exploration and Production. smoothly. The deeper layering and variation of physical
early-time apparent resistivity: See apparent resistivity. properties with depth is indicated in Figure E-1. Ray-
earth, Earth: 1. Ground or soil, the solid component of paths and wavefronts for direct P-waves are shown in
the Earth. 2. Ground potential; the electrical reference Figure E-2.
potential. 3. Capitalized when it means the third planet earthquake: Sudden movement of the earth resulting
in the solar system. from the abrupt release of accumulated strain, usually a
Earths gravity field: The field varies from about 978 000 result of faulting or volcanism. An earthquake is clas-
mGal at the equator to 983 000 mGal at the poles. See sified according to the depth of its focus or hypocenter:
International gravity formula and gravitational con- shallow 60 km, intermediate 300 km, deep
stant. 300 km (sometimes450 km). The seismicity of
earth holography: rth ho Recording of the
log r fe an area is its likelihood of having earthquakes. Some of
wave pattern from a constant frequency source along the energy released in an earthquake is radiated as
with a reference wave. The resulting hologram can be seismic energy. Intensity is a measure of the effects of
viewed by light to allow one to see in 3D the the ground motion at a specific locality; magnitude is a
FIG. E-1. Earth layering. a Terminology. b Variation of physical properties with depth within the Earth. P
pressure in 10 11 Pa, density in g/cm3, S-wave velocity in km/s, P-wave velocity in km/s, Ggravity in Gal,
Ttemperature in K. The dashed curve represents the solidus in the core. (After Haddon and Bullen, 1969.)
112
earthquake prediction 113 eccentricity
measure of the energy released in an earthquake; see gravitational effects. Produces displacements of the
intensity scale and magnitude of earthquake. solid Earth up to about 10 cm and creates up to 0.20.3
earthquake prediction: The aspect of seismology that mGal gravity effect.
deals with the conditions or indications that precede an easting: 1. Distance east of a reference line. See depar-
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earthquake, with the objective of predicting the magni- ture. In the Universal Transverse Mercator system
tude, time, and location of an impending shock. q.v. each standard meridian is assigned the value 500
earthquake seismology: Study of earthquakes and their 000 m so that distances west of it will have positive
resulting seismic waves as a means of understanding values; this is called false easting. 3. Component of a
the structure of the Earth. A schematic seismic record survey leg in the east direction.
showing several of the wave arrivals from an earth- EBCDIC: Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange
quake is shown in Figure E-3. The scheme for identi- Code, a computer code for character symbols. Used
fying different arrivals is discussed under wave notation mainly on IBM mainframe computers.
q.v.. The time intervals between different arrivals eccentering arm: A device that presses a well-logging
depend upon the distance from the earthquake hypo- sonde against the borehole wall. See Figure D-5a.
center to the observing station; see Jeffreys-Bullen eccentricity: ek, sen tris t 1. The ratio of the focus-
curves. to-center distance to the length of the semimajor axis
Earth tide: Deformation because of Earth-Moon-Sun for an ellipse; see Figure E-12. 2. The condition occur-
FIG. E-2. a Earthquake wavefronts and raypaths for direct P-waves. (From Gutenberg 1959.) b Raypaths for some
reflected and refracted waves illustrating wave nomenclature. See also wave notation.
Eccles-Jordan trigger 114 effort
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FIG. E-3. Earthquake seimogram schematic (a) The vertical component; (b) one horizontal component.
ring when the source is not located at or perpendicu- as headers, process parameters, or instructions, break-
larly offset to the center of what is intended to be a ing the data up into blocks gapping, etc. Editing may
split spread. This occurs on marine records when a involve some calculations such as removing the effects
separate source boat is employed. of the gain changes that were made in recording and
Eccles-Jordan trigger: ek lz jord n A flip-flop q.v. substituting a correction for spherical divergence. It
device. may include static-shift and normal-moveout correc-
ECF: Elevation Correction Factor. See elevation correc- tions. 2. The removal of data that are judged not to be
tion. members of the set to be analyzed perhaps because a
echelon: esh lon A staggered arrangement of parallel measurement does not fit with other data, e.g., the
features; see Figure E-4. Usually called en echelon. removal from navigation-satellite data of Doppler
echo check: See check. counts for which the satellite was low in the sky.
echogram: An echo sounder or fathometer record. editor: A program that permits a user to create new files or
echo logging: Ultrasonic surveying of a cavity such as a to modify existing files.
storage reservoir in a salt dome. EDM: Electronic Distance Measurement.
echo sounder: Fathometer q.v.. eel: el An array of hydrophones in a separate cable. A
ecliptic: i klip tik The apparent annual path of the Sun tube containing a hydrophone group fastened to a
among the stars. The plane of the Earths orbit and the streamer that floats on the surface or to a cable that is
approximate plane of the solar system. laid on or dragged along the sea floor. With a surface
ecliptic coordinates: Celestial latitude and celestial longi- streamer, this permits the hydrophones to be deep
tude. enough in the water to improve their response and still
economic basement: See basement. remove them from surface noise while keeping the
EDA: Extensive Dilatancy Anisotropy. See anisotropy streamer above obstacles such as reefs or wrecks that
(seismic). would threaten it if it were deeper in the water or
eddy current: ed e A circulating electrical current dragged along the sea floor. With a bottom cable, eels
induced in a conductive body by a time-varying mag- allow use of a light cable and modular replacement of
netic field. Lenzs law states that the direction of eddy arrays, and it permits the hydrophones to float above
current flow is such as to produce a secondary magnetic the bottom so that they have good uniform coupling.
field that opposes the primary field. The secondary field EEZ: Exclusive Economic Zone, a marine area where
has a quadrature component that depends on the ratio of mineral exploration/exploitation activities are reserved
the resistance to the reactance of the eddy-current path. to the adjacent country but that is generally open to
In electromagnetic prospecting, eddy currents should be shipping.
distinguished from naturally occurring currents or those effective aperture: See aperture.
of natural electrochemical origin. effective array length: See array (seismic).
edge detection: Processing to emphasize edge disconti- effective bandwidth: See bandwidth.
nuities. effective depth: Skin depth q.v..
edge effects: Distortions at the edge of a domain that are effective permeability: The presence of one fluid effec-
artifacts of the implicit assumptions of a numerical tively changes the permeability to another fluid, hence
algorithm or of the limited span of data used to solve the effective permeability of fluids depends on their
the problem. Common in computer contouring. relative saturations.
edit: To prepare data, text, etc. for processing. 1. Specifi- effective porosity: Connected porosity through which
cally, to prepare a digital tape containing geophysical pore fluids can flow freely. See porosity.
information. Editing often involves rearranging data effective pressure: Differential pressure q.v..
reformatting, testing data validity, deleting unwanted effective stress: Differential pressure q.v..
data killing, selection of data, insertion of data such efferent: Opposite of afferent q.v..
E-field ratio telluric method: See telluric profiling.
effort: The number of separate elements combined
together to produce the final product. For example, the
number of separate raypaths that are combined, that is,
the number of energy sources holes, thumps, pops,
etc. per source point times the number of geophones
FIG. E-4. Echelon arrangement. per group times the number of records stacked or
Eh 115 elastic constants, elastic moduli
eigenfrequency: See eigenfunction. small within a wavelength, sometimes called the high-
eigenfunction: gn fun, shn One of a set of functions frequency condition.
that satisfies both a differential equation and a set of eikonal traveltimes: Depth-migration operators.
boundary conditions. For example, a stretched string or elastic: e
las tik The ability to return to its original
an organ pipe might vibrate in a number of modes, each shape after removal of a distorting stress. The return of
with a characteristic frequency eigenfrequency, eigen- shape is complete and essentially instantaneous rather
value, or characteristic root. The superposition of than gradual.
these eigenfunctions is the general solution. The eigen- elastic afterworking: Slow creep following the cessation
functions corresponding to different eigenvalues are of a stress.
orthogonal or independent. Eigen is German for elastic binning: Flex binning q.v., filling out missing
characteristic. elements in a bin especially offset elements using
eigenstate: The condition of a system represented by one elements in surrounding bins.
eigenfunction q.v.. elastic constants, elastic moduli: Elasticity deals with
eigenvalue: gn val, yoo See eigenfunction. deformations that vanish entirely upon removal of the
eigenvector: A nonzero vector whose direction is not stresses that cause them. For small deformations,
changed in a linear transformation in multicomponent Hookes law holds and strain is proportional to stress.
parameter space. The multicomponents distinguish the The passage of a low-amplitude seismic wave is an
mode of the system. Also called a characteristic vec- example. The general elasticity tensor relating stress
tor. and strain can be expressed as a matrix equation Figure
eikonal equation: ko n l A form of the wave equation H-7. In anisotropic media this tensor possesses up to
for harmonic waves in which the local velocity V is 18 21 independent constants. In transversely isotro-
compared to a reference velocity V R analogous to pic media where properties are the same measured in
comparing a velocity to the speed of light in vacuum: two orthogonal directions but different in the third,
FIG. E-5. Elastic constants for isotropic media expressed in terms of each other and P- and S-wave velocities (
V P and V S ,) and density .
elastic deformation 116 Elastic wave generator
these reduce to five independent constants see also that the elasticity tensor is a 4th rank tensor. However,
Thomsen parameters. Isotropic media where proper- because of symmetry, stress and strain can each be
ties are the same measured in any direction have only expressed as 6 1 vectors so that the elasticity tensor
two independent elastic constants. The stress-strain can be expressed as a 6 6 matrix. See Figure H-7.
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properties of isotropic materials that obey Hookes law elastic limit: The greatest stress that can be applied with-
are specified by elastic moduli Figure E-6. out causing permanent deformation.
elastic deformation: A nonpermanent deformation; the elastic medium: A material that supports both P- and
body returns to its original shape when the stress is S-wave travel.
released. Often limited to deformations in which stress elastic moduli: Elastic constants q.v..
and strain are linearly related in accordance with elastic rebound: The sudden release of energy that has
Hookes law. been gradually stored as strain energy because a fault
elastic impedance: Acoustic impedance q.v. that is angle was locked; the cause of an earthquake.
dependent, generally determined from the gradient of elastic wave: A seismic wave, including both P- and
an AVO plot. S-waves.
elasticity tensor: The Hookes law relationship between Elastic wave generator: An impulsive seismic energy
stress and strain, each of which are 2nd rank tensors, so source that involves a spring-powered rubber mecha-
nism that accelerates a 550 lb mass against a ground- elements connected in a parallel-series arrangement so
coupled baseplate. Trade name of Bison Instruments that the apparent impedance is the same as that of a
Inc. single element; see Figure E-9.
elastodynamic modeling: Seismic modeling that includes electric current: Types of electric circuits encountered in
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electrical basement: See basement.
electrical imager: See: electric imager. EdI /t.
electrical imaging: Inversion of a pseudosection to an
estimate of subsurface distribution of electrical conduc- It is also expressed in terms of the change in the
tivity. A nonunique process. magnetic induction B with time t:
electrical methods and units: See Figures E-7 and E-8.
electrically square: Consisting of a number of similar EB/t.
electric imager: A logging tool that has numerous elec- additive. See also SSP and electrokinetic potential.
trodes in the form of small buttons on multiple pads. electrode: 1. A piece of metallic material that is used as an
The pads are pressed against the formation while the electric contact with a nonmetal. Can refer to a ground-
tool is being logged. The image is used for dip analysis ing contact, to metallic minerals in a rock, or to electric
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and to determine formation fractures and vugs. See contacts in laboratory equipment. 2. Porous pot q.v..
Figure I-1 and formation microimager (FMI). electrode array: See array (electrical).
electric log: 1. A generic term including all electrical electrode equilibrium potential: The reversible no
borehole logs SP, normal, lateral, laterologs, induction, energy loss equilibrium potential across the interface
microresistivity logs, electrical image log, through- between an electrode and an electrolyte, measurable
casing resistivity log. Two basic electrode configura- when no current passes through the interface. Measured
tions are shown in Figure E-10. 2. Records of surface as the voltage difference between a reference electrode
resistivity surveying; compare electric survey. 3. Elec- and the electrode in question. It is primarily caused by
trolog, a borehole log that usually consists of SP and the free energy of the electron-transfer process.
two or more resistivity logs, such as short and long electrode impedance: 1. In electrochemistry, the total
normal and long lateral logs. Electrolog is a Dresser impedance across the interface between an electrode
Atlas tradename. and an electrolyte. The equivalent-circuit model
electric match: The part of a blasting cap that ignites includes solution resistance, capacitances in the fixed
when heated by an electric current passing through a and diffuse layers, and Warburg impedance. 2. In
wire imbedded in it. electrical-circuit theory, the self-impedance of a single
electric potentials: Electric potentials involved in geo- electrode or the mutual-impedance between electrodes.
physics include the zeta adsorption potential, liquid- electrode polarization: 1. In electrochemistry, an elec-
junction diffusion and shale Mounce or Nernst trode is polarized if its potential deviates from the
potentials see electrochemical SP, electrolytic contact reversible or equilibrium value. 2. Polarization also can
potential, electrokinetic streaming potential, and be induced because of the passage of current through an
polarization potential see IP. See italicized entries. interface or to a change in ion concentration at an
electric profiling: An IP, resistivity, or electromagnetic electrode surface. The amount of extra polarization is
method using fixed spacing of electrodes or antennas in the overvoltage or induced polarization of the elec-
which the measuring system is moved progressively trode.
along profile lines to detect resistivity changes along electrode potential: See electrode equilibrium potential.
the profiles. See moving source method. electrode resistance: The electric resistance between an
electric sounding: A dc resistivity or IP method in which electrode and the immediate surroundings; sometimes
electrode spacing is increased to obtain information called contact resistance, self resistance, grounding
from successively greater depths at a given surface resistance, or mutual resistance, depending on the
location assuming horizontal layering. See also elec- situation.
tromagnetic sounding. electrodialysis: i lek, tro d al i sis Migration of charge
electric survey: 1. Measurements made at or near the through a membrane in an electric field.
earths surface of natural or induced electric fields, the electrodynamic geophone: i lek, tro d nam ik Moving-
objective usually being to map mineral concentrations coil geophone; see geophone.
or for geologic or basement mapping. See Figure E-7 electrofacies: The set of well-log responses that charac-
and electric profiling, electric sounding, electromag- terize a lithologic unit and permit that stratigraphic
netic method, induced-polarization method, magneto- interval to be correlated with, or distinguished from,
telluric method, resistivity method, self-potential others.
method, telluric current method. 2. Electric log q.v. electrokinetic potential: i lek, tro k net ik A voltage
run in a borehole. that results from flow of a fluid containing ions; stream-
electric susceptibility: The ratio of electric field to elec- ing potential q.v.. Application of a voltage also causes
tric polarization, the electrical analog of magnetic per- fluid flow.
meability. Symbol: . Electrolog: Electric log q.v.. Dresser-Atlas tradename.
electrochemical SP: The component of the SP self- electrolyte: i lek, tr lt or i lek, tro
lt 1. A material in
potential comprising the sum of the liquid-junction which the flow of electric current is accompanied by the
potential and the shale potential, both of which are movement of matter in the form of ions. 2. Any sub-
determined by the ratio of the activity of the formation stance that disassociates into ions.
water to that of the mud filtrate. The liquid-junction electrolytic contact potential: A potential developed
potential is produced at the contact between the inva- between dissimilar metals when immersed in an elec-
sion filtrate and the formation water as a result of trolyte.
differences in ion diffusion rates from a more concen- electrolytic polarization: Membrane polarization q.v..
trated to a more dilute solution concentration cell. electrolytic tank: A container holding a conductive solu-
Negatively charged chloride ions have greater mobility tion in which electric model experiments can be carried
than positive sodium ions and an excess negative out. See analog modeling.
charge tends to cross the boundary, resulting in a poten- electromagnetic array profiling EMAP: 1. Electro-
tial difference. The shale potential also called the magnetic measurements, airborne or ground, using a
shale membrane, Nernst, or Mounce potential multiplicity of transmitters and/or receivers in an
results because shale acts as a cationic membrane per- invariant configuration. 2. A variant of the magnetotel-
mitting sodium cations to flow through it but not chlo- luric method q.v. where electric field measurements
ride anions. The liquid-junction and shale potentials are along a profile are made in a continuous fashion. Data
electromagnetic coupling 119 elliptical polarization
is then processed to remove the effects of near-surface separation in an electrolyte by osmotic action.
inhomogeneities. See Bostick 1986. electrostatic plotter: i lek, tro stat ik A rastor-oriented
electromagnetic coupling: See coupling. plotter in which the image is produced by implanting an
electromagnetic method EM method: i lek, tro mag electrostatic charge on the medium paper or film that
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net ik A method in which the magnetic and/or electric is then passed through a toner the fine black powder
fields associated with artificially generated subsurface that makes the image readable.
currents are measured. In general, electromagnetic electrostrictive: i lek, tr strik tiv The property of a
methods are considered to be those in which the electric material that causes it to change dimensions when
and magnetic fields in the earth satisfy the diffusion subject to an electric field. See piezoelectric.
equation which ignores displacement currents but not elevation angle: In transit satellite navigation, the angle
Laplaces equation which ignores induction effects measured from horizontal at the receiver location to a
nor the wave equation which includes displacement satellite. Satellite passes are often designated by the
currents. One normally excludes methods such as elevation angle at closest approach.
ground-penetrating radar q.v. that use microwave or elevation correction: 1. The correction applied to reflec-
higher frequencies and which consequently have little tion or refraction arrival times to reduce observations to
effective penetration and methods that use dc or very a common reference datum. 2. In gravity, the sum of the
low frequencies where induction effects are not impor- free-air and Bouguer corrections. The elevation correc-
tant resistivity and IP methods. Natural field meth- tion is obtained by multiplying the difference between
ods such as Afmag and magnetotellurics employ natu- station and reference elevation by the elevation correc-
ral energy as the source; controlled source tion factor ECF: ECF(0.094060.01278 )
electromagnetis methods CSEM such as loop-loop mGal/ft(0.30860.04192 ) mGal/m, where
techniques require a man-made source. See Figure density in g/cm3.
E-7. elevation correction factor ECF: See elevation correc-
electromagnetic propagation tool EPT: A tool that tion.
measures the velocity and attenuation of EM waves elevation datum: See datum.
using microwaves. Occasionally used to identify hydro- ELF: Extremely Low Frequency; electromagnetic energy
carbon zones. between 300 and 3000 Hz. Natural energy in this band
electromagnetic radiation: Energy propagated through originates most often from lightning strikes. See sferics
space or material in the form of an advancing interac- and Figure E-11.
tion between electric and magnetic fields. ELFAST: Multifrequency version of Turam method q.v..
electromagnetic sounding: An electromagnetic technique ellipse: i lips A conic section; see Figure C-12 and
designed to determine variations in electrical conduc- E-12.
tivity with depth, usually assuming horizontal layering. ellipse area: A quantity measured in telluric surveys that
Measurements are usually made at a number of fre- can be interpreted in terms of variations in earth resis-
quencies in frequency-domain sounding or at sev- tivity.
eral time intervals after a transient pulse in time- ellipse of polarization: See polarization ellipse.
domain or transient electromagnetic sounding using ellipsoid: i lip soid A solid figure for which every plane
a fixed source and receiver. Soundings can also be cross-section is an ellipse. An ellipsoid of revolution
made at constant frequency by varying the spacing can be generated by rotating an ellipse about one of its
between source and receiver. See transient electromag- axes. An ellipsoid of revolution is usually used to
netic method and Spies and Frischknecht 1989 and approximate the geoid q.v.. Some standard ellipsoids
compare electric sounding. are listed in Figure G-2. See Geodetic Reference Sys-
electromagnetic spectrum: The range of frequencies or tem.
wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. See Figure ellipsoid of anisotropy: An equipotential surface about a
E-11. point current source in an anisotropic, homogeneous
electron density: Number of electrons per unit volume, medium. Such a surface is an ellipsoid of revolution,
including both free and orbital electrons that are part of whose flattening is the coefficient of anisotropy; see
atoms. See density log. anisotropy (seismic).
electronic: Relating to devices, circuits, or systems in elliptical anisotropy: The situation where a graph of seis-
which conduction is primarily by electrons moving mic velocity vs. azimuth has an elliptical shape.
through a vacuum, gas, semiconductor, or conductor. SH-waves in a transverse isometric medium exhibit
electronic conductor: A material such as a metal that elliptical anisotropy. P-or SV-waves, or waves in other
conducts electricity by virtue of electron mobility. See symmetry systems, generally do not involve elliptical
conductor. anisotropy except for special situations. Fitting a hyper-
electron-positron pair formation: Creation of an elec- bolic NMO equation to CMP data to obtain the stacking
tron and positron that may result from radiation or velocity of the horizontal component is equivalent to
collisions more energetic than 1 MeV. assuming an ellipsoidal wavefront. Nonelliptical wave-
electron-transfer reaction: An electrode surface phe- fronts yield offset-variable stacking velocities. See
nomenon involving an oxidation-reduction reaction, anisotropy, transverse isotropy, Figure A-14c, and Hel-
generating a Faradaic current. big 1983.
electron volt ev: The energy acquired by an electron by elliptical polarization: The situation where motion in two
accelerating through a one volt potential difference. orthogonal directions has the same frequency and a
electro-osmosis: 1. The phenomenon whereby an electric constant phase relationship; the hodograph has ellipti-
field moves a fluid through a membrane. 2. Charge cal shape.
ellipticity 120 endian
amplitudes and phases of two orthogonal components emission spectroscopy: Measuring the unique emission
of the magnetic field. lines of atomic species in an arc or plasma inductively-
E-log: Electric log q.v.. coupled plasma.
elongated charge: A long column of explosives used in emissivity: The ratio of radiation emitted to that of a
an effort to achieve directivity. Types used include blackbody at the same temperature.
sausage powder, Elcord delay units, acoustic delay empty hole: A borehole that is filled with air or gas.
units, and broomstick units. An elongated charge is EM 37: A shallow transient electromagnetic system devel-
designed to direct the input pulse downward by match- oped by Geonics Ltd. of Canada.
ing the effective detonation velocity to the formation emu: The cgs-ElectroMagnetic system of Units, which is
velocity. Its physical dimensions must be an appre- similar to the cgs-esu system except that practical
ciable fraction of a seismic wavelength to achieve sig- electrical units except for the abampere are used. See
nificant directivity. Figure E-8.
EM: ElectroMagnetic; see electromagnetic method. emulate: em yo la t, To have the same input/output
EMAP: ElectroMagnetic Array Profiling q.v.. characteristics as a different system so that, from a
emanometer: em, nom d r An instrument for mea- performance standpoint, it appears identical to the dif-
suring the radon content of water or soil. See radon ferent system except as regarding speed.
sniffer. emulator: A program or hardware device that duplicates
embedded wavelet: The wavelet shape that would result the instruction set of one computer on a different com-
from reflection of an actual wavetrain by a single sharp puter. It is used in program development for the emu-
interface with positive reflection coefficient. See con- lated computer when that computer is not available.
volutional model. Often called equivalent wavelet or EMW: Equivalent Mud Weight; see mud weight q.v..
basic wavelet. encapsulation: en kap su la
shn Modeling and imple-
EM coupling: See coupling. mentation technique that separates external aspects of
emergent angle: 1. The angle of a seismic ray on leaving an object from internal implementation details.
an interface. 2. The critical angle at which energy endian: en de n Refers to the byte and bit order of
emerges peels off from a refractor. multibyte quantities. Big Endian order means that the
k b 0 2 b 1 2 b 2 2 b 3 2 ...b n 2 k b i
2
,
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chemical methods for producing oil left behind in the reaction, according to the second law of thermody-
ground after primary and secondary recovery q.v.. namics. See thermodynamic functions and Figure T-2.
Thermal enhanced-recovery methods q.v. include 2. A set G has the entropy H(G):
steam stimulation huff and puff, steam flooding, and
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P m log
systems pressure and volume. The heat transferred
during an isobaric process equals the change in H i 2 P mi.
i
enthalpy. See thermodynamic functions and Figure T-2.
entity: Thing of significance, whether real or imagined, The entropy of a situation with no uncertainty is zero.
about which information needs to be known or held. Entropy is a measure of the average information con-
entropy: en tr pe 1. A thermodynamic quantity that tent of a message.
measures the unavailable energy. Higher entropy repre- envelope: The low-frequency curves encompassing or
sents increased disorder. Entropy never decreases in a bounding deflections of higher frequency. The curves
FIG. E-11. Electromagnetic spectrum. Designation of portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The blackened areas
in the right-hand graph show attenuation caused by atmospheric absorption. The window in the absorption spectrum at
V is visible light and window T is the thermal infrared window. In terms of energy, 10 6 m wavelength1 eV;
10 12 m1 keV; 1 m1 meV. (after Reeves et al., 1975, 54.)
envelope amplitude 123 equinoctial
are usually drawn by smoothly connecting adjacent Eo tvo s unit EU: et vos A unit of gravitational gradi-
peaks and adjacent troughs. See Figure C-11. ent or curvature; 10 6 mGal/cm.
envelope amplitude: See complex trace analysis and ana- EPA: Environmental Protection Agency, a U.S. govern-
lytic signal and Figure C-11. ment agency.
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environmental geophysics: The use of geophysical mea- epeiric sea: A sea on the continental shelf or continental
surements of part of the shallow earth to evaluate or interior.
help remediate problems in the Earths environment. epeirogenic: ep, i roj nik See tectonic types.
EOM: Equivalent Offset Migration EOM, a prestack E-phase VLF: An airborne electromagnetic method based
migration that forms common-scatter-point CSP gath- on a remote VLF transmitter that measures the quadra-
ers at each migrated trace location. Used to refine a ture component of the electric-field wavetilt. Barringer
velocity model for depth migration. tradename.
EOR: Enhancd Oil Recovery q.v.. ephemeral data: fem rl The part of the data broad-
Eo tvo s effect: t vsh The vertical component of a cast by a navigation satellite that varies with each
Coriolis acceleration observed when measuring gravity broadcast. The ephemeral data include the time since
while the measuring instrument is in motion with the hour or half hour and corrections to the satellite
respect to the Earth, as in dynamic gravity. The meters location; see Figure K-1.
velocity over the surface adds vectorially to the velocity ephemeris: fem rs Predicted position of celestial
because of the Earths rotation, varying the centrifugal and satellite bodies at a particular time.
acceleration and hence the apparent gravitational attrac- ephemeris time: i fem ris A table showing the posi-
tion. The Eo tvo s correction E in mGal for a meter tion of a body such as a navigation satellite at various
whose speed is V knots at an azimuth angle and times.
latitude is epicenter: ep i sen, tr The location on the Earths
surface below which the first motion in an earthquake
E7.503 V cos sin 0.004154 V 2 . occurs. Compare hypocenter.
EPIS: Exploration and Production Information System.
The Eo tvo s uncertainty dE in terms of direction uncer- epithermal neutron: ep, therm l A neutron with
tainty d and speed uncertainty dV is energy larger than the thermal range 0.025 eV; see
neutron log.
dE 7.503 V cos cos d Epoch: A geochronologic subdivision; see stratigraphic
classification.
7.503 cos sin 0.008308 V dV. E-polarization: See transverse electric.
EPROM: Erasable, Programmable, Read-Only Memory.
See Glicken 1962. Named for Baron Roland von epsilon : 1. Dielectric permittivity; see Maxwells equa-
Eo tvo s 1848 1919, Hungarian physicist. tions. 2. The fractional change in the P-wave velocity:
epsilon c 11 c 33 /2c 33 ) /2 ,
equipotential method: Mapping the potential field pro- method used is not exact, as when an exact solution
duced by stationary often remote current electrodes. would require an unacceptably large number of calcu-
The mapping is done by moving a potential electrode lations method error; and c because of round-off
over the area. Also called equipotential survey and errors computational error. Gross errors are the
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applied-potential method. In the equipotential-line results of blunders or mistakes. See round-off error,
method the line of points on the surface of the ground truncation error, random error, systematic, accuracy,
that constitutes the locus of a given voltage difference and probable error. Error differs from uncertainty,
from another electrode is mapped with a probe elec- which is the precision with which a measurement or
trode. value is known.
equipotential surface: The continuous surface that is error bar: A graphic representation showing the range of
everywhere perpendicular to lines of force. No work is probable error or some range 90% of probable error.
done against the field when moving along such a sur- error checking: Techniques for detecting errors which
face. Mean sea level is an equipotential surface with occur during the processing and transfer of data. See
respect to gravity. An electrical equipotential surface is check, cycle-redundancy check, and parity check.
everywhere perpendicular to current flow. error control: A system for detecting errors and some-
equipotential survey: See equipotential method. times for also correcting them. See check.
equiripple response: A directivity pattern in which the error ellipse: A measure of the uncertainty in a position
minor lobes are of equal height, as results from a measurement. UKOOA recommend that position
Chebyshev array. See Figure C-3. ellipses contain 95% of estimates.
equivalence: i kwiv lns 1. See map projection. 2. See error function: The error function erf(t) is
equivalent electrical response.
equivalence principle: See principle of equivalence.
equivalencing: Reducing a multilayer model to a single-
layer model by applying the relationships given under
erf t 1/ 1/2 e y2 dye y2 ,
i1
x i y i 2 1/2
.
eutectic mixture: A mixture of two materials that has a
lower melting point than either of the materials by
themselves.
eutectic temperature: The lowest melting point of a mix-
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The dimension of the space is n. Named for Euclid of ture of alloy substances.
Alexandria, the father of geometry. eV: Electron Volt, the energy change of an electron in
Euler-Cauchy method: A finite-difference method of being accelerated by one volt gradient.
solving differential equations. See Sheriff and Geldart evanescent waves: ev, nes nt Waves that fade away
1995, 529. rapidly with distance from a boundary. See Sheriff and
Euler deconvolution: oi lr A procedure applied to Geldart 1995, 63. From the Latin for vanishing.
profile gridded map data to solve Eulers homogeneous evaporite: A rock formed by precipitation from evaporat-
equation q.v. for the locations and depths of sources ing saline water. Salt, gypsum, and anhydrite are typical
for an assumed Euler structural index. On profiles, each evaporites.
calculation is run for different window lengths to obtain even function: A function that has the same value when
solutions for different depths. With gridded magnetic or the sign of the variable is changed; i.e., f (x) f
gravity maps, calculations are run over square windows (x). The Fourier transform of an even function is the
that are moved by a grid unit for the next depth calcu- cosine transform; its frequency-domain representation
lation. Pick values cluster together at a valid structural is zero phase. Any function can be represented as an
index; a fault might be indicated by a vertical align- even part plus an odd part. Aeromagnetic anomalies are
ment. See Thompson 1982; Reid et al. 1990. sometimes separated into even and odd parts for inter-
Eulerian differential operator: The differentiation pretation. Antonym: odd function.
operator /t, which implies differentiation at a fixed event: 1. A lineup on a number of traces that indicates the
point in space. Compare the Lagrangian differential arrival of new seismic energy, denoted by a systematic
operator d/dt, which implies differentiation following phase or amplitude change on a seismic record; an
the motion of a wave or of material. arrival. May indicate a reflection, refraction, diffrac-
Euler equation: See Eulers homogeneity equation. tion, or other type of wavefront. The distinguishing
Euler identity: The relationships features of various types of events are discussed in
e i cos i sin cis, Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 145146. 2. A command
entered by a user, such as a mouse click or a typed
cos e i e i /2cosh i , and command. 3. Evidence in the stratigraphic column of
something happening within a very short period of
sin e i e i /2ii sinh i , time, such as a volcanic eruption that produces a layer
of volcanic ash or tephra, a meteor impact that involves
where i (1). Named for Leonhard Euler 1707 a rare element, etc.; an event bed or event horizon.
1783, Swiss mathematician. Events during deposition may be caused by storm
Euler pole: Movement of a portion of the surface of a waves, flooding, sediment gravity flows e.g., slumps,
sphere over the sphere can be described as a rotation turbidite flows, volcanic eruptions, etc. Nondeposi-
about an Euler pole. Pole of spreading q.v.. tional events may be caused by erosion or depositional
Eulers homogeneity equation: hiatus such as sediment bypassing. Events related to
sea-level variations, such as condensed sections q.v.,
xx o dF/dx yy o dF/dy zz o dF/dz
are sometimes included. Events should be thin and have
N BF , at least reasonable geographical extent to be useful in
age dating. Especially distinctive events are called
where (x o ,y o ,z o ) is the source location whose mag- marker beds q.v..
netic field F is measured at x, y, z; B is the regional Evison wave: ev son Channel wave of SH-type par-
value of the total field; and N is Eulers structural ticle motion in a low-velocity layer between two higher
index. N is a measure of the rate of field change with velocity half-spaces. Compare Krey wave and see Evi-
distance. For example, the magnetic field of a sphere son 1955.
falls off as the cube (N3), of a pipe as the square evolute: ev loot The locus of centers of curvature of
(N2), of a thin dike linearly (N1), for a more or another curve, or the curve that is the common tangent
less linear basement fault or dyke N 0.5, of a semi- to normals to the other curve.
infinite body, not at all (N0). An Euler depth esti- exaggeration: Use of a different vertical than horizontal
mate increases with increased N. Real bodies are simu- scale. See Figure V-9.
lated by a superposition of bodies. EXCEPT gate: A circuit with multiple inputs that func-
Euler structural index: See Eulers homogeneity equa- tions when signal is present on one input and absent on
tion. other inputs. Also called exclusive OR. Differs from an
eustasy: yoo st se Worldwide sea level regimes and OR gate, which does not have the restriction of absent
their changes. The interplay of eustatic changes with signal on the other inputs. See gate and Figure B-5.
isostatic subsidence and tectonic thermal uplift pro- excess-three code: See binary-coded decimal, and Figure
duces relative sea-level changes. Relative sea level and N-4.
sediment supply produce sequence boundaries q.v.. excess time: The vertical traveltime through the weather-
eustatic cycle: yoo tek tik The time interval during ing minus the time it would have taken if travel had
which a worldwide rise and fall of sea level takes place. been at the subweathering velocity.
See Figure E-13. exchange current: A term in electrochemistry for the
exchange current 126 exchange current
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FIG. E-13. Eustatic cycles. (a) Generalized orders of cyclicity. (b) Changes in the Earth system. The period from about
450 to 100 Ma is a first-order eustatic cycle. (From Busch, 2000, 22.).
excitation-at-the-mass method 127 external drift
reversible electric current at an electrode that is in exploding wire: A modification of a sparker q.v. for use
equilibrium with an electrolyte. in fresh water where the conductivity of the water
excitation-at-the-mass method: Mise-a`-la-masse method between the sparker electrodes is not sufficient to ini-
q.v.. tiate a spark. A thin wire connects the electrodes; the
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exclusion zone: An area within a 3D survey area where sparker discharge vaporizes the wire to initiate vapor-
either sources or receivers cannot be placed. izing the water.
exclusive filter: A filter with a very sharp, narrow pass- exploration: The search for commercial deposits of useful
band. minerals, including hydrocarbons, geothermal
exclusive OR: EXCEPT gate q.v.. resources, etc.
executive: An operating system q.v. or supervisor. exploration geophysics: The application of geophysics to
exhumation: Exposure of earlier geologic section because exploration q.v. and also to engineering and archae-
of erosion. ology. Synonym: applied geophysics.
exothermic: A reaction that liberates heat. exploration 3D: A widely spaced form of 3D acquisition
expand: 1. To break down into elements, as to expand in with lines spaced 23 times as far apart as required by
terms of frequency components. 2. To increase the gain, the sampling theorem, relying on interpolation to give
as with a gain control. 3. To extend a spread to longer the data sampling required for migration. An explora-
offsets. tion 3D survey reveals broad structural aspects but
expander: 1. Expanding spread q.v.; specifically, a lacks resolution.
depth probe. 2. An IP and resistivity-surveying tech- exploratory well: A well drilled some distance from a
nique in which the electrode-separation interval is suc- previously demonstrated accumulation, or drilled to a
cessively expanded so as to achieve greater depth of stratigraphic objective not previously known to be pro-
exploration. Also called sounding or probing. Data ductive; a wildcat. See Figure W-8.
from an expander is usually interpreted to give the exponential distribution: A frequency distribution of the
depth to horizontal layers with contrasting physical form
properties, if such exist.
expanding spread: 1. A spread moved to greater offsets F f 1e f / ,
for successive energy releases from the same location, where is the mean. It has a high initial value and then
to give the equivalent of recording more geophone declines with increasing f. Often used to model effects
groups from a single source. Used in refraction work, in that vary with their separation.
noise analysis, and in velocity analysis. 2. Depth probe exponentiate: ek spo nen, sh at 1. To introduce time-
q.v.. dependent gain in processing, that is, to multiply input
expanding-spread vertical-loop technique: Electromag- values by e kt where k may be either a positive or
netic-survey method using a fixed transmitter and mov- negative real number. The value of k is often deter-
able receiver, often along lines at about 45 to the mined arbitrarily or empirically. Often refers to addi-
anticipated strike of the conductor sought. tional gain adjustment after removal of gain effects
expectation: 1. An operator that denotes the mean, or during recording and correction for spherical diver-
weighted mean where values are not equally probable. gence. 2. To magnify variations in input data so that the
Usually denoted by braces, E.... 2. In seismic process- output is proportional to a constant raised to an expo-
ing usage, it indicates the sum of elements for finite nent of the input value.
wavelets (b t ), or the mean of an infinite time series exponential decay: Decrease of amplitude proportional to
(u t ): e x or e t where and are decay constants, x
distance, and ttime. See Figure D-2.
E b t b 1 b 2 b 3 ...b n , or exponential ramp: A taper used at the edge of a window.
Involves multiplying values for tt 1 by e k(tt 1 ) , where
E u t lim u n u n1 ...u 0 u 1 u 2 ... k is a negative real number.
n extended-range shoran: An extremely sensitive shoran
u n / 2n1 . system that depends on energy refracted around the
Earths curvature and hence is not line-of-sight limited,
expected value: Expectation q.v.. as ordinary shoran is. Has a range of the order of 250
expert mode: A mode of work-station operation that is km.
more efficient, though less user-friendly, than the ordi- extended resolution: Efforts to increase the upper fre-
nary system. quency response of a bandpass system to improve reso-
expert system: A system of rules that mimics the behavior lution. See Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 253.
of an expert in analysis or diagnosis. A part of artificial extended spread: Inline-offset spread; see inline offset.
intelligence. Also called knowledge-based system. extended well test: A formation test that extends for an
exploded view: An illustration showing the parts or com- appreciable time to determine the probable long-term
ponents of a unit or of an operation. rate of decline.
exploding reflector: A direct modeling scheme in which extensive dilatancy anisotropy EDA: Microcrack-
the model surfaces are assumed to explode at time zero generated anisotropy that results in azimuthal anisot-
with explosive strengths proportional to their reflectiv- ropy when the microcrack orientation is nonhorizontal.
ity; velocities are cut in half so that the one-way trav- See anisotropy (seismic).
eltime to the surface equals the two-way traveltime for external drift: Use of a regionalized variable e.g., a
coincident source-receiver pairs at the surface. A form seismic attribute to control the shape of a map created
of wave-theory modeling. by kriging or simulation. A geostatistical linear regres-
external magnetic field 128 eyebrow structure
sion technique that uses a spatial model of covariance. eyeball: To make an educated guess after casual visual
external magnetic field: See solar wind. inspection, without actually measuring or calculating.
extrinsic conduction: The low-temperature ionic or elec- eyebrow structure: A seismic line across a buried reef
tronic conduction in solid electrically conducting mate- may show two convex-upward events the opposite
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rials, caused by weakly bonded impurities or defects. sides of the reef separated by a low central lagoon or
Also called structure-sensitive conductivity. See
reef collapse.
intrinsic conduction.
F
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F: Farad, the SI unit of capacitance. The capacitance false crossover: A reverse crossover, often the result of
where one volt of potential causes the storage of one seeing the bottom of a body.
coulomb. See farad. false easting, false northing: See easting, northing.
fabric: The spatial configuration of features trends char- faltung: Folding, convolution q.v.. Faltung is German
acterizing a region. Also called grain and signature. for folding.
facies: fa
shez 1. The characteristics that distinguish a Famous: French-American midocean undersea survey, a
rock from adjacent rocks, such as lithology lithofa- 1974 investigation of the mid-Atlantic ridge using sub-
cies, fossil content biofacies, color, sedimentary mersibles.
structures, grain-size distribution, etc. 2. Reflection pat- fan-filter: Velocity filter q.v..
terns that are characteristic of depositional environ- fan shooting: Refraction technique to search for local
ments; see seismic facies. high-velocity bodies. See Figure F-1.
facies analysis: See seismic facies analysis. fantom: Phantom q.v..
factor analysis: A method of finding a mathematical rela- farad F: fair ad The SI unit of capacitance; where one
tionship among values. Assume that a set of observa- volt of potential causes the storage of one coulomb.
tions [x 1 ,x 2 ,...,x k ] can be accounted for by a set of Named for Michael Faraday 17911867, English
linear relationships involving the factors physicist.
faradaic: far, da ik Pertaining to an electrochemical
electron-transfer reaction at an electrode by the conver-
z 1 ,z 2 ,...,z p , sion of atom to ion or vice-versa; i.e., as the result of an
electrochemical reaction. See Warburg impedance. A
where pk: x i a i1 z 1 a i2 z 2 ...a ip z p E i , nonfaradaic path involves the ionic layers that are adja-
cent to the electrode acting as a condenser.
where E i is an error term also called the specific
faraday: far da The electric charge required to liberate
factor. Factor analysis also called multivariant
one gram-equivalent of a substance by electrolysis: 96
analysis is a method of finding the parameters a i j .
487 coulombs.
Application usually begins with a learning set, a data
Faradays law of induction: The voltage E in volts
subset used to establish correlations between observa-
induced in a wire of length l in meters cutting a
tions and the factors being determined, and then pro-
magnetic field of strength B in gauss at the velocity v
ceeds to a predicting set, where the relations are used
in m/s is:
for predicting the factors associated with additional
observations.
EB v ld / dt,
fade: Mute.
failed arm: That arm of a triple junction q.v. which where d /dtrate of cutting of lines of magnetic flux
ceased to be a spreading center after the other two arms in maxwell per second and the minus is inserted
formed an ocean basin; aulacogen. because of Lenzs law q.v.. In vector notation,
fairing: Irregularities that induce turbulent flow. Drag on a
cable pulled transversely through the water is less for
turbulent than for nonturbulent flow. Irregularities such
as short strings fastened to the cable create small
E v B dl.
vortices that reduce fluid friction. A pulled cable with- far-angle stack: A combination of only the seismic traces
out fairing alternately tends to shed large vortices for which the angles of incidence are large often
accompanied by spurts of motion, causing vibration and 30 45. Used in studies of the variation of amplitude
inducing noise. with offset AVO to compare with a stack of small
fairway: 1. The region within which effort is to be con- angle-of-incidence traces.
centrated, such as in velocity analysis a band of far-field: Field remote from the source. Spherical waves
possible velocities within which one searches for veloc- involve terms that decrease as both 1/r and 1/r 2 ,
ity picks from normal-moveout measurements. 2. A where r is distance from the source see Sheriff and
trend of hydrocarbon accumulations. 3. The region Geldart, 1995, 48; far-field implies that the terms that
within which data values must lie to be considered depend on 1/r 2 are unimportant. The far-field repre-
valid. sents radiated energy and implies that r, where
FAL: Formation-Analysis Log q.v.. wavelength. Compare near-field.
false color: 1. Color arbitrarily assigned to values; farm-out, farm-in: A sublease granting the farm-in com-
pseudocolor. 2. Specifically, the use of colors to rep- pany the lease rights held by the farm-out company.
resent different frequency bands or other measurable The sublease often includes an override granting cer-
characteristics where the colors are not those naturally tain royalties to the farm-out company.
characteristic. For example, infrared differences dis- far-offset stack: A stack of only traces with large offset,
played as parts of the visible spectrum on satellite often the farthest third of the traces; a far-range stack.
imagery. See also far-angle stack.
129
far-zone sounding 130 fault
far-zone sounding: An electromagnetic sounding q.v. in hade; other terms related to faulting are defined in
which the source-receiver spacing is much greater than Figures F-2, F-3, and F-4. The trace of a fault is the
the depth of investigation q.v.. Compare near-zone line that the fault plane makes with a surface often the
sounding. Also known as long-offset sounding. surface of the ground, sometimes a bedding surface.
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fast Fourier transform FFT: An algorithm such as the Faults are classified as normal, reverse, or strike-slip,
Cooley-Tukey method that accomplishes the discrete depending on the relative motion along the fault plane;
Fourier transform more rapidly than direct evaluation. see Figure F-3. A fourth type of fault, associated with
Most FFTs involve iterative methods and take advan- plate movement, is a transform fault q.v.. A hinge or
tage of mathematical symmetry and redundancy. See scissors fault is produced by rotation of the blocks
Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 549550. across the fault about an axis perpendicular to the fault
fast in, slow out FISO: A sample/hold circuit q.v.. plane so that throw varies along the fault trace. Primary
fathom: 6 ft or 1.8288 m. faults may produce secondary stresses that produce
fathometer: A device for measuring water depth by tim- secondary faults which may be of different type. Thus
ing sonic reflections from the water bottom; an echo thrusting may produce tensions that cause secondary
sounder. normal faults. Faulting and folding are common
fatigue: fe te
g See hole fatigue. responses to the same stresses; see Figure F-17. Fault-
fault: 1. A displacement of rocks along a shear surface; ing during sediment deposition growth faulting often
see Figures F-2, F-3, and F-4. The surface along which affects the stratigraphy such that beds may abruptly
displacement occurs is called the fault plane often a thicken and become more sandy downthrown at a nor-
curved surface and not plane in the geometric sense. mal growth fault. Evidences of faults in seismic data
The dip of the fault plane is the angle that it makes with see Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 376, 461 are principally
the horizontal; the angle with the vertical is called the by: a abrupt termination of events, b diffractions, c
FIG. F-1. Fan shooting. Detectors are located roughly on the arc of a circle centered at the source point in different
directions. Expected arrival times are determined from a normal traveltime curve (versus distance) where no local
high-velocity body is present. An early arrival (lead) with respect to the normal indicates that part of the travelpath is at
an abnormally high velocity, signifying the presence of a local high-velocity body such as a salt dome. This method was
used in early seismic exploration to locate salt domes within the thick low-velocity Gulf Coast sediments. (From
Nettleton, 1940.)
fault cut 131 feather pattern
ing a shadow-zone, f changes in the pattern of ones. Generally footwall and hanging-wall fault slices
events across the fault, and g occasionally a reflection q.v. are interpreted as to probable permeability and
from the fault plane. Faults especially small ones are then they are superimposed. Fault seal analysis may
often en echelon or braided rather than parallel and also involve predicting a probability that clay will be
continuous. 2. In gravity or magnetic data, the edge of smeared out sufficiently along a fault surface to prevent
a thin, roughly horizontal slab with density or suscep- the flow of fluids across the fault clay-smear poten-
tibility different from that of horizontally adjacent tial.
material. fault shadow: Distorted or relatively dead reflections in
fault cut: Fault trace q.v.. the footwall zone of a fault, the result of reflection
faulted slab: A semi-infinite slab plate of uniform thick- raypaths bending differently as they traverse a fault at
ness, commonly used in potential-field modeling. locations where the velocity contrast differs e.g., for
fault-plane solutions: Resolution of the direction of ini- the traces that make up a CMP gather.
tial slippage along an earthquake fault determined from fault slice: Slicing through a 3D data volume along a
variations in the direction of first motion at stations in curved surface parallel to a fault plane. Because data
different directions from the epicenter. See Fowler are usually distorted when very near a fault, fault slices
1990, 99101. are made a short distance perhaps 50100 m on either
fault polygons: Normal faults create a gap in a mapped side of the fault, resulting in footwall and hanging-
surface, which are represented by planar polygons at wall slices. These are then projected into vertical sec-
interpretation workstations. Reverse faults create over- tions to indicate splinter faulting or closure against the
fault. Footwall and hanging-wall slices are often super-
imposed to indicate sealing against the fault; see fault
seal analysis. See Brown 1999, 2022, 225232 and
Figures F-5 and T-5.
fault trace: Intersection of a fault with a line or surface
such as a horizon, time, or depth slice.
Fausts equations: Empirical relationships between seis-
mic velocity V in ft/s, geologic age T, true formation
resistivity in ohm feet, and depth of burial z in feet:
VK zT 1/6 ,
V2000 z 1/6 .
z is sometimes taken to be the maximum depth to which
the formation has ever been buried, not necessarily its
present depth. See Faust 1951, 1953. The reciprocal
of the second equation above is sometimes written with
three constants k,a,b to be evaluated empirically from
sonic-log transit time (t) data:
1/Vtk a z b .
Named for Lawrence Y. Faust, American geophysicist.
FD: Frequency Domain. See frequency-domain method.
FDC: Compensated Formation-Density log; see density
log. Schlumberger trade name.
FDEM, FEM: Frequency-Domain ElectroMagnetics; see
electromagnetic sounding.
FDL: Formation-Density Log; see density log.
feathering: En-echelon arrangement of successive
spreads, as produced in marine shooting when a cross-
current causes the cable to drift at an angle to the
seismic line. See Figures F-6 and T-4.
feather edge: of pinchout: The line of disappearance of
a wedge of material. Evidence of the wedges presence
in seismic data disappears when the wedge gets too thin
to be detected but before the wedge itself disappears.
See Figures T-17.
feather pattern: A weighted or tapered pattern of geo-
phones within a group or of shotholes, weight-drop
points, etc. such that the contributions of the elements
FIG. F-2. Fault nomenclature. of the pattern decrease with distance from its center.
feedback 132 fence effect
feedback: The use of part of the output of a system as a felsic: fel sik Applied to an igneous rock having abun-
partial input. Negative feedback, where part of the dant light-colored minerals. A mnemonic for feldspar
output is fed out-of-phase into the input, attenuates lenad (feldspathoids)silica. The complement of
variations for self-correcting or control purposes. Used mafic.
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FIG. F-4. Fault types. (a) A secondary antithetic fault, has throw in the direction opposite to that of the primary fault
P and secondary synthetic fault S. (b) Faulting involving rotation that increases the throw of the fault. (c) Growth fault
curved (listric) in both plan and cross-section. Fault movement contemporaneous with deposition produces thickening
into the fault and a rollover anticline. (d) Development of a duplex structure by thrust faulting (overthrusting or
underthrusting). (From Boyer and Elliott, 1982.)
fence effect 134 fence effect
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FIG. F-4. Fault types. (Continued). (e) Wrench (strike-slip) faulting. A wrench fault often has associated secondary
wrench, normal, and thrust faults and folding at roughly 30 to the wrench fault. Wrench fault traces are often en echelon
rather than continuous. (f) Right-lateral wrench fault. Components of convergence or divergence may produce flower
structures (see Figure F-12). (From Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 369370.) (g) Transitions from fault to fault may be
accompanied by tear faults, folds, or in other ways. (h) Faulting associated with subduction zone. The accretionary
wedge is generally built by underthrusting. (From Lowell, 1985.) (i) Transform fault offsetting spreading center. Rift
faulting associated with extension is usually asymmetric. (From Bally and Snelson, 1980.)
fence effect 135 fence effect
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FIG. F-5. A fault slice is made by slicing a 3D volume parallel to a picked fault; data from downthrown and upthrown
slices are often color coded and superimposed to aid in seeing connectivity across faults, secondary faults, or changes
that may indicate an accumulation against the fault. See also Figure T-5. (From Brown, 1986, 186.)
Fermat path 136 field timing
grounded conductor, such as a metal fence. The nature at the same time. 3. Time marks on a seismic record.
of a fence is usually indicated on IP maps, for example, fiducial time: fi doo shl 1. Arrival time on a seismic
wooden post fence, steel post fence, etc. record with respect to a datum. 2. The absolute chro-
Fermat path: A curve that satisfies Fermats principle and nological time of magnetic or other geophysical mea-
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from a crystal-controlled oscillator or from a tuning over a period of 4 5 seconds. See Canada Geol. Survey
fork. See Figure R-6. 1991.
figure of merit: A measure of the effectiveness of aero- figure of the Earth: Geoid q.v..
magnetic survey aircraft compensation for maneuver file: 1. A collection of related records or program instruc-
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effects. The sum, without regard to sign, of the ampli- tions treated as a unit. 2. A set of records on a recording
tudes in nT of the 12 magnetic signatures recorded medium such as magnetic tape that are delimited by
when the aircraft carries out 10 rolls, 5 pitches, 5 yaws end-of-file marks.
peak-to-peak on north, east, south, and west headings file protect: An interlock that prevents writing new infor-
FIG. F-7. (a) Fence diagram composited from a grid of seismic record sections. (Courtesy Chevron Oil Co.) (b)
Computer-drawn isometric fence diagram of six seismic lines. (Courtesy Grant-Norpac.) (c) Same as (b) except with
data above some picked horizon removed. (d) Fence diagram to show spatial relationship of data from a series of eight
wells. (From Brown and Fisher, 1977, 222.)
file transfer protocol FTP 138 filtration rate
mation on top of information already stored, and thus to achieve with physical circuit components. Filtering
inadvertently destroying it. can be accomplished by optical methods as well as by
file transfer protocol FTP: An internet protocol that electrical and digital methods. 7. Specific types of fil-
facilitates transferring files between computers. ters used commonly include the Butterworth filter
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filter: 1. A part of a system that discriminates against q.v., a band-pass filter design with flat response, and
some of the information entering it. The discrimination the Chebychev filter Tchebyscheff filter, a band-
is usually on the basis of frequency, although other pass filter with a steep rolloff, characterized by a uni-
bases such as wavelength, moveout, coherence, or form ripple in the pass band. 8. See also inverse filter
amplitude may be used. See Figure F-8. 2. Linear Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 284, 292, 550. Stacking is
filtering is called convolution q.v.. A linear filter may a filtering process. 9. To remove solids from a suspen-
be characterized by its impulse response or by its sion by passage through a sieve.
frequency-domain transfer characteristics amplitude filter analysis: Determining the filter band pass to use.
and phase response as a function of frequency. 3. Alias filter cake: Mud cake q.v..
filters q.v. are very sharp high-cut filters designed to filter correction: Correction of record times to compen-
prevent aliasing. 4. Band-pass filters are often speci- sate for time delays associated with filters.
fied by listing their low-cut and high-cut component filtering: The attenuation of components of a signal based
filters. Filter characteristics are often specified by the on some measurable property. Usually implies that the
frequencies at which the amplitude is down by 3 dB measurable property is frequency. May be done by
70% or half power and by the slope of the cutoff. analog methods often electrically or numerically. See
Thus 14/18 56/36 specifies a band-pass filter with a filter and Figure F-8.
low-cut down 3 dB at 14 Hz with an 18 dB/octave slope filter panel: A display showing data filtered by a sequence
and a high-cut down 3 dB at 56 Hz with a 36 dB/octave of narrow band-pass filters to see the effects of different
slope. Typical seismic filter curves are shown in Figure passbands. Also called frequency slices.
F-9. See also high-cut filter low-pass filter and filter scan: Filter panel q.v..
low-cut filter high-pass filter. The order of the speci- filtrate: Fluid that has passed through a filter. Specifically,
fication is sometimes reversed. 5. Notch filters sharply the drilling fluid that has passed through the mud cake
reject a very narrow band of frequencies. 6. Digital q.v..
filters permit filtering in accord with arbitrarily chosen filtration rate: The velocity V of fluid movement, equal to
characteristics that might prove difficult or impossible the volume of fluid moved through a cross section of
area A per unit of time, given by firmware: A computer program that is implemented in
hardware, such as read-only memory.
VqA k/ P, first arrival: First break q.v..
where P is the pressure gradient, k the permeability, first break: The first recorded signal attributable to
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and the viscosity. The apparent filtration rate in a seismic-wave travel from a known source. First breaks
porous medium is Vq/ A, where is the porosity. on reflection records are used for information about the
fines: Particles smaller than 1 mm across. weathering. An initial compression usually shows as a
fingering: Fluid flow along higher permeability channels downkick SEG polarity standard. First-break times
in a reservoir where the permeability is inhomoge- are used in static corrections and in headwave interpre-
neous. tation.
fingerprinting oil: Determining distinguishing character- first-break intercept-time method: A method of making
istics by gas chromatography, carbon isotopes, biomar- static corrections based on first breaks; refraction stat-
kers, and other properties. ics. See Figure S-22.
fingers: Probes on the sonde of a caliper log q.v. or first motion: The direction of the first motion at a given
dipmeter log q.v. that feel where the borehole wall is. location because of a P-wave from an earthquake. See
fining upward: Clastic sediments that are becoming finer Figure F-10.
upward; see Figure C-6. first-order triangulation: See triangulation.
finite-difference method: 1. A scheme to solve differen- first point of Aries: See Aries.
tial equations by substituting difference quotients for fish: 1. A sensor that is towed in the water, such as
derivatives. 2. Method of approximating a derivative by side-scan sonar. A magnetometer fish is typically towed
taking the difference of the function at two discrete 200300 m behind a vessel at a depth of 35 m. 2. An
points. object unintentionally left in the borehole during drill-
finite-element method: A numerical scheme for approxi- ing or workover operations that must be recovered
mating a solution to differential equations by represent- before work can proceed.
ing curved lines as sequences of small straight-line fishnet plot: An isometric plot such as drawn by a com-
elements. puter, where the three-dimensional aspect is illustrated
fire-flood: See in-situ combustion. by displacement of the grid lines.
firewall: A security system that prevents unauthorized fishtail bit: A drilling bit with cutting edges of hard
access. alloys; also called a drag bit. Used to drill soft forma-
FIR filter: A filter with Finite-duration Impulse tions. See Figure D-26a.
Response. fish trap: Government conservation agent attached to a
firing: Generating a seismic wave. Originally meant, deto- seismic marsh or water crew.
nating an explosion, but now includes any means. fission track dating: fish n trak A method of calculat-
firing rate: The rate at which a transducer, sparker, or ing age by measuring the track density left by sponta-
other energy source is discharged. neous splitting of 238U. Tracks show the physical dam-
age to mineral grains produced by spontaneous fission fixed data: Parameters and other data that are constant for
of 238U. The number of tracks is proportional to the a collection of data and thus need to be input to a
isotopes concentration and the age. The tracks are computer only once.
made visible under electron microscope by etching a fixed field: A preassigned memory location.
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thin sample with acid. The 238U count is obtained by the fixed layer: A compact layer of ions and molecules held in
238
U/ 235 U ratio and neutron irradiation that causes 235U place on an electrode or solid by chemical or electro-
to fission. static adsorption forces. Also called the bound layer or
five-spot pattern: A pattern of four injection wells sur- inner Helmholz double-layer.
rounding a producing well. Used in secondary and fixed-layer capacitance: Capacitance resulting from the
enhanced oil production techniques. presence of fixed-layer ions.
fix: A determination of location, as by the intersection of fixed point: 1. A method of data representation in which
two lines-of-position q.v. See Figure L-6. A fix is the radix point decimal point is fixed. Compare float-
made without reference to a former position. Fixes are ing point. 2. Sometimes implies integer operation.
determined by terrestrial, electronic, or astronomic fixed-source method: A profiling method in which the
means. source of energy is stationary and the receiver is moved
FIG. F-10. First motion (focal mechanism) in an earthquake. Beach balls (Sykes diagrams) are map views showing
where the first motion is compressional (black) and dilatational (white); the epicenter being at the center of each
diagram. (a) Map view of a strike-slip fault and its beach ball; (b) vertical section of a reverse fault and its beach-ball
map; (c) vertical section of a normal fault and its beach-ball map; (d) Map of earthquakes in the Mediterranean region.
(After McKenzie, 1972).
fizz water 141 F-layer
about to explore the area. Electromagnetic sounding value to the chosen value; clipping. May be caused by
techniques are often fixed-source methods. Compare loss of sensitivity because of the saturation of some part
moving-source method. of the measuring system. Compare digital clipping and
fizz water: Formation water that contains a small non- see Figure C-5.
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commercial amount of free, nonsolution gas. It may F-layer: 1. One of the layers of ionized air in the iono-
give a false hydrocarbon indicator q.v. evidence. sphere; it reflects radio waves up to about 50 MHz. In
f-k analysis: See f-k domain. the daytime the F-layer subdivides into two layers, the
f-k domain: The frequency-wavenumber domain in lower of which (F 1 ) is usually 175 to 250 km high and
which the independent variables are frequency f and
wavenumber k, the result of a 2D Fourier transform of
a seismic record or seismic section; f-k space. Seismic
data analysis sometimes involves f-k plots see Figure
F-11 in which energy density within a given time
interval is contoured on a frequency-versus-
wavenumber basis. Used to examine the direction and
apparent velocity of seismic waves and in velocity-filter
design.
f-k filtering: Removing energy from seismic data by
applying frequency, wavenumber, or velocity filters
q.v. in the frequency-wavenumber domain. See Figure
F-11.
f-k migration: Migration q.v. in the frequency-
wavenumber domain; Stolt migration. See Sheriff and
Geldart 1995, 329330.
f-k plot: See f-k domain.
flag, flagging: 1. A piece of cloth, rope, or nylon used to
mark a position on a wireline. 2. Strips of plastic, cloth,
or paper used to mark instrument or source locations or
to indicate access points in the field. 3. A bit attached to
a computer word to indicate the boundary of a field. 4.
An indicator to tell a later part of a computer program
about a condition that occurred earlier in the program.
Used to synchronize within a program or to lock out
data. Also called semaphore.
Flair: A marine seismic method employing a streamer
dipping at a small angle about 1, often from about 10
to 50 m. Since ghosting depends on receiver depth, the
notch frequencies associated with receiver ghosting
and the ghosts are effectively eliminated after CMP
stacking. Also known as the slant cable method.
Tradename of Deatex Services.
flash memory: A persistent computer memory used to
store data or programs instead of on a disk or tape.
flat address space: Logical organization of memory stor-
age into a sequence of consecutive locations.
flat spot: A horizontal seismic reflection attributed to an
interface between two fluids such as gas and water or
gas and oil. See hydrocarbon indicator.
flattened sectionsurface: A datumed section/surface. 1.
A seismic record section or volume in which a par-
ticular event has been made flat or sometimes merely
smooth by introducing arbitrary time shifts. If the
event represents a bed that was deposited horizontally,
the flattened section resembles a paleosection showing
the attitude of deeper events at the time of deposition of
the flattened bed; see Figure F-12. Useful in studies of
FIG. F-11. f,k plot. (a) The region passed by array,
variations in the time interval between events and frequency, and velocity filters is cross-hatched. Radial
sometimes used for static corrections. 2. A paleosection lines through the origin represent constant apparent
q.v.. velocity V a (V a f/k / ). (b) Data beyond the Nyquist
flattening: 1. The difference between the major and minor wavenumber f N (determined by discrete spatial sampling)
axes of an ellipse divided by the major axis; see Figure wraps around (aliases) and may get mixed up with the
E-12. The flattening of the Earth is about 1/295.25. signal. In wraparound, data to the right of k N continues
2. See flattened section/surfaces. rightward from k N, where K N is the Nyguist wave-
flat-topping: Reducing values that exceed some chosen number.
fled 142 flowchart
is found only during daylight. The higher F 2 layer at face of the plate. 2. Guided wave in a borehole.
250 to 400 km is present both night and day and is the flight line: A line on a map or chart to represent the track
principal reflector of HF radio waves at night. See over which an aircraft or satellite has flown or is to fly.
Figure A-22. 2. A transition layer between the Earths flight-path recovery: Process especially in older aero-
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outer and inner cores; see Figure E-1. magnetic surveys where the location of the aircraft is
fled: Flood q.v.. tied to known ground points. Usually done with photo-
flex binning: Locally increasing bin size to maintain con- graphs or videotape.
stant multiplicity, designed to compensate for acquisi- flip: To switch back and forth between screen displays.
tion irregularities. Bin-flexing schemes usually use flip polarity: The polarity of an in-line SV-section inverts
some uniqueness criteria involving trace selection so at zero offset.
that only one trace in each offset range is retained. See flip-flop: 1. Use of two sources fired alternately, or of two
fold. boats that fire their sources alternately. Either or both
flexing: See flex binning. boats may tow streamers. Used in marine 3D acquisi-
flexural rigidity of the Earths crust: See radius of tion to record more than one line on a single traverse. 2.
regionality. A bistable oscillator; a device with exactly two stable
flexural ice wave: A source-generated horizontally propa- states. Used to store one bit of information.
gating noise wave that typically occurs in Arctic floating: Not electrically connected to ground or to the
regions when surface seismic reflection data are system reference voltage.
recorded on a floating sheet of ice. The noise train is floating charge: A seismic charge that is not as deep as
much higher amplitude and usually has a wider band- intended. Characterized by early uphole time and
width than does the ground roll that occurs on dryland. delayed reflection times.
flexural wave: flek shr l 1. A normal mode in a thin floating datum: A variable reference used in areas of
plate with motion antisymmetric about the median sur- appreciable topography. The elevation of the datum is
varied to lessen the sensitivity to the approximations in
static corrections if a constant-elevation datum were
used and to compensate for velocity variations because
of the increased loading of the topography. The relief
on a one-third floating datum is one-third of the
surface elevation above a flat plane. Tilted plane
datums are also used sometimes.
floating point: A number expressed by the significant
figures times a base raised to a power. Thus 139 000
might be written as 1.39010 5 to indicate four signifi-
cant figures. Writing numbers in floating-point format
prevents the loss of significant figures in case the num-
ber becomes too small or too large for a fixed register.
Computers usually use bases that are a power of 2
rather than the base 10.
flood: 1. To drive oil through a reservoir by injecting
water or another fluid under pressure into the reservoir
formation. 2. To drown out a well with water. 3. To
make the velocity the same everywhere below some
given surface as a step in depth-migrating data; see
depth-migration. For example, in migrating subsalt
data, one often assumes that the sediment velocity
function applies everywhere sediment velocity flood
while migrating the top of the salt, then assumes salt
velocity everywhere below the top salt salt flood to
migrate the base of the salt, and finally one assumes a
sediment velocity function below the base salt. Hope-
fully produces a clear sharp image of subsalt reflec-
tions.
flood the topography: Use of an elevated datum in grav-
ity data reduction.
flooding surface: A depositional surface that marks an
abrupt increase in water depth Van Wagoner, 1995.
flood-plain deposits: Sediments deposited outside of a
river channel by flooding; overbank deposits.
flops: Floating-point operations per second.
FIG. F-12. Flattening can be done by tracking horizons floppy disk: A portable disk storage; a diskette.
(picking) and then time-shifting. Flattening on one horizon flowchart: A diagram showing the operations involved in
illustrates structure at the time of deposition of that a process. Often used to show the steps of a computer
horizon, assuming it was deposited horizontally. (Courtesy program or steps in processing. See Figures F-14 and
C.G.G.) P-14.
flower structure 143 flyer
flower structure: A geologic structure that results from pore fluids from brine to oil or gas with specific fluid
strike-slip movement associated with convergence pro- properties. The calculations are used to predict how to
ducing a positive flower structure or divergence a interpret time-lapse measurements.
negative flower structure. Generally shows as an fluid-travel log: A recording of the flow of fluid past a
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upward-widening cone containing a number of faults. logging tool. A radioactive slug is injected into the fluid
See Figure F-15. stream through ports in the logging tool and the radio-
flowing pressure: Fluid pressure measured at the well active counting rate is measured as a function of time at
head. two detector positions. Used to locate leaks.
flowmeter: A device that measures the flow of fluid. In fluorimetry: flu rim t ry Estimate of the intensity of
borehole studies the flowmeter may be lowered through fluorescence of a solution or solid excited by ultraviolet
the flow stream or set in one spot with a packer. See light.
spinner survey. flushed zone: See invaded zone and Figure I-6.
flow test: A measure of the pressure drop associated with flutter: Noise caused by variations in speed of magnetic
a fluid-flow rate. tape in analog recording.
fluid factor: A measure that indicates that the pore fluid is flux: A representation of magnetic, electrical, and other
gas rather than liquid. On a crossplot of S-wave veloc- lines of force. The flux density is proportional to field
ity (V S ) versus P-wave velocity (V P ), the mudrock intensity.
line for water-filled sandstones has water velocity as its flux density: See field intensity.
intercept with the V P -axis but gas-filled sandstones fluxgate magnetometer: flks ga t mag n tam t r An
have a different slope and the intercept zero. The fluid instrument capable of detecting changes in the mag-
factor FR P 1.16(V S /V P )R S , where R P and R S netic field of the order of 0.2 nanotesla. See Figure
are, repectively, the normal reflection coefficients for P- F-16. The magnetometer measures the magnetic field
and S-waves; component along the axis of its core and must be
FR P 1.16 V S /V P R S , oriented with the field if the total intensity is to be
measured. This is usually accomplished by using three
See Castagna and Backus 1993, 20-21. mutually perpendicular fluxgate instruments and servo-
fluid incompressibility: The Lame parameter . mechanisms that vary the orientation to minimize the
fluid pressure: Interstitial pressure q.v. or pore pressure. magnetic field in two of these, thus maximizing the
fluid replacement: A calculation that predicts changes if field for the third. Compare proton magnetometer, opti-
the nature of the fluid is changed. cally pumped magnetometer, and Squid cryogenic mag-
fluid sampler: See formation tester. netometer.
fluid substitution: Calculation, usually using the flyer: A number of geophones permanently connected at
Gassmann-Biot-Geertsma equations, of the changes in intervals along a short cable, used for one geophone
physical properties that should result from changing the group. A typical flyer might contain, for example, six
FIG. F-13. (a) Flexichoc. (1) Two plates are separated by compressed air until they lock into position; (2) the air
between them is pumped out; (3) on signal the plates are unlocked and water pressure forces them together; the inrush
of water into the consequent empty space creates a shock wave in the water. (b) Flexotir; small charges (about 2
ounces) are propelled through a rubber hose by water under pressure into a steel cage, where they are detonated; holes
in the cage allow water repelled by the explosion to flow out and in, dissipating the energy. (Courtesy C.G.G.)
FM 144 foreshock
geophones connected in series at 6-m intervals, with focused log: A laterolog or guard log. Sometimes refers to
clips at the end for connecting it to the main cable that FoRxo, microlaterolog, or proximity log. See Figure
carries the signal to the recording equipment. Synonym: L-3.
geophone string. fold: 1. The multiplicity of common-midpoint data or the
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FM: Frequency Modulation q.v.. number of midpoints per bin. Where the midpoint is the
FMI: Formation Micro Imager q.v.. same for 12 offset distances, e.g., the stack is referred to
FMS: Formation Micro Scanner q.v.. as 12-fold. 2. See also folding.
focal length: The distance along the optical axis from the foldback: 1. A cable that is doubled back on itself such
optical center of a lens to the point where the image of that two or more geophone stations are located at the
a very distant object focuses. same position on the ground. Used for making compari-
focus: 1. The location of the first rupture in an earthquake; sons for example, of different types of geophone
the hypocenter. 2. The point where the rays from a arrays. 2. Frequencies greater than the Nyquist fre-
point source reunite and cross after passing through a quency are folded back, causing data to alias q.v.. See
lens or after reflecting from a mirror. 3. See buried- also wrap around. 3. If too many cables are connected
focus effect. together and too many geophone groups are connected,
focusing analysis: Varying a parameter usually velocity, groups at different locations may feed the same chan-
in a migration operation to select the parameter that nel, producing confusing results.
achieves the clearest, most coherent, and most sensible folding: 1. Frequency folding such as results from inad-
display. equate sampling, producing alias q.v. problems. 2.
Convolution q.v.. 3. Bending of geological strata.
Primary folding is a response to deep-seated forces
with a strong horizontal component. Gravitational
folding results from downward sliding and flow, which
are secondary results of uplift and tilting. Local folding
can be caused by compaction or by the upwelling of salt
or igneous rocks. The upraised part of a fold forms an
anticline, the downwarped portion a syncline. Folding
terminology is shown in Figure F-17. Materials respond
differently to the same stresses and stress durations
and cleavage, flow, and faulting are usually associated
with folding; see Figure F-17. Competent beds tend to
retain their thickness in folding; they govern the folding
wavelength, which is of the order of 25 times the
thickness of the most competent member. Incompetent
beds flow in response to folding stresses, but the dis-
tinction with competent beds is gradational. Two fold-
ing styles are illustrated in Figure F-17d, e. Folding is
disharmonic where the folding of one bed is not geo-
metrically related to the folding of nearby beds, incom-
petent beds intervening between them.
folding frequency: The Nyquist frequency; see alias.
fold test: Variation in the direction of remanent magne-
tism in a rock that has been folded; it can indicate
whether or not the magnetization predated the folding.
footprint: A pattern in data caused by acquisition or pro-
cessing methodology or irregularities, rather than hav-
ing geologic significance.
footwall: The side of a fault that lies below a dipping fault
plane; the upthrown side of a normal fault. A footwall
slice is a seismic section showing reflections along a
curved surface parallel to and displaced 50100 m
away from the fault plane to get away from distorted
data along the fault itself. See Brown 1999, 2021,
225232 and Figures F-3 and T-5e.
forced regression: Seaward movement of the shoreline
during a lowstand; usually without progradation.
force majeure: A legal clause that provides for the
responsibilities of contracting parties because of events
beyond the reasonable control of the contracting par-
ties.
FIG. F-14. Flowchart for the convolution of g(t) with fore-reef: The region in front of a reef, facing the deep-
f(t). Input: G(G 0 ,G 1 ,G 2 ,...,G L ); filter F(F 0 ,F 1 , water basin.
F 2 ,...,F M ); output: Z(Z 0 ,Z 1 ,Z 2 ,...,Z LM ), where Z i foreshock: An earthquake that precedes a larger earth-
G k F ik . quake.
foreign 145 formation evaluation
FIG. F-16. Fluxgate magnetometer. Two permalloy cores approach saturation in the weak magnetic field of the Earth.
A 1000 Hz cyclic field superimposed by a coil around the core completes saturation. The place in the energizing cycle
at which saturation is reached is a measure of the strength of the Earths field. A secondary coil detects the changes in
flux. Two parallel cores are used with windings in opposite directions and the difference is measured. A current through
an additional winding nullifies most of the background magnetic field so that the magnetometer is sensitive to small
changes in the Earths field. The current through the nulling coil is a measure of the magnetic field strength.
formation evaluation 146 formation evaluation
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FIG. F-17. Folding. (a) The plunge of an anticline is the angle that the axial line makes with the surface. The b-axis
is the direction of the axial line, the a-axis is the plane containing the axial line and the axis of the fold, and the c-axis
is perpendicular to this plane. (b) Folding, cleavage, or flow may result from stresses. The stress duration often is
involved as well as the stress magnitude. (From deSitter, 1956.) (c) Faulting is often combined with folding. (After Hobbs
et al., 1976.) (d) In concentric or flexural-slip folding, competent beds tend to slip along the bedding planes and retain
constant thickness perpendicular to the bedding, whereas incompetent beds fold and fault and separate the fold from
deeper structure. (e) In similar folding, beds tend to retain their vertical thickness t, thinning on the sides of the fold.
formation factor 147 Fourier transform
in terms of the nature of the formations and their fluid foundation coefficient: A coefficient expressing how
content. The objectives of formation evaluation are to many times stronger the effect of an earthquake is in a
ascertain if commercially productive hydrocarbons are given rock than it would have been for undisturbed
present and, if so, the best means for their recovery. crystalline rock.
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Other objectives are to derive lithology and other infor- fourble: for bl Four joints of drill pipe screwed
mation on formation characteristics for use in further together.
exploration. See Figure W-9. Compare formation test. four-component recording 4-C: Recording marine data
with an ocean-bottom seismometer OBS on the sea-
formation factor: The ratio of the resistivity of a forma-
floor where the OBS consists of three orthogonal geo-
tion to the resistivity of the water with which it is phones and a hydrophone. Ocean-bottom cables OBC
saturated. See Archies formula. contain a number of OBS. See Tatham and McCormack
formation fluid pressure: The pressure of fluid in the 1991.
pore spaces pore pressure. Also called interstitial four-dimensional data 4D: Data that represent a 3D
pressure. volume plus an additional dimension. The additional
formation microimager FMI: An electric imager dimension is usually the time at which the data were
resistivity tool with four arms that unfold from the tool recorded, yielding time-lapse q.v. data. Sometimes the
body, each with two pads containing multiple electrode 4th dimension is offset. See Brown 1999 and Weimer
buttons. Yields high-resolution resistivity logs from the and Davis 1996.
high-density of pads; these are displayed as an image of Fourier analysis: foor e a, The analytical representation
8090% of the borehole wall surface. Used to detect of a waveform as a weighted sum of sinusoidal func-
fractures and stratigraphic features. Schlumberger tions. Determining the amplitude and phase of cosine
tradename. See Figure I-1. or sine waves of different frequencies into which a
waveform can be decomposed. Fourier analysis can be
formation microscanner FMS: An early analog ver-
thought of as a subset of the Fourier transform q.v..
sion of the formation microimager q.v.. Schlumberger See Figure F-18. Opposite of Fourier synthesis. Named
tradename. for Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier 1768 1830, French
formation test: Gathering data on a formation to deter- mathematician.
mine its potential productivity, usually before installing Fourier integral: See Fourier transform.
casing in a well. See drill-stem test and compare for- Fourier pairs: Operations and functions that Fourier-
mation evaluation. transform into each other. See Figures F-19, F-20, and
form factor: 1. Geometric factor, the geometric multiply- F-22. Fourier pairs can be generalized into more dimen-
ing factor that depends on the type of electrode array sions, such as illustrated in Figure F-21 where the
and interval being used. 2. The type curve for a profile domains might be offset-time versus frequency-
across an idealized body, e.g., across a sphere. wavenumber ( f -k space.
Fortran: for tran FORmula TRANslation; a high-level Fourier plane: Frequency domain q.v..
language designed to simplify programming for digital Fourier series: Representation of a periodic function by
the sum of sinusoidal components whose frequencies
computers. Designed for solving algebraic problems
are integral multiples of a fundamental frequency. See
and for scientific procedural programming. Fortran has
Fourier transform.
developed by a series of improvements since the base Fourier synthesis: Superimposing cosine and/or sine
language Fortran 66 was introduced. Fortran 77 added waves with appropriate amplitude and phase to con-
string capabilities and Fortran 90 and 95 added array struct a waveform or time-domain representation. See
processing and free-form syntax. Fortran HPF High- Figure F-18. Fourier synthesis can be thought of as a
Performance Fortran is designed for parallel process- subset of the Fourier-transform q.v..
ing. Fourier transform: Formulas that convert a time function
Fortsch discontinuity: fortsch An irregular seismic dis- g(t) waveform, seismic record trace, etc. into its
continuity sometimes seen at 8 11 km in continental frequency-domain representation G( f ) and vice versa.
crust, usually attributed to a change from granitic to G( f ) and g(t) constitute a Fourier-transform pair;
dioritic composition. see Figure F-19. An example is
forward bias: See bias.
forward modeling, forward process, forward solution:
g t G f g t e j2 f t dt g t cos 2 f t dt
Determining the expected effects from a model see
Figure M-14, solving a direct problem q.v., such as
predicting the electric potential for a given distribution j g t sin 2 f t dt.
of resistivity current sources. The input is a subsurface
picture, the output is the expected observations.
forward shot: Activation of a seismic source into a spread The inverse transform is
in the same direction in which the line is moving.
FoRxo: See microlaterolog. Welex tradename. g t G f e j2 f t d f
fossil remanence: See remanent magnetism.
Foucault current: foo ko See induction log. Named for
Jean Bernard Leon Foucault 18191868, French G f cos 2 f t dt j G f sin 2 f dt .
physicist.
Fourier transform 148 Fourier transform
A f real part of G f 2
imaginary part of G f 2 1/2 ;
t t
h t
n0
a n cos 2 n
T
n1
b n sin 2 n ,
T
where
a n
2
T T
0
h t cos 2 n
t
Tdt,
b n
2
T 0
T
h t sin 2 n
t
Tdt,
and
FIG. F-18. (a) Fourier analysis involves finding the
amplitude of frequency components for a waveform. The h t H n A n e i n ,
frequency-domain representation or spectrum G(f) of a A n a n 2 b n 2 1/2 ; n tan1 b n /a n .
discrete time function g t (waveform, seismic record trace,
etc.) can be decomposed into a series of sinusoids by any The same rules for quadrants apply to n as expressed
of the following equivalent equations: for ( f ); a 0 is the zero-frequency component or dc
gta0/2 a cos2f tb cos2ft
n n n
shift. The frequency spectrum is discrete if the func-
tion is periodic. If h t is a sampled time series sampled
at intervals of time t 2 , then we can stop summing when
co/2 c cos2f t expj 2f t,
n n n n n
n2T/t 2 see sampling theorem. In this case a n and
b n can be expressed as sums:
where a n (2/T) g i cos(2 f it), bn (2/T) gi sin(2 f it),
2T/t 2
2 t
c n (2/T) g i cos(2 f iti), n 0, n tan1(bn/an), a n
T
n0
h t cos 2 n
T
n0, n (2/T) g i exp[j2 f it].
and
If g(t) is a continuous waveform, the sum signs become
2T/t 2
integrals. b Fourier synthesis involves superimposing 2 t
the components to reconstitute the waveform. For an anti-
symmetric sawtooth waveform, the first four components
b n
T
n1
h t sin 2 n
T
.
G ,
g x,t e j x t dxdt
spread short shots are supplemented by additional
inline offset shots long shots.
fourth-order sequence: A sequence resulting from a
and cycle of about 100 to 150 ka duration Van Wagoner,
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g x,t
1
4
G , e j x t dxdt.
1995.
four-way dip: Dip calculated from a cross-spread espe-
cially where both inline and cross-spreads are splits.
The 1/4 factor is sometimes distributed between the See Figure C-19.
two integrals; where calculations involve an arbitrary FPSO: Floating Production Storage and Offloading sys-
scaling factor, the 1/4 factor may be dropped entirely. tem.
Fourier transforms are discussed in Sheriff and Geldart fractals: Geometrical models that exhibit similar patterns
1995, 277, 532533. Theorems relating to Fourier when viewed at different scales, i.e., with different
transforms are shown in Figure F-22. resolutions. If a measurement M is proportional to some
four-shot method: A reversed-refraction method used in scale S raised to a power D, D is the fractal dimen-
engineering studies. Sources at each end of a geophone
FIG. F-19. Fourier transform pairs. The time functions on the left are Fourier transforms of the frequency functions on
the right and vice-versa. Many more transform pairs could be shown. The above are all even functions and hence have
zero phase. Transforms for real odd functions are imaginary, i.e., they have a phase shift of /2. Transforms of
functions that are neither odd nor even involve variations of phase with frequency. Note f1/t.
fractional halftime 150 free-air correction
sion; the fractal dimension is generally not integral. See Detecting fractures is an objective of S-wave birefrin-
Mandelbrot 1982. gence studies and of imaging of the borehole wall see
fractional halftime: The time to reach half energy. Figure I-1. The storage capacity in fractures fracture
fracturing: Breaking the rock of a producing formation porosity, a type of secondary porosity, is usually very
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by subjecting it to very high fluid pressure, a method of small. Fractures can be induced by hydraulic fracturing
stimulating production. Proppants q.v. may be hydrofracing; q.v. to improve fluid flow into a well-
injected into the fractures to keep them open when the bore. See Aguilera 1998.
fluid pressure is released. Called hydraulic fracturing. fracture pressure: The pressure that will cause forma-
Explosives were used for fracturing until the 1930s. tions to fracture break.
fracture log: A well log of the amplitude of sonic log to Fraunhofer diffraction: froun ho fr. The special case
show fracture zones, which generally attenuate acoustic of Fresnel diffraction q.v. at a distance approaching
energy. Analysis of amplitude loss associated with infinity or by using a lens to make rays parallel.
Stoneley wave modes is related to simple models to Named for Joseph von Fraunhofer 17871826, Ger-
compute an equivalent aperture for a fracture. man physicist.
fracture permeabilityporosity: Natural fractures are pla- free-air anomaly: Gravity data that have been corrected
nar discontinuities that may contribute significantly to a for latitude and elevation free-air correction, q.v. but
formations permeability in either a positive if they are not for the density of the rock between the datum and
open or negative way if they are cemented. Fractures the measurement elevation Bouguer correction. Mea-
may result from structural deformation associated with sures the attraction because of the mass of the subad-
folding or faulting, from shrinkage because of dewater- jacent earth. Also called free-air gravity.
ing, dessication, or cooling, pore-fluid pressure that free-air correction: 1. A correction for the elevation of
exceeds rock strength, and other causes. They often a gravity measurement required because the measure-
have the same orientation and hence may result in ment was made at a different distance from the center
strong anisotropy of permeability and other properties. of the Earth than the datum. The correction
FIG. F-20. Equivalence of Fourier transform operations. Doing the time operation is equivalent to doing the frequency
operation on the transform of the data. Note: g(t)G(f) and h(t)H(f).
free-air gravity 151 frequency
is 0.308 7680.000 440 sin2 0.000 000 1442 free nutation of the Earth: See Chandler wobble.
h mGal/m, where is the latitude and h is elevation free oscillation of the Earth: A simple change-of-shape
above the ellipsoid. Usually only the first term is used, oscillation of the whole Earth induced by very large
0.3086 mGal/m or 0.09406 mGal/ft. See Figure G-7. earthquakes. The period is 53 minutes in the lowest
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2. In Turam, normalizing a ratio of successive measure- mode. See Figure F-23 and Fowler 1990, 85.
ments by dividing by the calculated free-space vertical free-space field: The field about an antenna in the absence
magnetic field. Compare normal correction. of nearby conductors. See primary field.
free-air gravity: See free-air anomaly. freeware: Software for which there is no cost, including
free energy: See thermodynamic functions. its source code.
free-fall gravimetry: Measuring the absolute gravity by freezing point: See solidus, liquidus.
timing the free fall of a weight in a vacuum. French model: A particular physical model Figure F-24
free field: Not relating to a preassigned or fixed field. used extensively for demonstrating 3D aspects of seis-
free-fluid index FFI: The percent of the bulk volume mic data and for testing migration algorithms. See
occupied by fluids that are free to flow, often measured French 1974.
by the nuclear-magnetism log q.v.. Gas gives a low frequency: 1. Symbol, f. The repetition rate of a periodic
FFI. waveform, measured in per second or Hertz. The
free format: Not relating to a preassigned or fixed format. reciprocal of period. Compare spatial frequency. 2.
Angular frequency , measured in radians per second, which is the sought-for solution. See Sheriff and Gel-
is to frequency f as 2: dart 1995, 334.
frequency-domain sounding: See frequency-domain
2 f . method.
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FIG. F-23. Free oscillations of the Earth. The simplest modes are (a) radial, breathing, or balloon; (b) spherical or
football; and (c) toroidal or twisting.
GHz transition of 87RB atoms is the least expensive of tion. Named for Augustin Jean Fresnel 1788 1827,
atomic clocks. Vibrating quartz crystals provide the French physicist.
most common inexpensive standards. Fresnel lens: See Fresnel zone.
fresh: Very low in dissolved salts. Sometimes used com- Fresnel zone: 1. The portion of a reflector from which
paratively with respect to normal sea water which is 35 reflected energy can reach a detector within one-half
000 parts of dissolved salts per million, sometimes wavelength of the first reflected energy. The central
used comparing formation water with mud filtrate. first Fresnel zone is elliptical circular for zero offset
Fresh water has less than 2000 ppm dissolved salts. data for a horizontal reflector; successive Fresnel
Fresnel diffraction: fre nel Diffraction observed close zones are annular rings of successively larger radii; see
to the diffracting object. Compare Fraunhofer diffrac- Figure F-25. Most of the energy reflected from the first
FIG. F-24. (a) French 3D model. (b) Seismic line 7: raw (unmigrated) data, 2D migrated, and 3D migrated. From
French (1974).
Fresnel zone 154 Fresnel zone
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FIG. F-25. Fresnel zones. (a) For coincident source and receiver at S, the first Fresnel zone radius is R 1 (perpendicular
to h). The second Fresnel zone is the annular ring. Higher-order zones (not shown) are also annular rings. The dominant
wavelength is . Another way of thinking of this is that a reflecting point in the subsurface influences a similar Fresnel-
zone region on the surface. (b) The build-up of energy integrating outward from the reflecting point. (c) Migration
collapses the Fresnel zone to a much smaller area, but 2-D migration collapses it in only one direction.
FIG. F-26. Fresnel-zone nomogram. A straight line connecting two-way traveltime and the frequency intersects the
central line at the same point as a straight line connecting the velocity and the radius of the zone. For example, a 20-Hz
reflection at 2.0 s and a velocity of 3.0 km/s has a Fresnel zone radius of 470 m.
fringe 155 fuzzy logic
Fresnel zone interferes constructively but the outer por- front-to-back ratio: See peak-to-bubble ratio.
tion does not contribute much, and the effective size of frost breaks: The effect of repetitive shots at random
the Fresnel zone is smaller by about a factor of 2. times following a shot, produced by ice fracturing when
Because the size of the Fresnel zone is frequency- shooting in permafrost. Also called ice noise. See Sher-
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dependent, the dominant frequency is often used where iff and Geldart 1995, 126.
a spectrum of frequencies is involved. 2. The first frown: Overmigrated so that data become concave-
Fresnel zone only, the portion of a plane reflector upward. Compare smile.
mainly effective in generating a reflection since, for a FTP: File Transfer Protocol q.v..
harmonic wave, the effects of successive zones gener- Fuller filter: A moving-average space-domain convolu-
ally cancel each other. A nomogram for determining the tion. See Fraser et al., 1966.
radius of the first Fresnel zone is shown in Figure F-26. function: A rule that assigns to each element in set A one
See Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 152. 3. A Fresnel lens
and only one element in set B.
has alternate zones blacked out so that only construc-
functionality: The ability to satisfy a stated purpose.
tive zones pass light.
function key: A key or combination of keys on a com-
fringe: 1. The extra area around the area to be surveyed
that must be covered because of the inward movement puter console that causes the computer to perform some
of dipping reflections and focusing of seismic ampli- function other than simply entering data.
tude dispersed over Fresnel zones during 3-D migra- fundamental: The lowest frequency of a periodic func-
tion. Often referred to as a migration fringe or migra- tion. Also called the first harmonic.
tion halo. 2. The portion of imaged area where fundamental strengh: The stress a material is able to
coverage is not uniform because of differences in mul- withstand over a long time under a given set of condi-
tiplicity, offset or azimuth mixes, or other factors that tions temperature, pressure, solution, etc. without
lessen confidence in data comparisons. deforming continuously.
front end: The portion of a seismic line ahead of the funnel shaped: Coarsening-upward; see coarsening and
source point in the direction of travel along the line. Figure C-6.
frontier area: A relatively unexplored area at least by the fuzzy logic: Reasoning involving fuzzy sets, that is,
organization classifying it as frontier. where elements do not fit within compact boundaries.
front-loaded: Minimum phase q.v.. Involves probability concepts.
G
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156
gamma-ray surveying 157 gated row plot
gamma radiation. The natural gamma-ray spectros- nonhyperbolic NMO. S-waves appear to be little
copy log looks at several energy windows to identify affected by gas chimneys.
the natural radiation from potassium ( 40 K), uranium gas chromatograph: An analytic instrument used to iden-
( 238 U), and thorium ( 232 Th). It is useful in identifying tify gases and volatiles by their time in passing through
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gather: A side-by-side display of seismic traces that have Gausss theorem: The total flux through any closed
some acquisition parameter in common. A common- surface is equal to 4 k times the source strength m
midpoint gather displays data for the same midpoint, enclosed by the surface
usually after correction for normal moveout and statics.
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population and the least fit member of the population location is projected parallel to the Earths axis onto a
which might be the child is eliminated. At random sphere whose radius is the ellipsoids major axis; then
times a mutation, a random change in a members the angle between the axis and a radius to this point is
chromosomes, occurs; this permits introducing into the the reduced latitude.
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species chromosome elements not present in the origi- Geodetic Reference System 1967 GRS67: The gravity
nal population. See Smith et al. 1992 and Stoffa and field acceleration of gravity at the latitude is given
Sen 1991. by
geoceiver: A geodetic receiver for making location obser-
vations in the Transit system. See satellite navigation. g978 031.846 10.005 278 895 sin2
geocentric latitude: The angle between a line through the 0.000 023 462 sin4 mGal.
center of the Earth and a plane through the equator.
Compare geodetic latitude and Figure G-1. This gives the correction for latitude as
geochronology: See geophysics.
geochronologic subdivisions: See stratigraphic classifi- 1.3049 sin 2 mGal/mile0.8108 sin 2 MGal/km.
cation. See also World Geodetic System 1984.
geocosmogony: je o kos mog, ne See geophysics. geodetics: The study and translation of coordinate sys-
geodesic: je des ik The shortest distance between two tems.
points subject to some constraint, such as being on the geodetic system: Reference for latitude and longitude.
surface of the earth. Location systems in different parts of the world are
geodesy: je od se The study of the Earths form and based on different reference positions and ellipsoid
gravitational field. Involves the location of points on assumptions. The major systems are listed in Figure
the Earth with respect to reference systems. G-2.
geodetic datum: je det ik The reference point for a geodimeter: An electro-optical distance meter. Trade
geodetic system q.v.. Coordinates and azimuth are name of Geodimeter Co.
specified with respect to a defined station where the Geodynamics Project: A 1971 1977 international
ellipsoid is made to coincide with the geoid. research program on the dynamics and dynamic history
geodetic latitude: Ordinary, geographic, or Laplace lati- of the Earth with emphasis on deep-seated geologic
tude, the angle between the Earths axis and a tangent phenomena.
to the ellipsoid that approximates the Earths shape; see geograph: Thumper q.v. or the weight-drop method.
Figure G-1. Geodetic latitude differs from geocen- Tradename of Mandrel Industries.
tric latitude because of the ellipticity of the Earth; Geographic Information System GIS: Software usu-
11.7 sin 2 approximately in minutes of arc. ally on PCs or workstations that stores, analyzes, and
The maximum difference at 45 is about 21.5 km. displays multiple forms of geographic information.
Geodetic latitude also differs from astronomic lati- geographic latitude: Geodetic latitude q.v..
tude where the mass distribution causes a vertical line geohazard survey: See hazard survey.
not to be perpendicular to the ellipsoid. Sometimes a geohistory plot: A graph showing sediment thickness ver-
sus age, assuming that none of the sediments has been
removed by subsequent erosion. See Figure G-3.
geoid: je
oid The sea-level equipotential surface to
which the direction of gravity is perpendicular every-
where. An oblate ellipsoid of revolution the ellipsoid
or spheroid that approximates the geoid is the refer-
ence for geodetic latitude determinations.
geoidal height: Height of the geoid above the reference
ellipsoid.
geo-inversion: Inversion q.v..
geologic, geological: The Oxford English Dictionary says,
There is now a slight distinction between the use of
geologic and geological: the former tends to be used
only as an epithet of things forming part of the subject
matter of the science: we may say a geologic epoch, but
hardly a geologic student, a geologic history. My
personal preference is to use whichever word sounds
best depending on what its associated with; thus I
would write seismic and geologic data and geo-
physical or geological data.
geologic age: See Appendix I and Figures A-5 and G-4.
geologic basement: See basement.
geomagnetic field: See magnetic field of the Earth.
geomagnetic polarity time scale: Reversals of the Earths
magnetic field that can be used to age-date formations.
See Figure G-4.
FIG. G-1. Geocentric, geodetic, and astronomic lati- geomagnetic pole: The north or south magnetic poles, the
tudes. poles of the best-fitting dipolar magnetic field to the
geomagnetic reversal 160 geophone
Earths magnetic field. See magnetic field of the Earth. geometric shadow: The area or volume outlined by
geomagnetic reversal: Change in the polarity of the drawing straight lines paralleling the direction of wave
Earths magnetic field from its present polarity. See approach through the extremities of a structure. It dif-
magnetochronology. fers slightly from the actual shadow because of diffrac-
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1
Xi
1/n
.
grounds displacement, velocity, or acceleration that is
involved in the passage of a seismic wave. Three mutu-
ally orthogonal phones are used to record all three
components; see triphone. Most land geophones are of interval, the separation between the centers of adjacent
the moving-coil type; see Figure G-5. A coil is sus- geophone groups.
pended by springs in a magnetic field the magnet may geophone offset: The distance from the source point to a
be integral with the case of the instrument. A seismic geophone or to the center of a geophone group.
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wave moves the case and the magnet, but the coil geophone pattern: See array (seismic).
remains relatively stationary because of its inertia. The geophone planter: A device or a person that positions
relative movement of a magnetic field with respect to geophones for receiving seismic signals; used espe-
the coil generates a voltage across the coil, the voltage cially for planting phones several feet deep in marsh.
being proportional to the relative velocity of the coil geophone station: The location of the center of a geo-
with respect to the magnet when above the natural phone array, sometimes of an individual geophone.
frequency of the geophone. Below the natural fre- Geophysical Analysis Group GAG: A research project
quency, the output for input of constant velocity of at Massachusetts Institute of Technology during
magnet motion is proportional to frequency and hence 195257 that applied communication theory to seismic
to the acceleration involved in the seismic wave pas- analysis. See Flinn et al. 1967.
sage. See Evenden et al. 1971. Compare hydrophone geophysical exploration: Making and interpreting mea-
and streamer. surements of physical properties to determine subsur-
geophone array: The use of areal, linear, or occasion- face conditions, usually with an economic objective,
ally vertical patterns with more than one geophone per e.g., discovery of fuel or mineral deposits. Properties
channel. Used to discriminate against events with cer- measured include seismic traveltime and waveshape
tain apparent wavelengths. See Figure A-20 and array changes, electric potential differences, magnetic and
(seismic). gravitational field strength, temperature, etc. Syn-
geophone cable: Insulated cable to which geophone onyms: applied geophysics, geophysical prospecting.
groups are connected. geophysical survey: A program of geophysical explora-
geophone distance: Usually group interval q.v., some- tion q.v.. See electric survey, geothermal prospecting,
times geophone interval or geophone offset q.v.. gravity survey, magnetic survey, reflection survey,
geophone distortion: Waveshape changes produced by refraction survey, remote sensing, and well log.
nonlinear response of a geophone. Very small with geophysicist: One who studies the physical properties of
modern geophones. See also distortion. the earth or applies physical measurements to geologic
geophone interval: 1. The distance between adjacent geo- problems; a specialist in geophysics.
phones within a group. 2. Sometimes used for group geophysics: 1. The study of the Earth by quantitative
FIG. G-3. A geohistory plot shows the age of the rocks at various depths for a specific location. This plot also shows
which sediments were under the proper pressure-temperature conditions to have generated hydrocarbons, that is,
which were in the hydrocarbon kitchen. (From Bedir et al., 2001, 903.)
geopressure 162 Geosat
physical methods, especially by seismic reflection and and geocosmogony the origin of the Earth are some-
refraction, gravity, magnetic, electrical, electromag- times added to the foregoing list. 3. Often refers to
netic, and radioactivity methods. 2. The application of solid-earth geophysics only, thus excluding c, d, e,
physical principles to studies of the Earth. Includes the and portions of other subjects from the above list. 4.
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branches of a seismology earthquakes and elastic Exploration geophysics is the use of seismic, gravity,
waves; b geothermometry heating of the Earth, magnetic, electrical, electromagnetic, etc., methods in
heat flow, volcanology, and hot springs; c hydrology the search for oil, gas, minerals, water, etc., with the
ground and surface water, sometimes including glaci- objective of economic exploitation.
ology; d physical oceanography; e meteorology; geopressure: 1. Usually, overpressure q.v.. 2. Above
f gravity and geodesy the Earths gravitational field geopressure sometimes means pressure larger than
and the size and form of the Earth; g atmospheric normal but it also sometimes means shallower than
electricity and terrestrial magnetism including iono- the top of overpressure that is, normal pressure.
sphere, Van Allen belts, telluric currents, etc.; h tec- georadar: Ground-penetrating radar q.v..
tonophysics geological processes in the Earth; and i Geosat: An Earth satellite funded by the U.S. Navy. A
exploration, engineering, and environmental geo- high-resolution radar altimeter measures the geoid, sea
physics. Geochronology the dating of Earth history waves, sea ice, etc.
FIG. G-4. Geomagnetic polarity time scale showing the present polarity in black, reversed polarity in white. Magnetic
anomaly numbers are also shown. (From Cox, 1982.)
Geoshare standard 163 Gibbs phenomenon
Geoshare standard: GPS vendor-neutral standards set by geosyncline: je o sin klin A subsiding area of extensive
the Geoshare User Group. See The Leading Edge Feb. sediment and/or volcanic accumulation; a more-or-less
2000, p. 173. continually sinking area, usually roughly linear.
geostatic pressure: See abnormal pressure. geotechnical geophysics: The use of shallow geophysical
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geostatistics: Statistical estimation techniques applied to methods of investigation in civil and construction engi-
spatially correlated variables for geological/geophysical neering for road and building construction and evalua-
applications. It uses the spatial continuity of natural tion, dam safety, and solution of related problems;
phenomena to predict interpolated and extrapolated val- engineering and environmental geophysics.
ues using correlation and probability concepts. Among Geotem: An airborne digital time-domain electromagnetic
the methods are regression techniques, kriging, and system. Geoterrex tradename. See also Input system.
cokriging q.v.. geothermal field: An area characterized by high heat
geosteering: Directing a horizontal well so that it stays flow, usually a consequence of fairly recent magma
within the same formation. emplacement, sometimes attributed to concentrations of
radioelements.
geothermal gradient: The rate of change of temperature
with depth in the earth often about 30 C/km at shal-
low depths.
geothermal heat flow: The heat flow from the Earths
interior per unit area per unit time. The product of
thermal conductivity and thermal gradient. See HFU.
geothermal prospecting: 1. Prospecting for high-
temperature water and/or steam close to the surface,
that can be used profitably for electric power generation
and/or direct heat utilization. Geothermal methods also
may be used to locate geologic features that affect heat
flow salt domes, dikes, faults, etc. or groundwater
variations. 2. Measurements of variations in earth tem-
perature that are not attributable to variations in solar
heating. Diurnal temperature variations penetrate to
about 1 m and annual temperature variations to 20 m.
See Poley and van Steveninck 1970.
geothermal reservoir: 1. A subsurface layer of rock con-
taining steam or hot water that is trapped in the layer by
overlying impermeable rocks. 2. A subsurface layer of
rock that is hot but contains little or no water. Geother-
mal reservoirs are a potential source of energy.
geothermometry: 1. The study of the Earths heat. See
geophysics. 2. Determining geothermal reservoir tem-
peratures from the relative concentrations of Na, K, Ca,
and Mg ions in natural waters.
Geovision: The seismic system developed by Frank Rie-
ber in the late 1930s that included photographic record-
ing and playback with stacking summing as a function
of apparent dip.
ghost: 1. Energy that travels upward from an energy
release and then is reflected downward, such as occurs
at the base of the weathering or at the surface. Ghost
energy usually joins with the down-traveling wavetrain
to change the effective waveshape. Sometimes called
secondary reflection which is also applied to other
multiples. 2. Energy reflected from the water surface
before being picked up by a submerged receiver. 3. A
correlation ghost q.v. that results from harmonic dis-
tortion when using vibroseis. 4. A reflection of light
from the front side of a mirror as well as from the
silvered back side, thus producing a double image.
Gibbs free energy, Gibbs functions: gibz See thermo-
dynamic functions.
Gibbs phenomenon: When a waveform that includes a
FIG. G-5. Geophone. (a) Schematic of essential discontinuity or whose derivatives are discontinuous
elements: a wire (or coil) with inertial mass that remains is Fourier synthesized, the fit is poor near the disconti-
steady as the magnet moves. (b) Half of a moving-coil nuity. As the number of frequency components included
geophone. (c) Cutaway of a digital-grade geophone. in the synthesis increases, the region of poor fit
(Courtesy Geo Space.) becomes narrower, but some overshoot at discontinui-
giga G 164 gradient-dip estimation
ties continues. The poor fit sometimes is called Gibbs tioning System counts time by numbered weeks and the
ears. Named for Josiah Willard Gibbs 18391903, number of seconds in that week. Week counting began
American mathematician and physicist. See Figure in January 1980 and rolled over to zero on August
F-18 and Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 539540. 21/22, 1999.
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gradient method: An iterative method of solving simul- the sensitivity of the system. Usually a zero-length
taneous equations, occurring in optimization problems. spring is used; it has a stress-strain curve that passes
gradient plot: The slope of a best-fit line to a graph of through zero length when projected back to zero strain.
amplitude versus sin , where angle of incidence. See Figure G-6.
Used in amplitude-variation-with-offset q.v. studies. gravitational constant: The proportionality constant in
grading: Indicating the relative reliability of data or of an Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation. The gravi-
interpretation, an important aspect of interpretation. tational force F between two point masses m 1 and m 2
Usually a subjective process. Sometimes grading can be related to the distance r between them:
systems employ letters: v g very good, ggood,
f fair, ppoor, v pvery poor, and ?question- F m 1 m 2 /r 2 ;
able. Coherency-measuring criteria are sometimes used has the value 6.67010 11 newtonm2 /kg2 . The
in an attempt to make grading quantitative. Contours force is a vector directed toward the attracting mass.
are often graded by varying the type of line: solid The gravitational field g also a vector, often called the
contourreliable; dashed contourless reliable or acceleration of gravity is the force per unit mass
interpolated between data; and dotted contour measured by the force on the mass m 1 in the gravime-
speculative. ter:
gradiomanometer: gra o man om t r A device for
de
determining the density of the wellbore fluid by mea- gF/m 1 m 2 /r 2 ;
suring the vertical pressure at two points.
gradiometer: gra d e om t r A device for measuring a g is the vector sum of the effect of all the masses e.g.,
component of the gradient of a potential or electromag- the masses in the Earth.
netic field. 1. An arrangement of two magnetometers gravitational potential: The negative of the work
or gravimeters, one above the other, so that the dif- required to move a unit mass from infinity to a given
ference in their readings is proportional to the vertical point against gravitational forces. In the field of a point
gradient of the magnetic gravity field, or of magneto- mass m a distance r away, this is m/r, where is the
meters on opposite wingtips and in a tail stinger of an
aircraft, so that the difference in their readings is pro-
portional to the horizontal gradients of the magnetic
field, or some similar arrangement. The direction with
respect to the Earths magnetic field is a factor in
interpretation. 2. A three-arm torsion balance that is
sensitive to gravity gradients but not to curvature. 3.
Borehole gravimeter q.v..
grain: 1. Alignment of features which define a preferred
direction; a trend. The spatial configuration of features
lineations, trends that characterizes a region; fabric,
signature. 2. A small particle. 3. One of the discrete
clumps of silver particles resulting from the develop-
ment of exposed light-sensitive material.
grainstone: A grain-supported carbonate rock containing
less than 1% mud. Compare wackestone, packstone,
mudstone.
grammar: Rules for a computer language.
granite: A coarse, intrustive, acidic igneous rock rich in
quartz, predominant in continental crust.
granularity: Coarseness in a calculation or representa-
tion.
graphical user interface GUI: A program used to pro-
duce displays.
graphic log: Sample log q.v..
graphics: Displays of data by means of graphs, pictures,
etc.
graticule: grat kyool 1. A template for graphically
integrating gravity or similar data. See also dot chart
and zone chart. 2. A grid network such as lines repre-
senting parallels and meridians on a plotting sheet.
gravel pack: See completion.
gravimeter: gr vim i tr An instrument for measuring FIG. G-6. Gravimeters. (a) LaCoste-Romberg schematic.
variations in gravitational attraction; a gravity meter. (b) Worden schematic. Gravimeters are basically very
Most gravimeters are of the unstable or astatic type. sensitive spring balances.
gravity 166 greenstone belt
gravitational constant. Also called Newtonian poten- ally the difference between the gravity field at two
tial. points is measured as with a gravimeter q.v.. Gravity
gravity: The force of attraction between bodies because of data usually are displayed as Bouguer or free-air
their masses. Usually measured as the gravity field of anomaly maps.
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the Earth that varies from about 978 000 mGal 9.78 gravity unit: A unit of gravitational acceleration, equal to
m/s2 at the equator to 983 000 mGal at the poles. See 0.1 mGal or 10 6 m/s2 .
International gravity formula and gravitational con- gray code: A binary number code in which successive
stant. numbers differ by only one bit; see Figure N-4. The
gravity anomaly: 1. The difference between the gravity gray code is used in error minimization because the
that is observed and that expected from a model. 2. number of bit changes is the same for a one step change
Bouguer anomaly q.v.. 3. Free-air anomaly q.v.. See regardless of the magnitude of the quantity.
also Figure G-7. grazing incidence: A raypath tangent to an interface.
gravity basement: Where a very large density contrast Greens equivalent layer: See surface density.
exists so that anomalies resulting from deeper contrasts Greens functions: Solution of a differential equation
are lost in the noise. See also basement. with an impulse as the exciting force. Exact seismo-
gravity corer: See corer. grams in a given medium can be viewed as the convo-
gravity coupling: The coupling of detectors only by vir- lution of the source wavelet and the mediums Greens
tue of their weight or weight in water. function. See convolutional model.
gravity meter: Gravimeter q.v.. Greens theorem: A form of Gausss divergence theo-
gravity reduction: Applying Bouguer, free-air, isostatic, rem relating a volume integral to surface integrals. If F
latitude, or terrain corrections to gravity measurements; and G are two scalar functions, then
see Figure G-7. For air and marine gravity, also
includes Eo tvo s correction.
gravity resolution: Goussev and Peirce 1999 give the F 2 GG 2 F d v
data in Figure G-8 dealing with resolution.
gravity standard: The International Gravity Standardiza-
tion Network 1971 IGSN71 is now standard. See FGGF ds,
International gravity formula and Woollard 1979.
gravity survey: Measurements of the gravitational field at where d v is a volume element and ds is a surface
various locations over an area of interest. The objective element. Named for George Green 17931841,
in exploration work is to associate variations with dif- English mathematician.
ferences in the distribution of densities and hence of greenstone belt: Elongate areas within Precambrian
rock types. Occasionally the whole gravitational field is shields characterized by abundant altered basic igneous
measured as with a pendulum or derivatives of the rock, and which may contain volcanic-sedimentary
gravitational field as with a torsion balance, but usu- complexes of economic interest.
FIG. G-7. Corrections to gravity data and the names of the resulting anomalies. The terrain correction is not always
applied to free-air data. Eo tvo s corrections also have to be made if the meter was moving during the measurement.
(From Sheriff, 1989, 62.)
Greenwich 167 grid residual
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FIG. G-8. Gravity methods resolution. (Courtesy Goussev and Peirce, 1999.)
Greenwich: gren ich or grin ich 1. Longitude measured regular spacing. 2. A regular spacing, e.g., at the inter-
with respect to the prime meridian that passes through sections of integral coordinate values.
the Royal Astronomic Observatory at Greenwich, grid cell: A small area that together with other small areas
England. 2. The time at the Greenwich observatory: constitutes a continuous surface; a bin q.v..
GMT, sometimes GCT. grid effect: Systematic error created in interpolating onto
Greenwich hour angle: See hour angle. a grid.
Greenwich time: The time at Greenwich q.v., England. grid residual: A method of emphasizing anomalies of a
Gregory-Newton formula: A relationship used to inter- certain size in a potential-field map. A grid usually
polate between sample values. See Sheriff and Geldart
square or triagonal is drawn on a contour map and
1995, 528.
values are determined at the grid intersections by inter-
grey bar: A display relating intensity to the values repre-
sented. polation. The residual at one of the grid intersections is
grey body: A radiating surface whose radiation has the the value at that point less the average at other inter-
same spectral distribution as that of a blackbody at the sections a fixed distance away. Averages at several
same temperature, but whose emissive power is less. distances may be used and weighted to approximate
grey level: In black-and-white variable-area and variable- second-derivative or other functions. The process of
density record sections, the overall greyness of the making grid residuals is also called map convolution
section is an important factor affecting the interpretabil- a 2D convolution because it represents map data
ity. convolved with a residualizing operator or template.
grid: 1. To interpolate irregularly spaced values onto a This technique has largely been replaced now by gra-
grid smoothing 168 group
dient filters and other digital high-pass filters. See also geophones distributed over a sizeable surface area. The
residualize. objective of arrays usually is to have vertically travel-
grid smoothing: A method of smoothing sharp irregulari- ing reflection energy add up in-phase while horizontally
ties in potential-field measurements that arise from very traveling energy and random noise partially cancel, the
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shallow sources. The average of values a fixed small entire array in effect acting as one large source or
distance away is taken as the smoothed value. This geophone. The term is sometimes reserved for situa-
method has been replaced for the most part by using tions where adjacent geophone or source patterns actu-
digital filters. ally overlap.
grid-stitching: Merging map data involving different grid ground noise survey: Noise survey q.v..
systems. ground-penetrating radar GPR: A means of exploring
GRM: Generalized Reciprocal Method q.v., a refraction the shallow subsurface with electromagnetic waves
interpretation method. radar, usually in the 10 to 1000 MHz band. The
Gro ningen effect: grern ing n An effect observed with two-way traveltimes of reflected radar waves give the
dual laterologs when a thick resistive unit overlies the depths where changes in electrical properties occur.
measured formation, shielding the formation and giving Also called georadar, ground probing radar, and
misleading resistivity readings. This effect can be over- surface penetrating radar. See Figure G-9.
come by adding a return electrode below the tool. Also ground roll: Surface-wave energy that travels along or
called the Delaware effect. near the surface of the ground. It is usually character-
ground: A point in an electrical circuit used as a common ized by relatively low velocity, low frequency, and high
reference point, often the conducting chassis on which amplitude. Ground roll tends to mask desired reflection
the electrical circuit is physically mounted. It is fre- signals. Source and geophone patterns, frequency filter-
quently, but not necessarily, connected to the earth by a ing, f -k filtering, and stacking are used to discriminate
low-resistance conductor. against it. It is usually a modified Rayleigh wave q.v.,
ground coupling: The mechanical connection of a geo- and ground roll is sometimes called pseudo-Rayleigh
phone to the earth. Most often a spike on the geophone waves. See Figure R-3.
base is pressed into the earth. The geophone plant. ground truth: 1. Data obtained on the ground concerning
ground force: A measure of the energy input into the the significance of albedo anomalies observed in
ground in vibroseis exploration. remote sensing, to help interpretation. 2. Data from a
ground loop: The feature of an electrical circuit in which ground monitor used to show that extraneous events,
the circuit is connected to the common conductor such as a disturbing magnetic storm, did not occur
ground at two or more points, thus forming closed- during the acquisition of airborne data.
loop circuits of which the common conductor is a part. ground unrest: Background or ambient noise, such as
Current flow in these loops may result in the ground produced by wind, microseisms, etc.
being at different potential levels at different points, an group: 1. The various geophones or hydrophones that
undesirable feature. collectively feed a single channel. The number of
ground mix: The use of an array or pattern of sources or phones may vary from one to several hundred. A large
FIG. G-9. A ground-penetrating radar record appears similar to a very shallow-penetration seismic section. (From
Annan and Gosway, 1992.)
groupungroup 169 GTO
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FIG. G-10. Gyrocompass. (a) A gyroscope tends to maintain its orientation in space, making it appear to change
direction as seen from the rotating Earth. (b) A weight on the vertical circle makes a gyroscope into a gyrocompass. Tilt
of the gyroscope axis because of the Earths rotation tends to raise the weight, thus exerting a torque that makes the
gyroscope precess unless the axis is aligned parallel to the Earths axis. This meridian-seeking ability is the essence
of a gyrocompass.
guard log: A log made with guard electrodes q.v.. A Weichert, German seismologist.
laterolog or focused log.
guyot: ge o A flat-topped seamount q.v.. Named for
guest: A mineral introduced into and usually replacing
another mineral. Arnold Henry Guyot 18071884, Swiss-American
GUI: Graphical User Interface, a program to produce geologist.
displays. G-wave: A long-period 40 to 300 s Love wave q.v.,
guided wave: 1. A channel wave q.v.. 2. An interface usually restricted to an oceanic path. Velocity is often
wave or surface wave q.v.. nearly constant at 4.4 km/s so the wave appears nearly
Gulf magnetometer: A type of fluxgate magnetometer impulsive. Named for Gutenberg.
q.v.. gyre: jir Mammoth rotating currents benthic storms in
gumbo: gum bo 1. A clay soil that becomes sticky and the deep ocean.
plastic when wet. 2. Any relatively sticky formation
gyrocompass: j ro kum, ps A gimbal-mounted gyro-
encountered in drilling.
gun: 1. An air gun q.v., a seismic energy source from scope incorporating unbalanced masses which make the
which a bubble of highly compressed air is released; axis of rotation precess about true north. See Figure
see Figure A-6. 2. A gas gun gas exploder, q.v., a G-10. If a torque tries to change the plane of rotation of
seismic energy source in which an explosive gas mix- a gyroscope, the gyroscope axis rotates about an axis
ture is detonated. 3. A water gun q.v., a seismic source that is perpendicular to both the gyroscopes axis of
in which a volume of water is suddenly projected into spin and the torque; this is called precession.
the water. 4. A Buffalo gun q.v., a seismic source used gyrotropic: j, ro
trop ik A material in which two of the
in near-surface studies. 5. A device for obtaining side- three principal values of conductivity are equal usually
wall cores in a borehole. 6. A perforating gun, a device the maximum values. Similar to transversely isotropic
used to perforate or open holes in casing so that fluid
q.v..
can flow into the borehole.
H
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h: Plancks constant; 6.62610 34 joule. given by a, to the center of a spherical mass by 1.3 a,
H: 1. Henry q.v., the SI unit of inductance. 2. The to the center of a spherical magnetic sphere by 2.0 a,
magnetizing field vector. 3. See H-type section. to the mass center of a thin semi-infinite slab fault
hachure: ha sur A short line or mark along a contour or anomaly by b. See also depth rule and Figure H-1.
fault trace that points in the down-dip direction or Hall effect: A transverse potential that develops across a
toward smaller values. semiconductor or strip of metal when it carries a current
Hadamard transform: had mard A means of trans- when located in a strong magnetic field. Named for its
forming an image from the spatial to the frequency discoverer, Edwin Herbert Hall 18551938, Ameri-
domain. can physicist.
hade: The complement of dip; see Figure F-2. halo: 1. A false anomaly surrounding an anomaly as a
Hagedoorn method: hag doorn Plus-minus method result of the residualizing technique employed. See
q.v. of refraction interpretation. halo effect. 2. The fringe ring of data at the edges of a
Haless method: ha lz 1. A graphical refraction interpre- 3-D survey where full multiplication is not achieved.
tation method, particularly useful where the refractor halo effect: 1. Many residual and second-derivative meth-
changes depth markedly, such as where there is consid- ods produce a ring or halo of an opposite sign around
erable relief or over large faults, but with constant an anomaly, reflecting the opposite field curvature
velocity above the refractor. See Hales 1958 or Sheriff around the periphery of the anomaly. Halos do not
and Geldart 1995, 443 446. 2. A method for the represent separate anomalous masses, and they can be
Fourier-domain implementation of DMO q.v.. See reduced or eliminated by biasing. 2. A ring anomaly,
Hale 1984. claimed to be characteristic of certain electromagnetic
half adder: A circuit with two inputs A and B and two or geochemical effects of structures or hydrocarbon
outputs, sum and carry S and C. Its truth table is: accumulations.
halokinesis: Salt tectonics q.v..
A B S C hammer: A hammer striking a steel plate is used as a
0 0 0 0 seismic source for shallow refraction or reflection mea-
surements. The hammer incorporates a switch that
1 0 1 0 starts a timer when the hammer strikes. Alternatively,
0 1 1 0 closure can be produced by the hammer touching the
plate to complete an electrical circuit. In some systems
1 1 0 1 the timer is stopped when energy received by a geo-
phone reaches some threshold value.
C is an AND gate and S is an EXCEPT gate. See gate.
Hammer chart: A template for making gravity terrain
half adjust: Rounding in which the value of a particular
corrections. See Hammer 1940.
digit determines whether a one shall be added to the
Hamming: Smoothing with weights 0.23, 0.54, 0.23. See
next-higher significant digit.
Hamming function.
half-duplex: A system in which transmission can occur in
Hamming function: ham ng A function used to shape
only one direction at any time. Transmissions in oppo-
the cutoff of a window or gate in data processing to
site directions alternate. Compare duplex.
avoid the undesirable effects of sharp truncation. See
half plane: A plane that exists everywhere to one side of
Figure W-12. The Hamming function different from
a line but not on the other side.
the Hanning function is
half-maximum distance: See Half-width method.
half-power point: The frequency value on an amplitude
response curve for which the amplitude reaches 1/& 0.540.46 cos , ,
or 70.7%.
half-space: A mathematical model bounded only by one 0, or ,
plane surface, i.e., the model is so large in other dimen-
sions that only the one boundary affects the results. where increases linearly from to across the
Properties within the model are usually assumed to be window. For the kth element out of n elements within
homogeneous and isotropic, though other models are the window, 2 k/(n1) . Named after R. W.
also used. Hamming.
half-width: See half-width method. handover word: 1. The word in an electronic message
half-width method: A method of estimating the depth to a that contains time synchronization information. 2. A
gravity or magnetic source from anomaly shape. coded signal from GPS satellites that permits synchro-
Depending on the model, the half-width is a half the nizing a users start time with the satellites.
width of an anomaly at half the maximum or mini- handshake: The sequence of signals required for commu-
mum value, or b half the width between points where nication between system functions. The I/O bus proto-
the anomaly is one-quarter and three-quarters ampli- col for a system defines its handshaking requirements.
tude. The depth to the center of a horizontal cylinder is For example, asynchronous I/O systems require a
171
hands-off tuning 172 Hankel transform
response reply to each signal to complete an I/O 50100 m away from the fault plane to get away from
operation. distorted data along the fault itself. See Brown 1999,
hands-off tuning: Automatic tuning of a side-scan sonar. 2021, 225232 and Figure F-2.
Trade name of Klein Associates. Hankel transform: hank l The Hankel transform of
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hanging wall: The side of a fault that lies above a dipping order m of the real function f (t) is
fault slope; the downthrown side for a normal fault. A
hanging-wall slice is a seismic section showing reflec-
tions along a curved surface parallel to and displaced F s f t tJ m st dt,
FIG. H-1. Half-width. (a) Gravity anomaly resulting from a point or line element (sphere or horizontal cylinder). Depth
to center of sphere1.305 half-width, depth to center of cylinderhalf-width. (b) Gravity anomaly resulting from a thin
semi-infinite slab (step or fault). Depth to center of the anomalous masshalf-width.
FIG. H-2. Mohs hardness scale is a measure of the resistance to scratching. (From Busch, 2000, 33.)
Hannell rule 173 Heaviside layer
where J m is the m-order Bessel function. Also called a Haskell matrix: has kl See Thomson-Haskell method.
Bessel transform. Named for Hermann Hankel 1839 hat: The superscript symbol ; used to designate a quan-
1873, German mathematician. tity such as x that is analogous to another quantity x.
Hannell rule: han l See depth rule. haversine: hav r sin Haversine (1cos )/2.
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Hanning: Smoothing with weights 0.25, 0.50, 0.25. Hayford modification: ha y ford An isostatic hypothesis
Hanning function: han ng A function used to shape that modifies the Pratt hypothesis where the pressure is
the cutoff of a window in data processing to avoid balanced at the depth of compensation. See isostasy.
undesirable effects of sharp truncation: Named for John Filmore Hayford 1868 1925, Ameri-
can geodesist.
1/2 1/2 cos , , Hayford spheroid: An approximation to the Earths fig-
ure proposed by Hayford see above in 1909. Adopted
0, or .
as the International Spheroid in 1924. It is used exten-
See Figure W-12. Named after Julius von Hann 1839 sively worldwide for coordinate systems.
1921, Austrian meteorologist. Slightly different from hazard data: Information used to gauge risks.
Hamming function q.v.. hazard survey: A survey employing several sensors such
haptics: hap tiks Use of the sense of touch in virtual as side-scan sonar, magnetometer, and high-resolution
reality. Often involves a haptic pen or haptic glove. seismic to obtain shallow data to identify potential
Haq chart: hack A table showing Mesozoic and Ceno- hazards, such as pockets of gas leaking from deeper
zoic eustatic cycles, sequence chronostratigraphy, and formations, submarine landslides, gas hydrates, man-
relationships to other time scales. See sequence stratig- made obstacles, etc.
raphy and Figure S-5. HC effect on overpressure: The change in fluid pressure
hard copy: A printed or otherwise displayed on paper with depth depends on the density of the fluid. Where
copy of data in human-readable form, such as a paper an appreciable gaseous or liquid hydrocarbon column
copy of an image on a computer terminal screen. exists, the pore fluid develops a pressure difference
hard data: Data that are believed to be more accurate than from what is expected for normal brine fluid. Measure-
other data. ments of the fluid pressure can be used to determine the
hard disk: A random-access, high-capacity digital storage bases of accumulations even where contacts are not
device. themselves observed.
hardening: Increase in acoustic impedance as a result of HCI: HydroCarbon Indicator q.v..
fluid production and loss of porosity. HDS: Hue, Density, and Saturation, the three color param-
hardness: The Mohs scale for the hardness of rocks is eters; see Figure C-7.
shown in Figure H-2. HDT: High-resolution dipmeter; a dipmeter q.v. that
hard pressure: Formation-fluid pressure that approaches records four microresistivity curves and has an addi-
the fracture pressure, often taken as 90% of the over- tional electrode on one pad that yields another curve at
burden pressure or requiring 16 lb/gal mud. displaced depth. The displaced-depth curve is used to
hard rock: Rock whose P-wave velocity 2500 m/s. correct for variations in the speed of the logging sonde.
hardware: Equipment, especially computing-machine head: 1. A magnetic head q.v.. 2. The pressure resulting
equipment. from a given height of fluid.
hard-wired logic: A group of logic circuits permanently head-check pulse: An impulse applied simultaneously to
interconnected to perform a specific function. all channels of an analog magnetic recorder so that the
harmonic: har mon ik 1. A frequency that is a simple alignment of magnetic heads can be checked. See Fig-
multiple of a fundamental frequency. The third har- ure R-6.
monic, for example, has a frequency three times that of header, heading: 1. The identification information and
the fundamental. 2. Two frequencies are harmonically tabulation of parameters that precedes data, as on mag-
related if they are each harmonics of a common fun- netic tape. 2. First part of a borehole log containing
damental. 3. Any component of a Fourier series except information about the well and logging operation.
the fundamental. heading: 1. A navigational direction. 2. The first part of a
harmonic analysis: Decomposing a periodic waveform borehole log that contains information about the well
into constituent cosine waves, i.e., into a Fourier series and logging operations.
or its Fourier transform. Same as Fourier analysis headwall: Hanging wall q.v. of a fault.
q.v.. head wave: A wave characterized by entering and leaving
harmonic average: The reciprocal of a harmonic average a high-velocity medium at the critical angle. See Fig-
is given by the sum of the weighted reciprocals of the ures C-17, H-3, and T-8. Also called a refraction,
elements to be averaged. For example, for three ele- Meisner, Mintrop, von Schmidt, conical wave.
ments, heat conductivity: Thermal conductivity q.v..
heat flow unit HFU: 10 2 cal/m2 s41.86 mW/m2 .
1/V har.ava/V 1 b/V 2 c/V 3 , where abc1. The mean heat flow of the earth is 1.21.5 HFU. Heat
harmonic distortion: Distortion q.v. characterized by flow ranges from about 0.9 in shield areas to over 2
the generation of harmonics of input frequencies. HFU in Cenozoic volcanic areas; midocean ridge val-
harmonic function: A function that satisfies Laplaces ues reach 8 HFU.
equation, has continuous single-valued first derivatives, Heaviside function: A step function that has the value
and has second derivatives. zero for negative argument and 1 for positive values.
harmonic mean: See mean. Heaviside layer: hev e sd, The E-layer q.v.. Named
hash total: Summation check; see check. for Oliver Heaviside 18501925, English physicist.
heighting 174 henry H
heighting: Determining the difference in elevation magnetic field for magnetic measurements. Named for
between two stations, often determined trigonometri- Hermann Ludwig von Helmholtz 18211894, Ger-
cally by measuring the distance and the angle between man scientist.
the line of sight and horizontal. Helmholtz double layer: See double layer.
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height of instrument HI: The elevation of a survey- Helmholtz equation: The space-dependent form of the
instrument eyepiece with respect to the ground level. wave equation for a wave that is harmonic in time:
Used with theodolites, levels, alidades, etc.
Heiskannen modification: his kan n See isostasy. 2 2 0,
helicopter electromagnetics HEM: Frequency-domain
electromagnetic measurements that employ a number where /V, angular frequency, and V
of coaxial coil pairs, made from a helicopter. Systems velocity.
such as Aerodat and Digihem. Helmholtz separation method: A method of separating
helicopter gravity: See aerogravity. Helicopters are scalar and vector potentials into other scalar and vector
sometimes used in gravity surveying merely for trans- functions that facilitate solution of the wave equation.
port. See Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 40.
helicopter landing officer: The personnel responsible for help: A callable explanation of computer options avail-
helicopter landing safety on a marine vessel. able. Especially used with user-friendly personal com-
Helmholtz coil: helm ho ltz A pair of coaxial coils sepa- puters and interactive workstations.
rated by a distance equal to their radius, which provides HEM: 1. Helicopter ElectroMagnetics q.v.. 2.
a nearly constant magnetic field over a large volume Horizontal-loop electromagnetic method.
between the coils. It permits an accurate calculation of henry H: The SI unit of electrical inductance; the induc-
the magnetic field between the coils and is used in tance where one volt is induced by a current change of
calibration of magnetometers and nulling an ambient one ampere per second. Named for Joseph Henry
FIG. H-3. Head waves. (a) Time-distance plot showing head waves that extend as straight alignments to the right of 1
and 2 , where they are tangent to the respective reflections. (b) First-arrival wavefronts for horizontally layered media.
(c) Same as (b) except for addition of a high-velocity mass (salt dome). (d) A number of types of head waves are
possible from an incident P-wave depending on relative velocities, but usually only the P2 P1 type is observed.
hermaphroditic connector 175 high-line eliminator
17971878, American physicist. and error method. 3. A rule used in artificial intelli-
hermaphroditic connector: hr ma. fr did ik A con- gence stating a probable but not certain consequence.
nector that can accommodate both male and female hexadecimal: hek s des, mal A radix 16 number
plugs. system. See Figure N-4.
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Hermitian matrix: A matrix that equals the transpose of hexagonal packing: The most compact arrangement for a
its conjugate: packing of uniform spheres. See Sheriff and Geldart
A T A. 1995, 108.
It has real eigenvalues and can be diagonalized by HFMAG: High-Frequency MAGnetics q.v..
similarity transformations. Named for Charles Hermite HFVS: High-Fidelity VibroSeis q.v..
18221901, French mathematician. HFU: Heat Flow Unit q.v..
Hermite polynomials: hr me t The set of polynomials HI: Height of Instrument q.v..
H n (x) orthogonal with respect to the weight function hiatus: h a ts An interval of time not represented by
2
e x on the interval , . See Abramowitz and rock strata. May be depositional because strata were
Stegun 1965. never deposited or erosional because they were
herringbone: her ng bo n A pattern of systematic removed subsequent to deposition.
deviation of contours on a contour map produced when hidden layer: A layer that cannot be detected by refrac-
one or several lines of data is systematically mislocated tion methods. See Figure H-5. 1. A layer of lower
or has systematic bias. See Figure H-4. velocity lying beneath a layer of higher velocity. 2. A
hertz Hz: hurtz The SI unit of frequency, the same as layer that is too thin or has insufficient velocity contrast
cycles per secondcps. Named after Heinrich to give a distinct arrival sometimes insufficient to give
Rudolph Hertz 18571894, German physicist who a first arrival. See blind zone.
discovered electromagnetic waves. hierarchy: hi rar, ke or hi rar ke
The protocol q.v.
Hertz equation: A relation for the radius of contact of among the various subprograms or displays that gov-
elastic spheres when under pressure. See Love 1944. ern how they communicate with each other. Especially
Hertz vector potential: A vector potential from which used for work station protocol.
both the EM vector potential A and the scalar potential hi-fix: See Decca. Decca Survey trade name.
can be derived by differentiation: high-cut filter: A filter q.v. that transmits frequencies
below a given cutoff frequency and substantially
A /t attenuates frequencies above the cutoff. The same as
low-pass filter.
.
high-fidelity vibroseis HFVS: An alternative to
Hessian matrix: hesh n The matrix of second partial vibroseis correlation for compressing vibrator field
derivatives of a function. For a function data. The vibrators baseplate or reaction-masss accel-
f (x 1 ,x 2 ,...,x n ), the Hessian matrix H has entries eration is recorded along with the geophone traces.
Each geophone trace is compressed by dividing its
h i j 2 f /x i x j . Fourier transform by that of the baseplate or reaction-
Used in nonlinear modeling. See Press et al. 1986. mass acceleration signal. The resulting trace is
heterogeneity: het, ro j ne Lack of spatial uni-
i te minimum-phase bandpass filtered and spike decon-
formity. Opposite of homogeneity. volved. The resulting fundamental reflection wavelets
heuristic: hyoo ris tik 1. A method or scheme used for are minimum phase. The method claims to remove
teaching. 2. Pertaining to learning, especially a trial detrimental effects of changing near-surface properties
and vibrator-generated harmonics. ExxonMobil trade-
name.
high-frequency magnetics HFMAG: Magnetic anoma-
lies of shallow sedimentary origin, often 1 nT, seen in
areas of deep magnetic basement. Possible sources
include detrital magnetite, diagenetic magnetite, or
other minerals possibly related to hydrocarbon micro-
seepage, salt or anhydrite diamagnetism, or fault min-
eralization.
high-level language: A computer programming language
that uses words and symbols to make it relatively easy
to read and write a program. It must be translated into
machine language to be executed by a computer.
high-line: Voltages induced in cables or instruments by
nearby electric transmission lines. Characterized by the
frequency of power transmission usually 60 or 50 Hz,
or 16 2/3 Hz for some electric railways or its harmon-
ics. Coupling may be capacitive, by electromagnetic
induction especially if the transmission lines are unbal-
FIG. H-4. Herringbone effect. Flight lines e and i are anced, or by leakage currents from ground-return sys-
displaced southward from their correct positions and n is tems. The problem is most severe when the cables and
displaced eastward, thus producing fictitious anomalies. sensors are not well insulated electrically.
The effect on the contours is called herringbone. high-line eliminator: A part of seismic recording equip-
high-pass filter 176 Hilbert transform
ment used to attenuate high-line interference. May con- high-resolution thermometer: A small-diameter fast-
sist of bridges that balance the voltage across the input response thermometer for logging open or cased bore-
transformers with respect to a center tap at ground holes with a temperature resolution of 0.5 F.
potential, the assumption being that voltages with high-speed layer: A layer in which the speed of wave
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respect to ground are noise. Such bridges usually have propagation is greater than that in the layer above it and
two adjustments, for the resistive and reactive compo- which therefore can carry head-wave refraction
nents of the high-line-induced voltages. High-line inter- energy.
ference is also sometimes reduced with a notch filter highstand systems tract: The upper systems tract within
which removes a narrow band of frequencies around a sequence, characterized by aggradation followed by
the high-line frequency. See also humbucking. progradation. Involves deposition on a shelf during the
high-pass filter: A filter that passes without significant late part of a cycle of eustatic rise, stillstand, and the
attenuation frequencies above some cutoff frequency early part of an eustatic fall. See Figure S-32.
while attenuating lower frequencies. The same as low- Hilbert space: hil brt A Euclidean space of
cut filter. n-dimensional complex-valued vectors.
high-resolution HR: Seismic frequencies above the Hilbert transform: Given an h(t) that is nonsingular at
normal exploration range, recorded with the objective t0 and that is a causal response so that h(t)0 for
of improving resolution, especially of shallow events. t0, then its Fourier transform,
Usually implies frequencies from 80150 Hz, some-
times to 500 Hz or higher. H R iX ,
high-resolution aeromagnetics HRAM: High-
precision aeromagnetics flown at low terrain clearance where angular frequency has the special property
80150 m with close line spacing 100500 m known as the Hilbert transform, expressed by
recorded with a high-sensitivity magnetometer 0.001
0.005 nT at high sample rates 0.10.25 s using a X 1/ R * 1/
high-precision positioning system usually differential
GPS.
high-resolution sequence stratigraphy: Sequence strati-
1/ P R y dy/ y ,
FIG. H-5. Hidden layers. (a) A layer whose velocity (V 3 ) is lower than that of an overlying layer (velocity inversion) does
not produce a head wave. (b) The head wave from a thin layer (V 2 ) without sufficient velocity contrast or too thin may
not produce a first arrival and not be observable as a distinct event.
Hilbert-transform technique 177 holography
where P denotes the Cauchy principal value at discon- NMO correction that the overlying velocity is constant.
tinuities. If H( ) vanishes for 0, its Fourier trans- See normal moveout.
form, hodogram: hod d gram 1. The figure described by the
terminus of a moving vector. 2. A plot of the motion of
h t jx t ,
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pattern that results from the scattering of coherent may be called a horizon map, sometimes contrasted to
radiation and a reference beam. Optical holography a phantom map see phantom.
usually involves photographing the interference from horizon migration: Map migration q.v..
laser light to achieve a coherent source; subsequent horizon offset section: A display of the amplitude of a
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illumination of the photographic plate allows one to single reflector, where the independent parameters are
see the photographed object in three dimensions. See located along a seismic line and offset distance.
Figure H-6 and also earth holography. horizon-oriented velocity analysis HVA: NMO-based
homocline: ho m klin A region of broadly uniform dip. velocity analysis at closely spaced midpoints some-
homogeneous: ho , m ji ne s The same throughout; times every one for one or a few selected reflection
uniformity of a physical property throughout a material. events.
homomorphic deconvolution: ho m
, m mor fik or ho horizon slice: A display made from a 3D data set of the
mor, fik Removal of the effects of an earlier filter in the data elements that lie on the same picked reflecting
cepstral domain; see cepstrum. horizon, thus showing areal variations in amplitude or
homomorphism: A relationship between two algebraic
systems of the same type that preserves the algebraic
operation. A correspondence between elements of two
sets D the domain and R the range such that each
element of D determines a unique element of R and
each element of R is the correspondent of at least one
element of D.
homoscedastic: ha mo , sk das tik Having equal vari-
ance in probability distributions. In a multivariate dis-
tribution, a variable is homoscedastic if its conditional
distribution function has a constant variance regardless
of the values of other variables. See Johnson and Kutz
1969, 23.
hook: The large hook that hangs from the traveling block
of a drill rig q.v. used for supporting the swivel.
Hookes law: hookz Stress is directly proportional to
strain. Valid for many materials for small strains. See
elastic constants and Figure H-7. Named for Robert
Hooke 16351703, English physicist.
hop: Travel of a radiowave to the ionosphere and back to
Earth.
horizon: 1. The surface separating two different rock lay-
ers. Where such a surface even though not itself iden-
tified is associated with a reflection that can be carried
over a large area, a map based on the reflection event
FIG. H-8. (a) A horizon slice shows amplitudes along tracked horizons. It may show changes resulting from strati-
graphic changes or hydrocarbon accumulations (both in this instance); structure contours are superimposed. (b) A
horizon slice displayed in isometric view. (Brown, 1999, 168169).
horizontal coplanar EM HCP 180 hung on a formation
other attributes such as dip magnitude or azimuth. cally a Wheatstone bridge, two arms of which are kept
Usually made by slicing through the 3D volume paral- at a high temperature. Hydrocarbon gases become oxi-
lel to a nearby picked horizon that is believed to con- dized as they pass over one arm, which increases its
form with it. Also called an amplitude map where it temperature, changes its resistance, and unbalances the
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displays amplitude. Different from a horizontal slice bridge. Hot-wire analyzer response is usually plotted in
time slice, q.v.; see also Figures H-8 and T-5. Also well log format and called a mud log q.v..
called a surface slice and sometimes a geological hour angle: Angular distance of a body west of the pro-
time slice. jection of a meridian onto the celestial sphere. Local
horizontal coplanar EM HCP: Horizontal-loop hour angle is the angle between a body and the pro-
method q.v.. jection of the observers meridian onto the celestial
horizontal cylinder: A model used in calculating sphere. Greenwich hour angle is with respect to the
potential-field effects; a small-diameter horizontal cyl- projection of the Greenwich meridian. Sidereal hour
inder so long that the ends of the cylinder do not angle is angular distance west unlike the others that
produce any effects. The model is equivalent to a hori- are measured east of the vernal equinox; it is thus the
zontal line whose mass per unit of length is A, where supplement of right ascension.
is the density contrast and A is the cross-sectional area Householder reduction: A method for finding the eigen-
of the cylinder. values of a symmetric matrix.
horizontal-dipole sounding: Electromagnetic sounding housekeeping: Administrative, accounting, or overhead
configuration using either a transmitting coil with its operations for a computer.
axis horizontal or a horizontal grounded wire. H-polarization: See transverse magnetic.
horizontal-directive tendency HDT: Differential cur- HR: High Resolution q.v..
vature q.v.. HRAM: High-Resolution AeroMagnetics q.v..
horizontal-loop method HLEM, HEM: A frequency- h-scatterplot: A plot of values for the separation h using
domain electromagnetic method in which coplanar as the bivariate-plot axes z(x) and z(xh). The shape
usually horizontal transmitter and receiver coils sepa- and correlation of the resulting cloud of points relates to
rated by a constant distance are moved over a survey the variagram at the distance h.
area. The primary field is nulled and then in-phase and HSE: Health, Safety, and Environment.
quadrature components are measured. Also called hori- HST: Highstand System Tract consisting of sediments
zontal coplanar, Ronka EM, and slingram. See Fig- deposited when sea level stood relatively high.
ure E-7. HTI: Horizontal Transverse Isotropy or azimuthal anisot-
horizontal mixing: 1. Common-midpoint stacking q.v.. ropy.
2. Occasionally, ground mix or array forming q.v.. html: HyperText Markup Language, the basic language
horizontal profiling: See profiling. for world-wide-web development; the styles used to
horizontal section: A time slice or depth slice q.v.; define the components of a hypertext document.
compare horizon slice. H-type section: A three-layer resistivity model in which
horizontal stacking: Common-midpoint stacking q.v.. the middle layer is more conductive than the layers
horizontal well: A well that is directed more-or-less hori- above or below it. See Figure T-7.
zontally to stay within the same geologic horizon. Hubbert curves: Curves drawn by King Hubbert reflect-
horizon tracking: Picking a seismic section or a 3-D data ing the fact that the Earths mineral hydrocarbon
volume at a chosen point on the seismic waveform for resources are finite and thus predicting their ultimate
a particular horizon, often made automatically by a depletion.
picking algorithm. See tracking. hue: The spectral content of a color, the attribute by which
horst: horst A crustal block raised up with respect to it differs from grey of the same brilliance; see Figure
neighboring blocks by normal faulting. A horst is usu- C-7a. Other color parameters are saturation and density
ally long compared to its width. Compare graben. q.v..
hot colors: Reds, oranges, and yellows. huff and puff: A production technique whereby a fluid is
hot keys: Programmable computer-keyboard keys or com- alternately injected into a borehole for a period of time
binations of keys configured to initiate common opera- and then the well is produced. See steam stimulation.
tions. hum: Electrical interference or noise occurring at the
hot shot: 1. To carry out a short urgent program, often power-line frequency or its harmonics. See high-line.
without moving the field camp or crew headquarters. 2. Humble formula: A special form of Archies formula
A daily living allowance paid crew members on such a q.v..
program. 3. Slang for an expert in a particular field. humbucking: An arrangement to reduce electromagnetic
hot spot: 1. A localized high heat-flow region with a deep pickup, especially from power lines. Humbucking geo-
cause, often associated with volcanism and other geo- phones involve two coils wound in opposite directions
thermal activity. Hawaii and Yellowstone are presum- and so connected that electromagnetic-pickup voltages
ably hot spots. The hot-spot hypothesis uses hot spots have opposite polarity while seismically induced volt-
as a fixed reference frame for determining plate motion ages are in-phase.
with respect to them. 2. An image region that records a hundred-percent section: A seismic record section which
large amount of backscattered solar radiation. 3. A provides continuous coverage but does not utilize data
specular reflection of the sun. 4. A bright spot hydro- redundancy. Single-fold data.
carbon indicator q.v.. hung on a formation: A section, 3-D volume, or fence
hot-wire analyzer: A device used to detect hydrocarbon diagram where all the data have been time-shifted to
gases returned to the surface by the drilling mud. Basi- make one horizon event horizontal.
hunting 181 hydrocarbon saturation
FIG. H-10. Hydrocarbon indicators. All indicators can have causes other than hydrocarbons; a case for hydrocarbon
accumulation is stronger where several indicators agree.
hydrocarbonwater contact 182 hydrophone
FIG. H-11. Hydrocarbon pressure-temperature relations for multicomponent hydrocarbons. (a) The line indicates
isothermal changes (as might happen in a reservoir) as pressure falls in the case of retrograde condensation. The
percentages indicate hydrocarbon saturation. For initial condition A, from A to B gas goes into solution as pressure is
lowered and from B to C gas comes out of solution. To the left of the critical point, as pressure is lowered, gas comes
out of solution. Fluid volumes also change as pressure and temperature change. (After Dickey, 1979, 192.) (b) Sche-
matic diagram for natural gas and (c) for oil.
Hydrosein 183 hypercube
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FIG. H-12. Piezoelectric hydrophones. (a) A piezoelectric disk generates a voltage across opposite faces when bent.
(b) Acceleration-canceling feature of the disc hydrophone. (c) Bender geophone. (d) Cylindrical hydrophone. (From
Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 224.)
pressure, as opposed to a geophone that is sensitive to hyperbolic line of position: A line of position q.v. deter-
particle motion. Used when the detector can be placed mined by measuring the difference in distance to two
below a few feet of water, as in marine or marsh work fixed points.
or as a well seismometer. Some hydrophones operate hyperbolic search: A search for coherency among traces
because of magnetostriction q.v. but most are piezo- in a common-midpoint gather along a hyperbolic tra-
electric q.v.. Piezoelectric hydrophones include bend- jectory such as normal moveout should produce. The
ers, disc hydrophones, and cylindrical hydrophones objective is a measure of the best value of normal
see Figure H-12. The sensing element is usually a moveout. Used in many velocity-analysis methods.
piezoelectric ceramic material such as barium titanate, hypercube: hi per kyoob A higher dimensional cube. In
lead zirconate, or lead metaniobate. Piezoelectric parallel computing, refers to a collection of independent
hydrophones are high-impedance devices and signals processors that are connected by a communication net-
may be passed through preamplifiers or impedance-
matching transformers before transmission through the
streamer to the recording instruments. Compare geo-
phone.
Hydrosein: hi dro sin A marine seismic source using the
implosion that results as two plates are driven suddenly
apart, creating a void between them into which water
rushes. Western Geophysical Co. trade name.
hydrostatic head: The vertical distance to the water table.
See hydrostatic pressure.
hydrostatic pressure: The pressure caused by a column
of the interstitial fluid or water extending to the sur-
face. See normal pressure.
hyperbolic functions: See Figure H-13.
a display that can be clicked on or otherwise activated cause of the change has been removed. 2. Especially the
to display additional information or to link to other effect where the magnetization produced by an applied
internet sites. field lags behind the field; see Figure H-14. This
hypermedia: A collection of documents, sounds, images,
involves energy loss. When the applied field returns to
etc. logically connected by software.
zero, the residual magnetism that is retained is called
hypermeability: Very large permeability such as provided
by fractures, karst, breccias. remanent magnetism. The magnetic field intensity
hypertext: Text with connections to other documents. required to reduce the remanent magnetization to zero
hypocenter: hi po sen, tr An earthquake focus; the is the coercive force or coercivity. 3. The response of
point at which the first motion in an earthquake origi- a spring gravimeter where the spring maintains the
nates. The projection on the surface of the Earth is the memory of its last position.
epicenter. Hz: Hertz, the SI unit of frequency; cycles/second.
I
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i: 1. Symbol to indicate 1; i j is also used. 2. A unit data results in a large change in the solution. See
vector in the x-direction with rectangular coordinates, condition number.
as in the operator del . 3. Reflection at the Earths ill-posed problem: A problem that requires additional
outer/inner core boundary. information or constraints for an unambiguous solution.
I: A seismic wave that has traveled through the Earths illumination: 1. The intensity of light striking a surface. 2.
inner core as a P-wave. Seismic wave energy falling on a reflector and thus
IC: Integrated Circuit; a solid-state device containing available to be reflected. It depends on source-receiver
more than one circuit element. Synonym: chip. configuration and velocity distribution, especially
ice-bridge effect: In cold areas an ice plug may form in irregular velocity contrasts that bend raypaths differ-
the top of a shothole, confining the gases from the ently than adjacent raypaths. Important aspect in areas
explosion and producing secondary shocks similar to of complicated velocity variations such as around high-
bubble pulses. velocity contrasts or subsalt.
ice-noise: 1. For work on sea ice, seismic noise resulting illumination attribute: Showing the illumination of a sur-
face as if a light source at some low elevation angle and
from expansion and contraction of ice caused by solar
azimuth were casting shadows, thus indicating relief on
heating and noise generated by differential movement
the surface being displayed.
of ice floes. 2. The effect of repetitive shots at random
ILm, ILM: Medium investigation Induction Log q.v..
times following a shot, produced by ice fracturing when
image log: A well log that gives pictures of the bore-
shooting in permafrost.
hole wall in various directions, such as the image log,
icon: i kon A symbol on a computer display screen for a
formation micro imager, or borehole televiewer q.v..
program that can be activated by clicking on the icon.
See Figure I-1.
ID: Inside Diameter.
image: 1. The optical counterpart of an illuminated object
ideal body: A simple model such as a point mass, line
formed by light rays as they converge after traversing
mass, cylinder, sphere, vertical step, etc. See Figure
an optical system. 2. Using a virtual image as a seismic
M-15.
source in tracing raypaths through a constant velocity
ideal polarized electrode: A metal-to-electrolyte contact medium, which is often easier than tracing from the
at which no charge crosses the interface. As charge actual source. The virtual image for a reflection is
accumulates, the electrode interface behaves like a located as far below a plane reflector as the source is
capacitor without leakage. No chemical reaction takes above it, below meaning at right angles to the reflec-
place and there is no exchange current or faradaic tor. Often called image point. See Figure I-2. 3. A
process. This condition is approximated when high- common-image point CIP, the point where prestack
overvoltage, nonreactive metals are at equilibrium with migrated data reinforce each other. 4. A method used in
an electrolyte. electrical modeling whereby a plane boundary is
identifier: That part of an object name that is textual, used replaced by an image whose magnitude is k( 2
to distinguish one object from another. Identifiers are 1 )/( 2 1 ), where 1 , 2 are the resistivities on
typically mnemonic and are dictionary controlled. opposite sides of the boundary. The result in medium 1
identity matrix: See matrix. is that the potential and current distribution in the zone
IES, IEL: Induction Electrical Survey, a borehole log that of interest is unchanged. The objective is to facilitate
usually includes SP, 16-inch normal, and deep- computation of the potential distribution.
investigation induction logs. See induction log. image area: The area of a survey that has nearly full
iff: IF and only iF, a mathematical or computer logical coverage after migration.
operation. image classification: See classification.
IFP: Instantaneous Floating Point; see gain control. image enhancement: An operation that makes features
IGRF: International Geomagnetic Reference Field q.v.. more evident.
IGSN71: International Gravity Standardization Net image gather: A CMP gather that has been depth
(1971) q.v.. migrated. If the velocity model is correct, reflection
IGY: International Geophysical Year q.v.. events are horizontal. Several image gathers migrated
iid sequence: A sequence of random numbers generated with different velocities can be used to determine the
by Independent Identically Distributed random number correct stacking velocity or to make residual velocity
generators. corrections. See also common-image point gather
IIt: Unit boxcar q.v.. (CIP).
IIIt: Comb q.v. or shah. image point: The location of a virtual image; see image
IIP: Inductive-source Induced Polarization. See inductive and Figure I-2.
source resistivity. image ray: The least-time raypath from a diffracting point
ikon: Icon q.v.. to the Earths surface. The raypath is perpendicular to
ILd, ILD: Deep investigation Induction Log q.v.. the surface if there is no anisotropy and thereafter the
ill-conditioned: The situation where a small change in the ray obeys Snells law. The terminus of the ray after
185
image track 186 impedance
tracing through a velocity model locates the diffractor given depth or time point. A common prestack imag-
or reflector in the presence of lateral velocity changes. ing principle is that only the wavefield at zero time
Used in depth migration where lateral velocity changes could have reflected from a reflector immediately at a
are present. See Hubral and Krey 1980, 106 116. given point. Claerbout 1971 explained the imaging
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image track: Subsurface trace q.v.. principle as, reflectors exist at points in the ground
imaginary: The part of a complex number that involves where the first arrival of the downgoing wave is time-
the factor (1) 1/2 ; the out-of-phase component. In coincident with an upgoing wave.
impedance, the reactive component. imbedded wavelet: Embedded wavelet q.v..
imaging: 1. Migration q.v.. Transforming seismic data imbibition: The situation when reservoir fluids are moved
recorded as a function of arrival time into the scaled into a different section of the reservoir during flooding
features that produced the record. Imaging involves of the reservoir.
focusing and positioning. Focusing involves collapse of
imbricate: Having the edges overlapping in a regular pat-
diffractions, reproducing the wavelet character and
tern:
sharpening the image and event terminations; position-
immersive environment: See virtual reality.
ing involves event termination relative to other features
faults, salt flanks, unconformities, etc. and locating immovable water: Irreducible water saturation q.v..
events at the proper depth and location. Imaging with impact blaster: A blaster that fires when it senses sudden
CMP data implies the exploding reflector concept. In motion as from the passage of a seismic wave.
wave-equation migration, the wavefield P(x,y,z,t) is impactor: A device that strikes the ground to compact the
first found by downward continuation and then earth, used as a seismic source in the minisosie method;
P(x,y,z,0) yields the image. 2. See remote sensing. 3. see sosie.
Developing a conductivity/resistivity distribution that impedance: im pe d ns 1. The apparent resistance to
honors measurements and has geological meaning the flow of alternating current, analogous to resistance
without the use of a parameterized model. in a dc circuit. Impedance is in general complex, of
imaging principle: The conditions applied to a wavefield magnitude Z with a phase angle . These can be
to extract that part of the wave that has reflected at the expressed in terms of resistance R in ohms, inductive
FIG. I-1. Image logs involve measurements at various azimuths in a borehole to determine dip and fracturing. The far
left track shows dip tadpoles, the next track the relative azimuths of dipping features, and the following three sets of
images are looking in different directions in the borehole. (Courtesy Kurt Strack). See also Fig. B-6.
impedance matching 187 inclination
reactance X L 2 f L, and capacitive reactance X C explosion or from an air gun leaves behind a region at
1/2 f C: the very low vapor pressure of water, into which the
water subsequently collapses, resulting in the bubble
Z R 2 X L X C 2 1/2 , effect q.v..
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Z S E x /H y .
The surface impedance is a complex number because of
t dt1.
phase differences between E x and H y . Measurements The impulse is sometimes called the unit impulse
of surface impedance versus frequency can be inter- because its energy is unity. The essential characteristic
preted in terms of the electrical properties of the sub- of an impulse which is sometimes used as a definition
surface. The surface impedance is a tensor if the con- is expressed by
ductivity structure is nonlayered. The reciprocal of
impedance is called admittance. f t ta dt f a .
impedance matching: Making the impedances of two
connecting circuits be complex conjugates of each
An impulse contains all frequencies in equal propor-
other. Impedance matching gives maximum transfer of
tions at zero phase. In digital form, an impulse t is
power and other benefits.
imploder: A marine seismic energy source that creates a ta 1 if ta, 0 if ta.
void into which the surrounding water rushes. See
implosion. See impulse response. 2. A pulse that is of sufficiently
implosion: im plo zhn Collapse into a region of very short time-duration that its waveshape is of no conse-
low pressure; cavitation. The creation of such a region quence. 3. A complex impulse *(t) or complex delta
under water as with the Hydrosein or Flexichoc function is
causes water to rush in with great force and the colli- * t t i/ t.
sion of the in-rushing water on itself generates a seis-
mic shock wave. The out-rushing of water propelled by 4. See Kroenecker delta.
a bubble of high-pressure gas as from an underwater impulse blaster: A device that fires an electrical blasting
cap when it senses a shock wave. Used to fire a second
charge when the shock from the initial explosion
reaches it so that the downgoing waves add in-phase.
impulse response: The response of a system to input of an
impulse q.v.. Also called memory function. The
impulse response characterizes a linear filter.
impulsive source: A source that produces a very sharp
minimum-phase wave of very short duration and that
somewhat simulates the generation of an impulse q.v..
An explosion is an example of such a source.
incident angle: The angle that a raypath makes with a
perpendicular to an interface, which is the same as that
which a wavefront makes with the interface in isotropic
media.
inclination: 1. The angle between a lines direction and
the horizontal; e.g., magnetic inclination, the angle at
which magnetic lines of force dip. 2. The dip of a plane
bed, fault, or other tabular body measured from the
FIG. I-2. Image point. Reflected rays reaching the horizontal. The attitude of the plane may be character-
geophone from the source appear the same as direct rays ized by the direction of a line normal to it and the
from the image point. The use of straight raypaths implies inclination of the plane by the angle between its normal
constant velocity. and vertical. 3. The angle between the orbital plane of a
inclinometer 188 induction method
satellite and the Earths equatorial plane. current pulse time-domain method or low-frequency
inclinometer: 1. A device for measuring hole inclination below 100 Hz variations of earth impedance
and azimuth. See directional survey. 2. A device for frequency-domain or overvoltage method. Most of
measuring the pitch and roll of a ship. Usually either the stored energy involved with IP is chemical, involv-
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pendulous or gyroscopic. 3. A surveying instrument that ing variations in the mobility of ions membrane polar-
measures the angle between the horizontal and the line ization q.v. or the normal IP effect and variations
of sight. because of the change from ionic to electronic conduc-
inclusive OR gate: See OR gate. tion where metallic minerals are present electrode
incoherent light: Light that is composed of many fre- polarization, induced potential, or interfacial polar-
quency components that are random in phase. ization; the latter is usually the larger effect. Various
incompetent: See folding. electrode configurations are used, especially the dipole-
incompressibility, fluid: The Lame elastic constant dipole array; see Figures A-18 and A-19. 2. The pro-
q.v. . duction of a double layer of charge at mineral interfaces
incompressibility modulus k: Modulus of volume elas- or of changes in such double layers as a result of
ticity; see elastic constants. applied electric or magnetic fields. Compare SP spon-
independent: Not expressible in terms of each other. Two taneous or self potential.
quantities are statistically independent if they possess inductance: The capability of an electric circuit to induce
a joint distribution such that knowledge of one does not an electromotive force emf within the same self
give information about the distribution of the other. inductance, L or a different mutual inductance, M
Equations are independent if their Jacobian q.v. does circuit. Measured in henrys.
not vanish. induction: 1. The process by which a magnetizable body
independent variable: In the equation y f (x), x the becomes magnetized by merely placing it in a magnetic
argument of f is the independent variable. field. 2. The process by which a body becomes electri-
index: A symbol or number to identify one element in a fied by merely placing it in an electric field. 3. The
set, such as an element in a matrix. process by which electric currents are initiated in a
index factor: A constant which, when multiplied by cer- conductor by merely placing it in a varying electromag-
tain measurements made on potential-field anomalies, netic field. According to Faradays Law of Induction, a
gives an estimate as to the depth of the anomalous mass voltage is generated by varying the magnetic flux:
usually the maximum depth at which the anomalous
mass could be located. Used in magnetic and gravity d /dtLdI/dt,
interpretation. See depth rule.
index of refraction: A ratio of two phase velocities. In where voltage, d /dttime rate of change of
electromagnetics including light, the ratio of velocity magnetic flux in webers per second, Linductance in
in a medium to that in vacuum. In acoustics including henrys, and dI/dttime rate of change of current in
seismics, the ratio is usually to that in water. amperes per second. The vector directions are shown in
index word: In computing, the location where the address Figure I-3.
portion of an instruction can be modified so that a induction coil: An electromagnetic sensor that consists of
number of operations can be performed repeatedly. wires wrapped around a magnetic core. Small induction
indirect address: In computing, an address that refers to a coils tuned for specific applications are sensitive
storage location that contains another address. enough to replace large air loops.
individual: One member of a population. induction electrical survey IES, IEL: A borehole log
induced-current dipole moment per unit volume: A that usually includes SP, 16-inch normal, and deep-
vector parameter describing induced-polarization prop- investigation induction logs.
erties P as a function of chargeability M and current induction log: An electrical conductivity/resistivity well
density J, P and J being vectors: log based on electromagnetic induction. See Figure I-4.
A high-frequency alternating current of constant inten-
PM J. sity induces current flow in a formation Foucault
induced gamma-ray spectroscopy log: Bombardment by current. This current also called ground loop pro-
high-energy neutrons causes elements to emit gamma duces an alternating magnetic field that causes a current
rays of characteristic energy. Borehole logging of the in a receiving coil; the current is nearly proportional to
gamma energy spectrum resulting from a 14 MeV the conductivity of the formation. Induction sondes
pulsed neutron source allows identification and analysis may have several transmitting and receiving coils to
as ratios of the formation fluid and rock elements. A produce highly focused logs. While most effective with
log for carbon/oxygen distinguishes hydrocarbon from fresh mud, an induction log can be recorded in air-filled
water and hence determines saturation independent of boreholes or moderately conductive muds. A dual
salinity. Silicon/calcium discriminates sandstones from induction log measures different depths of penetration;
carbonates. Measurement may include spectra of both ILd indicates deep and ILm medium penetration. Gen-
inelastic fast-neutron and capture-gamma thermal- erally superseded by focused array induction tools; see
neutron reactions. Also called neutron activation log. array induction log.
See gamma-ray spectroscopy log. induction method: An electromagnetic method in which
induced hydraulic fracturing: See hydraulic fracturing. eddy currents are induced in the earth by a time-varying
induced polarization IP: 1. An exploration method magnetic field. The term is usually applied only to
involving measurement of the slow decay of voltage in electromagnetic methods for which the receiver is in
the ground following the cessation of an excitation the near-field or induction zone of the transmitter.
induction number 189 injection
induction number: A dimensionless parameter used to doubly integrated to give position. Inertial systems tend
characterize electromagnetic induction response such to accumulate error and hence need to be updated
that L 2 constant, where is the conductivity frequently. Usually used in conjunction with other posi-
contrast, the magnetic permeability, the angular tioning systems rather than on a stand-alone basis.
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frequency, and L is a characteristic linear dimension. A infill survey: A subsequent acquisition program designed
full-scale electromagnetic system and a scale-model to acquire data in portions of a data volume not
analog have the same responses if they have the same adequately covered in the original acquisition program.
induction number. For a 1D layered model, the induc- In marine surveys inadequate coverage is usually
tion number is given by the source-receiver separation caused by streamer feathering and currents.
R divided by the skin depth: Br/ ( ) 1/2 R; an infinite dike: See tabular body.
equivalent quantity in the time domain is infinite electrode: A usually fixed, remote electrode that
( /2t) 1/2 R. For an airborne EM system flown at is very far from roving field surveying electrodes. Ide-
height h over a thin sheet of conductivity-thickness ally, the infinite electrode is located far enough from the
product d, the induction number is ( dh) 1/2 . measurement electrodes that repositioning it has negli-
Frequently several dimensionless parameters of this gible effect on the measurements.
type are equally valid. Also called response param- infinitely long: So long that end effects are trivial.
eter. infinitesimal strain theory: Strains so small that Hookes
inductive coupling: See coupling. law holds.
inductive source resistivity ISR: Normalized measure- inflection-tangent-intersection ITI method: A mag-
ments of the electric field using an inductive netic interpretation method that involves measuring a
ungrounded loop source carrying a time-varying cur- number of shape features on a profile across a magnetic
rent. Induced polarization measurements made in con- anomaly and making the best fit of these measurements
junction with it are called magnetometric induced to theoretical values for a vertical dike. Both distance
polarization MIP measurements. and amplitude measurements may be made, as shown
inductivity: Magnetic permeability; the 3D inductance of in Figure I-5. Also called Naudy method. See Naudy
a material. Free space and nonmagnetic rock has an 1971.
inductivity of 1.25710 6 henrys/meter. information retrieval: Searching large quantities of data
inertial navigation: in ur shl A dead-reckoning for wanted information.
method of determining position in which accelerations infrared: The part of the electromagnetic spectrum with
are measured with very sensitive accelerometers wavelengths between those of visible light and
mounted on a gyroscopically stabilized platform and 10 3 m; see Figure E-11. Near infrared is 0.71.3
m, middle infrared 1.33.0 m, and thermal infra-
red 3.020.0 m but atmospheric absorption limits
the useful range to an 8 14 m window.
in-hole IP method: Technique for measuring near-hole IP
and resistivity properties using at least one potential
and/or one current electrode in a borehole. Compare
downhole method.
inhomogeneity: Lack of spatial uniformity of a physical
property. Also called heterogeneity.
inhomogeneous wave: Evanescent wave q.v..
initial blanking: Mute q.v..
initial condition: A constraint that describes a system at
time zero.
initialize: To set the initial value. Quantities being altered
in iterative processing as might happen in a Fortran
DO loop may require a starting value assigned them
by an initializing statement before the loop is
executed as in Figure F-14. Some systems assume
initial values of zero and so do not require initializing
statements unless this condition is not acceptable.
initial suppression: Attenuation at the beginning of a
seismic recording. Used to subdue the amplitude of
noise prior to the first breaks or to prevent overload
from high-amplitude first-break energy. Also called
presuppression.
FIG. I-3. (a) Induction and (b) motor rules. Another
convention uses the second finger to indicate the direction
initial transient: See secondary voltage.
of positive current flow (which is opposite to the direction injection: 1. Insertion of orbit information into a naviga-
of electron flow), in which case the right hand is used for tion satellite. Transit satellites are observed by fixed
generators and the left hand for motors. There are other tracking stations and the orbit data are updated every
variations of these rules. The right hand can also be used 1216 hours. 2. Inserting a fluid water, gas, CO2 , etc.
for the vector cross-product convention ABC: the into a reservoir formation by means of an injection well
thumb A crossed with the index finger B gives the to enhance the energy that supports production, change
resultant middle-finger direction C. the interstitial hydrocarbons viscosity, etc.
injection 190 injection
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FIG. I-4. Induction log. (a) Schematic two-coil induction logging sonde. (b) Dual-induction log. ILd is a deep induction
log, ILm a medium induction log. The separation of the resistivity curves shows a variation of resistivity with distance from
the borehole, probably because of invasion. Laterolog-8 (LL8) and SP logs were run at the same time. (Courtesy
Schlumberger.)
FIG. I-5. Inflection-tangent-intersection method. The letters indicate the various parameters that are measured.
(From Naudy, 1970.)
inline 191 intensity
inline: 1. Along a survey line. An inline geophone array combustion is controlled by varying the amount of air
has all the geophones located along the seismic line. An injected into the reservoir. Also called a fire flood.
inline electromagnetic configuration has the source Practiced only for shallow accumulations.
and receiver on the traverse line. Not to be confused in-situ modeling: The interpretation of gravity or mag-
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with on-line versus off-line in computer applica- netic data in which the model field points are at the
tions. 2. For 3D data, the inline direction is a that in same locations including elevations as those of actual
which the survey was acquired, where 3D data were field stations.
acquired as a series of parallel lines, or b the direction insolation: in so la
shn Incident solar energy.
of the line of sources, where acquired by perpendicular insonify: in son fi To illuminate with sonic seismic
source and receiver lines, or c an arbitrary direction energy.
where acquired in other ways. instability: The situation where different solutions are
inline offset: A spread q.v. where the source is separated acceptable because of observational errors. As opposed
offset from the nearest active receiver on the spread to nonuniqueness, the existence of more than one
by an appreciable distance more than a few hundred solution regardless of the precision of observations.
feet along the line of the spread. See Figure S-18. Both result in ambiguity.
inline telluric method: See telluric profiling. instantaneous amplitude: The amplitude of the envelope
inner product: Dot product q.v.. of an oscillatory signal. Envelope amplitude is a pre-
in-phase: 1. The condition in which two waves of the ferred term. See complex trace analysis.
same frequency have the same phase. 2. Electrical instantaneous floating point IFP: See gain control.
signal with the same phase angle as that of the exciting instantaneous frequency: See complex-trace analysis.
signal or comparison signal. instantaneous phase: See complex-trace analysis.
input: 1. The current, voltage, or driving force applied to instantaneous velocity section: See velocity and synthetic
a circuit, system, or device. 2. The terminals where the acoustic impedance log.
input to a system is applied. 3. Data to be processed. 4. instruction: The basic part of a computer program that
To transfer data into a computer. 5. INPUT system. specifies the operation to be performed and identifies
q.v.. and locates the data, device, or mechanism needed to
input filter: An electrical filter placed between geophone perform the operation.
and amplifier. insulator: A nonconductor of electricity. For electromag-
input impedance: The impedance across the input termi- netic and electrical geophysical techniques, an insulator
nals of an electrical circuit. Where the input impedance has resistivity 10 3 ohm meter.
of a measuring device is much higher say, by 100 integrated: Connected together in a seamless way.
times than the impedance being measured, the mea- integrated circuit IC: A single solid-state, electrical-
surement will not be altered greatly by the presence of circuit element; a chip. Complete amplifiers, gates,
the device. oscillators, and other modules may be made as inte-
INPUT system: The first functional airborne time-domain grated circuits.
electromagnetic survey system in which measurements integrated geophysics: The combination of seismic, grav-
are made during the off-periods between source pulses. ity, magnetic, electrical, radioactive, well-log, and/or
Acronym for INduced PUlse Transient. Barringer trade other geologic data to effect a more accurate or com-
name. plete interpretation than any one data set could provide.
INS: Integrated Navigation System, a system for comput- integrated navigation system: A combination of posi-
ing final source and receiver positions integrating GPS, tioning systems in a synergetic manner. Specifically, the
laser range, compass, acoustic, etc. data. combination of satellite navigation with Doppler sonar
in-seam methods: Use of channel waves q.v. to investi- and gyrocompass or of satellite navigation with radio
gate changes such as interruptions by faults and wash- navigation.
outs in coal seams in a layer with lower velocity than integration: 1. The mathematical operation for finding the
underlying and overlying beds, such as coal measures. area under a curve. 2. Mixing q.v.. 3. Reconciling all
Both source and receivers are located in the layer and available information of whatever kind in formulating
both reflection where receivers are near the source in an interpretation.
the same gallery and transmission where sources and integration of chargeability: Measurement of the area
receivers are in different galleries techniques are used. under an IP decay curve by integrating the decay volt-
See Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 483 486. age with time. When normalized by dividing by the
inside traces: Short-offset traces primary voltage, this measurement is one definition of
inside mute: Tail mute q.v.. chargeability. The areas under several successive decay
in situ: in s too Something in its original position. Used curves can be averaged to improve the measurement.
in connection with measurements of properties of mate- integrity: The degree to which data are accurate and cor-
rial that do not involve moving the material and risk rect.
altering it thereby. For example, in-situ velocity mea- intelligent interpolation: Automatic determination of
surements would be made on rock in place in contrast values between control points, usually based on spline,
to measurements made on a rock sample in a labora- surface fitting, correlation, or kriging algorithms.
tory. intelligent terminal: A computer terminal that contains
in-situ combustion: An enhanced oil recovery EOR software that allows it to do certain computing.
method that involves burning some of the oil within a intensity: 1. The rate of flow of wave energy through a
reservoir to change the oils viscosity so that it will flow unit area perpendicular to the direction of wave travel.
more easily and drive the oil to production wells. The For a seismic wave, intensity is proportional to the
intensity of magnetization 192 International Gravity Formula
square of the amplitude of displacement or velocity. 2. interface wave: Surface wave q.v..
A measurement of the effects of an earthquake at a interfacial polarization: A dielectric property caused by
particular place; a measurement of the amount of shak- conductivity contrasts in a material. See induced polar-
ing. The intensity depends not only upon the strength of ization.
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the earthquake earthquake magnitude but also upon interfacial tension: Surface tension q.v..
the distance from the epicenter, the local geology at the interference: 1. The superposition of two or more wave-
point, the nature of the surface materials, the construc- forms. Interference is constructive where the wave-
tion of buildings, etc. See intensity scale and Figure forms are in-phase so peaks add to peaks, etc.,
M-9. 3. Often refers to electric or magnetic field destructive where 180 out-of-phase so peaks tend to
strength; see electric field and magnetic field. cancel troughs. 2. The presence of signals from
intensity of magnetization: Magnetic moment per unit another source e.g., atmospheric static that tend to
volume occasionally, per unit mass. Includes both obscure a desired signal. 3. Presence of one substance
induced and remanent components. interfering with assay for another substance.
intensity scale: A standard of measurement of earthquake interference test: A test whereby the pressure in one
intensity q.v.. Among systems used are the Mercalli borehole is changed according to some program to see
scale, the modified Mercalli scale see Figure M-9, and if the changes can be sensed in another borehole. Done
the Rossi-Forel scale. Compare Richter scale, a mea- to determine whether the boreholes are connected
surement of earthquake magnitude rather than of inten- hydraulically.
sity. interfingering: Intertonguing q.v..
interactive processing: A process in which a human is interior angle: See angles (surveying) and Figure A-13.
involved. At an interactive workstation a human interlacing: 1. Alternating the elements from two data
inputs instructions and the computer responds with a sets. 2. In refresh graphics, the use of alternate scan
display of the results of executing the instructions. lines on successive refresh frames. 3. Displaying data
Interactive implies that the computer is on-line and from deep and shallow shots side by side to aid in
that the human waits to get the response, so that he can identifying reflections and ghost effects.
modify the instructions if the response is not satisfac- interlock: A device such as a switch that prevents opera-
tory. The computer and human are in a dialog mode. tion if some condition is not satisfied.
Implies that the interactive systems response is suffi- interlocking: 1. Involving energy that has traversed the
ciently rapid within a few seconds that the interpreter same raypath, usually in opposite directions. Two seis-
does not lose his train of thought. mic records are interlocking if some geophone group of
interbed multiple: Pegleg multiple q.v.. the one record occupies the source location of the
inter-block gap: Inter-record gap q.v.. interlocking record, and vice-versa. Reflection events
intercept distortion: Change in waveshape produced by a on interlocking traces should have the same arrival
system with linear phase response where the intercept time. 2. Interdependent controlling of several units
value of the phase-response curve at zero frequency whose functions have to be coordinated for proper or
is other than 2n where n is an integer. Results from safe operation.
frequency components being shifted with respect to intermediate storage device ISD: Use of magnetic
each other. tape, disks, or other media for temporary storage of
intercept-gradient slope AVO measures: Measure- seismic data during processing.
ments of the zero-offset and slope values of the best-fit intermodular distortion: See distortion.
line when seismic amplitude is plotted against sin2 or International Active-Sun Years: A program of studying
against sin2 x, where angle of incidence or x solar-terrestrial phenomena during a sunspot maxima.
offset. International Geomagnetic Reference Field IGRF: A
intercept method: A method of computing near-surface long wavelength regional magnetic-field model deter-
corrections from the intercept time at zero distance on a mined by an international committee about every five
time-distance plot of first breaks. years e.g., 1965, 1975, 1980; expected secular
intercept time: The time obtained by extrapolating a changes are included. The model consists of spherical
refraction alignment on a refraction time-distance harmonics. The IGRF is subtracted from observed data
(tx) plot back to zero offset. See Figure C-17. to determine the local field.
interface: 1. The common surface separating two different International Geophysical Year IGY: A program of
media in contact. A first-order interface is an interface geophysical observation from July 1, 1957 to Dec. 31,
where , , or is discontinuous; a second-order 1958, near sunspot maximum. The program included
interface is where d, d, or d is discontinuous, as large-scale investigations in Antartica.
where inhomogeneous media have smooth spatially International Gravity Formula: Theoretical gravity as
varying , , or . 2. The contact or connecting element of 1987 is
between two computing machines or components by
means of which information is passed between the two. 978 032.68 10.001 931 851 386 39 sin2
Interface devices are used to reformat data such as to 10.006 694 379 990 13 sin2 mGal,
convert serial data bits to parallel bits or from analog to
digital form or vice-versa, to hold data until it is where is the latitude. Older versions of the IGF are:
needed buffer function, and sometimes to do simple
operations like summing or counting. 3. To make the 1930: 978 049.0 10.005 288 4 sin2
output of one device acceptable as input of another
device. 0.000 005 9 sin2 2 ) mGal,
International Gravity Standarization Net IGSN71 193 inverse dispersion
1967: 978 031.8 10.005 302 4 sin2 changes in velocity, changes in thickness with possible
stratigraphic implications, or changes subsequent to
0.000 005 8 sin2 2 ) mGal. deposition because of erosion, structural deformation,
or differential compaction. See also interval transit
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wavetrain decreases with time. Antonym: normal dis- where M is a vector of the measurements m i , P is a
persion. matrix of the parameters p i j , and V is a vector of the
inverse filter: A filter with characteristics complementary values v j . The problem may also be nonlinear. This
to another filter so that when used in a series with the equation expresses the model. Solving the equation for
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other filter there will be no frequency-selective filtering v j is the inverse problem and solving for p i j is the
except for overall time delay over some bandpass. See parameter-estimation problem. Usually v j depends
deconvolution. on the measurement system. For gravity, v i might be
inverse Fourier transform: See Fourier transform. the distribution of mass and m j measurements of the
inverse Jacobian: See Jacobian. acceleration of gravity, for well logging v j might be the
inverse magnetostriction: See magnetostriction. distribution of lithology and porosity and m i the values
inverse matrix: The inverse of a square matrix A is the measured by the logs, etc.
matrix that yields the identity matrix I when multiplied inverse-square law: 1. The magnitude of a potential field
by A, that is, surrounding a unit element varies inversely as the
square of the distance from the element m:
A1 A1.
The inverse matrix can be found by dividing the adjoint Fieldkm/r 2 .
or adjunct of A by the determinant of A. A nonsquare
matrix B can be squared up by multiplying by its
transpose and the inverse of [BTB] can then be found: Applies to a gravitational field where the element m is
mass and k is the gravitational constant q.v.; to a
BTB 1 BTB1. magnetic field where the element m is a magnetic pole
inverse modeling: Determining a model that could have of strength m in ampere meters and k is
given rise to observed effects; solution of the inverse 10 7 webers/ampere meter; and to an electrostatic
problem q.v.. Inverse modeling is not unique. Also field where the element m is an electrical charge of m
called inversion. coulombs and k is 910 9 newtons/coulomb. For the
inverse problem: Solving for the spatial distribution that gravity case, the relation is called Newtons law of
could produce a given set of measurements. Where a universal gravitation and for the electrostatic case it is
distribution of causes produces a distribution of mea- called Coulombs law. 2. The energy density of a
surement values that depend on a system of parameters. seismic body wave from a point source in a homoge-
The forward or direct problem, if linear, is express- neous isotropic medium varies inversely as the square
ible as the matrix equation of the distance from the point source. Also called
spherical divergence. 3. The intensity of electromag-
MP V, netic energy light or radio varies inversely as the
square of the distance from a source.
inversion: in vur zhn or in vur shn Deriving from
field data a model to describe the subsurface that is
consistent with the data; determining the cause from
observation of effects. 1. Solution of the inverse prob-
lem q.v.. Inversion means solving for a spatial distri-
bution of parameters which could have produced an
observed set of measurements. 2. Often, specifically,
calculating acoustic impedance or velocity from a
seismic trace, taken as representing the earths reflec-
tivity. 3. Sometimes, migration q.v.. 4. Finding the
reciprocal. 5. The inverse of A is not A A ; see
gate. 6. The vertical reversal of the sense of movement
of structural features because of a change in the stress
pattern. Involves features such as an anticline becoming
a syncline, a normal fault becoming a reverse fault, etc.
inverted mud: Oil-based muds that contain chiefly gas
oil.
inverted VSP: 1. Inversion of a VSP to achieve a geologi-
cal model. 2. Compare reversed VSP.
investigation depth: See depth of investigation.
IO: Input/Output; refers to the input or output functions
of a computer.
IOM: Input/Output Module.
ion exchange: The property of some minerals particu-
larly clays that enables them to absorb certain anions
and cations and retain them in a state whereby they can
be exchanged for other anions and cations in solution.
Ion exchange is a diffusion process, and its rate depends
on ion mobility.
FIG. I-6. Invaded zone. (Courtesy Schlumberger.) ionic conductor: See conductor.
ionization chamber 195 isostasy
hundred volts with respect to the walls. The chamber is isoanomaly: , s an m al e A line on a map connecting
usually filled with a cadmium or boron compound or points of equal anomaly, used especially for maps
the walls are coated with such a compound to increase showing magnetic or gravity anomalies; also spelled
the ionization efficiency. isanomaly.
ion mobility: Ease of movement of ions in an electric isobar: Line joining places of equal barometric pressure.
field, measured by the ratio of ion velocity to electric- isobath: 1. Line of equal water depth. 2. Sometimes, line
field strength. of equal present depth.
ionosphere: ( on sfr, That part of the Earths atmo- isochore: i, s cor Line of equal interval between two
sphere that includes several layers of ionized gas at a beds or two seismic events. This may express variations
height of 50 to 1000 km, which bends certain radio- in many stratigraphic units and the effects of unconfor-
waves back toward the Earth because of dispersion. It is mities, compared with isopach that implies variations
divided into several layers according to the types and within a single unit. Isochore is now falling into disuse.
concentrations of ions. See Figure A-22, D-layer, isochron: Line of 1 equal reflection time, 2 equal time
E-layer, F-layer, and refraction correction. difference, or 3 equal delay time.
IP: Induced-Polarization q.v.. isochronous surface: Time surface q.v..
IPOD: International Programme of Ocean Drilling q.v.. isocline: Line of equal magnetic inclination.
IP percent: The ratio of IP to steady-state voltage, isogal: Line of equal gravity anomaly.
expressed either as a percentage or as millivolts/volt. isogam: Line of equal magnetic intensity.
ips: Inches Per Second. isogon: Line of equal magnetic declination.
IP susceptibility: A term used as a measure of induced isohyet: Line of equal amounts of rainfall.
polarization, implying an analogy with other types of iso-J: Line of equal values of the Jacobian or relative
polarization such as induced magnetic effects. ellipse area; used in telluric surveying.
IRIX: See UNIX operating system. isomagnetic maps: Maps charts showing the elements
IRM: Isothermal Remanent Magnetization. See remanent of the geomagnetic field.
magnetization. isometric display: i, s me trik A method of displaying
irradiance: ir de ns The electromagnetic radiation 3D structures. Generally it uses two inclined horizontal
power incident on a surface. axes, often at a 90 angle with each other, and a vertical
irreducible water: Nonmobile water generally because of axis. Units along all three axes are usually the same.
capillarity. See Figure H-8.
irreducible water saturation: The fraction of the pore isopach: 1. A contour which denotes points of equal thick-
volume occupied by water in a reservoir at maximum ness of a rock type, formation, group of formations, etc.
hydrocarbon saturation. It represents water that has not 2. Isotime, a contour which denotes points of equal
been displaced by hydrocarbons because it is trapped difference in seismic arrival times for two reflection
by adhering to rock surfaces, trapped in small pore events, thus indicating constant thickness if the velocity
spaces and narrow interstices, etc. Irreducible water is constant. 3. A contour denoting equal vertical dis-
saturation is an equilibrium situation. It differs from tance, not necessarily corrected for the dip of the bed-
residual water saturation, the value measured by core ding.
analysis, because of filtrate invasion and the gas expan- isopleth: s pleth Line of equal geochemical measure-
sion that occurs when a core is removed from the ment such as element ratio or isotope ratio.
bottom of the hole to the surface. Also called immov- isopor: , s por Line of equal secular change, such as
able water. equal annual change of isogonic or isoclinic lines.
irrotational: ir, o ta
sh nl The property of a vector isoprobability map: A map showing percentile probabili-
function whose curl vanishes. An irrotational vector ties e.g., 10%, 50%, 90% probabilities.
field A is conservative and can be expressed as the isorad: Line of equal radioactivity or lines of equal
gradient of a scalar field , A . gamma radiation.
irrotational wave: P-wave q.v.. isoseismal: , s siz ml Line between regions of differ-
IR survey: A remote-sensing method using either infrared ent intensity for a given earthquake; such a line might
radiation reflected from the surface after being beamed indicate the boundary between zones IV and V on the
downward from an aircraft thermal infrared, q.v., or Mercalli scale, for example.
occasionally natural infrared radiation. Infrared surveys ISO7: International Standards Organization 7-bit code.
are usually flown at night to reduce natural radiation isostasy: sos t se The gravitational balance of large
and solar effects. blocks of the Earths crust as though they were floating
ISC: International Seismological Centre. on a denser underlying layer the asthenosphere. Major
ISD: Intermediate Storage Device q.v.. topographic features are in isostatic balance. a The
island arc: A chain of volcanic islands parallel to a sub- Airy hypothesis varies the thickness of crustal blocks
duction zone. As the subducting plate reaches about the of constant density so that the thicker parts ride higher.
base of the lithosphere it becomes hot enough that Thus mountainous areas are compensated by deep
molten magma rises from it to form a chain of volca- crustal roots extending to 50 60 km and deep ocean
noes. Where the overriding plate involves oceanic crust, basins by antiroots at 6 8 km. See also Airy-
these form an island arc. Heiskanen system. b The Pratt hypothesis, assumes
isostatic anomaly 196 IZO
that the blocks vary primarily in density, less-dense 200 km. The Hayford modification has the pressure
crust rising topographically above areas of denser crust balanced at the depth of compensation.
see Figure I-7. c The crustal flexure hypothesis isostatic anomaly: The result of applying an isostatic
Vening Meinesz hypothesis allows some of the bal- correction q.v. to Bouguer anomaly data.
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ance to be accommodated laterally by the surrounding isostatic correction: A correction to gravity data to com-
pensate for lateral density or thickness variations
region rather than only in the vertical direction. The
between large blocks of the Earths crust. The correc-
radius of regionality specifies the size of the region
tion assumes an isostatic model; the correction is made
over which compensation is distributed of the order of from elevation and water-depth data often using zone
charts. See Heiskanen and Meinesz 1958; 159170.
isostatic rebound: Isostatic adjustment after removing or
imposing a stress. The isostatic-rebound relaxation
time is of the order of 4000 years, corresponding to a
viscosity of 410 22 poise, based on sea-level changes
attributed to the melting of Pleistocene continental gla-
ciers.
isotherm: Line of equal temperature.
isothermal remanent magnetism IRM: See remanent
magnetism.
isothermal transformation: , s thur mal A change
during which the temperature remains constant.
isotime: Isochron. 1. Contours of equal reflection time,
time intervals, etc. 2. Often the time interval between
two reflections, which may indicate stratigraphic
changes, reef buildups, variations in thickness of an
underlying diapiric material salt or shale at the time of
deposition, etc. Time intervals may vary because of
variations in velocity or thickness, or both.
isotropic: Having the same physical properties regardless
of the directions in which they are measured. Compare
anisotropy.
isovelocity surfaces: Surfaces of constant seismic veloc-
ity. In the absence of structural uplift and lateral varia-
tions of lithology, isovelocity surfaces are apt to be
nearly horizontal planes. However, where structural
uplift occurs, isovelocity surfaces tend to follow struc-
ture but with less relief than the structure. Changes in
velocity bend seismic rays and hence alter apparent
structure.
ISPI: Improved Source Parameter Imaging q.v.. CGG-
Geoterrex trademark.
ISR: Inductive Source Resistivity q.v..
ISS: In-Seam Seismic q.v..
iterative: 1. A procedure that is repeated with an improved
model until some condition is satisfied; see loop. 2.
Processing by successive approximations, each based
on changes concluded from the preceding iteration, in
such a way as to converge onto the desired solution.
iterative modeling: An interpretation technique for solv-
ing the inverse problem q.v. by successive approxi-
mations; generally performed on a computer.
ITI method: Inflection-Tangent-Intersection method
q.v..
I-wave: A P-wave in the Earths inner core. See wave
FIG. I-7. Isostasy concepts of (a) Pratt, (b) Airy, (c) notation and compare K-wave.
Vening Meinesz. (After Heiskanen and Meinesz, 1958, 1WT: One-way time of seismic wave travel.
132, 135, 138.) IZO: Inversion to Zero Offset.
J
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j: 1. Symbol to indicate 1; i is also used. Multiplica- jitter: Erratic small movements of a display that produces
tion by j rotates a complex vector by 90. 2. A unit a somewhat blurred image.
vector in the y-direction. job-control language JCL: A method of initiating and
J: 1. Joule, the SI unit of work or energy; one newton controlling a batch of computer jobs. Instructs the order
meter. 2. Electric current density. 3. Jn Bessel func- in which to do the jobs, the job requirements e.g., what
tion of order n. 4. Jacobian q.v.. 5. A seismic wave tapes to use, and what to do with the results.
that has traveled through the Earths inner core as an Johnson noise: Noise resulting from the random thermal
S-wave. energy of conduction electrons. Also called thermal
jack: The receptacle into which an electrical plug fits. noise. For an electrical element, the mean square volt-
Jacobian: For a set of transform equations y i age caused by Johnson noise is proportional to the
y i (x 1 ,x 2 ,...,x n ), the Jacobian matrix J is: absolute temperature K, the bandwidth B in hertz, and
the resistance R in ohms:
J J ik y i /x k .
rms noise voltage7.410 12 KBR 1/2 .
The Jacobian is a measure of the change in the ith data
point as the kth parameter is changed; it is a measure of JOIDES: Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep
how strongly data depend on a parameter. In iterative Earth Sampling, a program to obtain borehole informa-
solutions, it can be used to indicate the degree of tion and cores of the sediments in the deep oceans.
convergence. In inverting electromagnetic data, col- Holes drilled from the ship Glomar Challenger did
umns are generally ordered first resistivities, second much to prove plate tectonics and hence had tremen-
thicknesses, third calibration factors in the case of dous impact on geology and geophysics.
joint inversions; see Raiche et al. 1985. The Jaco- joint: A physical break in rocks across which there has
bian matrix transforms one vector into another, as in a been no relative movement.
coordinate transform. The inverse of the Jacobian is joint inversion: Simultaneous inversion q.v. of two or
sometimes called the data influence matrix as it shows more types of independent measurements. The data and
how a small change in the data would influence the model are linked in one single matrix, compared to
inversion result. Vanishing of the determinant of the cooperative inversion, where two independent inver-
Jacobian shows that relations are not independent. For a sion processes are linked via a-priori or a-posteria
22 matrix, independence is shown by adbc0. information.
Named for Karl Gustav Jacob Jacobi 1804 1851, joint probability: The probability of simultaneous occur-
German mathematician. rence of values of two or more quantities.
Jacobsen filter: A spectral-domain operation based on Josephson junction: io sf sn A thin insulator separat-
upward continuation. Also called a separation filter. ing two superconducting materials, through which elec-
See Cowan and Cowan 1993, Jacobsen 1987. tron pairs can tunnel. See Josephson 1962, 419.
Jacobs staff: A pointed stick about 5 ft long used to joule J: The SI unit of energy; a newton-meter or a
support a surveyors compass, usually calibrated to watt-second. Named for James Prescott Joule 1818
measure the thickness of strata. 1889, English physicist.
Janus configuration: ja ns An arrangement of trans- joystick: An interactive control for moving a cursor on a
ducers aimed in opposite directions, as a forward-aft or video display so that something can be done to the
port-starboard pair of Doppler-sonar transducers see video-displays matrix element corresponding to the
Figure D-21. Named for Janus, the Roman god of cursors location.
doorways, who had two faces so he could watch in jug: Geophone q.v.. Name derives from an early oil-
opposite directions. damped geophone oil jug.
Java: An object-oriented programming language based on jug hustler: One who lays out and picks up the seismic
C but optimized for the distribution of program spread and geophones.
objects in a network such as the Internet. jug line: 1. Cable connecting geophones to instruments. 2.
JCL: Job-Control Language q.v.. The spread q.v..
Jeffreys-Bullen curves: jef re ys bul n Relationships jug planter: Geophone planter q.v..
between the arrival times of various modes of seismic Julian day: jool yn 1. The day number since noon,
waves and the distance angular distance from the January 1, 4713 BC, the beginning of the Julian period.
epicenter of the earthquake that generated them. See 2. The Julian date is a 4-digit way of expressing the
Figure J-1. Named for Sir Harold Jeffreys 1989, date. Thus, the 33rd day of the year 1999 Feb. 2 is
British geophysicist, and Keith Edward Bullen 1906 expressed as 3399.
1976, Australian geophysicist. jump: An instruction that can cause the computer to fetch
jet: To drill a hole by pumping water or mud down the the next instruction from a location other than the next
drill stem or drill casing, where the water flow rather sequential location. Synonym: branch.
than the grinding action of a bit is the main force for jump a leg: To miscorrelate one or more cycles. See also
removal of the material. leg.
197
jump correlation 198 juvenile water
FIG. J-1. Jeffreys-Bullen traveltime curves for some waves from a shallow earthquake. See Figure E-2 and wave
notation regarding the labeling of the curves. (From Seismological tables, 1940.)
K
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k: 1. Kilo-, the SI prefix for 10 3 . 2. Resistivity-contrast keel structure: The root real or apparent of an alloctho-
factor q.v.. 3. A unit vector in the z-direction. 4. See nous salt body that extends below the main salt body.
k-type section. 5. Wavenumber , q.v. kelly: The unit that transfers rotary motion to drill pipe.
K: 1. A seismic wave that has traveled through the Earths See drill rig.
outer core as a P-wave. 2. Kelvin q.v. Kelly bushing K.B.: The journal box insert in the rotary
: kap Kappa. 1. The angular wavenumber, 2 table of a drilling rig through which the kelly passes.
times the wavenumber. Where a distinction is made, the See drill rig. Its upper surface is commonly the refer-
wavenumber k is the number of waves per unit dis- ence datum for well logs and other measurements in a
tance, the reciprocal of wavelength: well bore.
kelvin K: kel vin The SI temperature unit referenced
wavenumber1/k /2 f /V, to absolute zero 0 K with intervals equal to the degree
celsius formerly called centigrade; 273.15 K
where wavelength, f frequency, and V
velocity. Thus is to wavenumber in the spatial 0 C. Note degree or the degree symbol is not
used with K and that kelvin is not capitalized; see
sense as angular frequency is to frequency f in the
Appendix A. Named for Baron William Thomson
time sense. Confusingly, both and k are often called
Kelvin 1824 1907, English physicist.
wavenumber, i.e., some authors use 1/ instead of
Kelvin material: A material in which the stress depends
the above. 2. Seismic usage often implies apparent
both on the strain and the rate-of-change of strain.
wavenumber k a 1/ a , a being the apparent wave-
Kelvins circulation theorem: If the initial motion of a
length and V a the apparent velocity. If this definition is
perfect fluid is irrotational, it will remain so provided
used, k a varies with the angle between the raypath and
that the only external force acting on it is derivable
the line of measure the line of the spread, usually.
from a potential.
Kalman filter: kal man A recursive filtering scheme
Kepler coordinates: kep lr The quantities that
applicable to linear systems, including time varying,
describe the elliptical orbit of a satellite with respect to
nonstationary, and multichannel ones. A system is
the celestial sphere. Navigation satellites often broad-
described by a model of first-order difference equations
cast their Kepler coordinates and ephemeral informa-
involving orthogonal state variables. The errors in mea-
tion which allows the calculation of their location at
surements and the exciting disturbances are assumed to
any given instant see Figure K-1. Named for Johann
be Gaussian. In the non-Gaussian case, one can use an
Kepler 15711630, German astronomer.
extended Kalman filter. The filter estimates the state
Keplers laws: First law: Every planet follows an ellipti-
variables based on prior measurements and the state-
cal path with the Sun at one focus. Second law: A line
variable model, and incorporates the most recent mea-
from the center of the Sun to the center of a planet
surements. The Kalman filter can be used as a recursive
sweeps the same area in the same time; hence the planet
predictor. Kalman filtering is used in real-time reduc-
travels fastest when closest to the Sun. Third law: The
tion of integrated satellite-navigation data and in some
square of the period of revolution of a planet is propor-
seismic-filtering schemes, especially deconvolution.
tional to the cube of its mean distance from the Sun.
See Bayless and Brigham 1970 and Mendel and
kernel function: 1. For any linear transform,
Kormylo 1978. Named for Rudolph Emil Kalman
1930-, Hungarian-American mathematician.
Kangi characters: kan je
kappa : See .
Japanese word symbols.
where r is the distance from the point source to the data on punched cards, as for input to a computer.
observation point, J o (r) is a Bessel function, is a keyseat: Where a borehole changes direction so that the
phantom variable of integration, C is a constant, and drilling pipe rubs the side of the borehole, the effect is
K() is the kernel function. Also called Stefanesco to wear a groove in the borehole wall. The drill pipe
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function. may fit in this groove but the groove may be smaller
key bed: A reflection with sufficient distinguishing char- than the couplings between units of drill pipe, making it
acteristics to make it easily identifiable for use in cor- difficult to pull the drill pipe.
relations. k-factor: 1. A velocity factor used in static corrections;
key punch: An electromechanical device for encoding see Figure S-22. 2. The relationship between instrument
FIG. K-1. Keppler astronomic coordinates and satellite ephemeral information. is the first line of Aires or the
vernal equinox.
kick 201 kitchen, hydrocarbon
ing fluid from the borehole. Can be caused by a 1/Vr r/n /t 1/r /n ds.
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or gas so that reconditioning of the well can proceed.
kilometer km: kil o me tr is SI preferred, but kil om
p x,T,t 2T/ V 2 1/T2
tr is more common 1000 meters.
kimberlite pipe: A more-or-less vertical ultramafic intru-
sion that originates about 150 km deep and often is only
/t x ,0,tT dx ,
a few hundred meters in diameter. Sometimes contains where T2z/Vvertical traveltime. This expresses
diamonds. migration by integration along a diffraction curve. 2.
K-index: A measure of the average intensity of magnetic The radiation law that the ratio of emissivity to absorp-
disturbances in time, such as magnetic storms, but tance depends only on the wavelength and temperature,
excluding diurnal and lunar time variations. or that it is the same for all bodies as for an ideal
kinematic: kin, mat ik Involving motion, sometimes blackbody for any wavelength at the given temperature.
in contrast to dynamic, which involves force. Kinemat- Kirchhoffs law: First law: The vector sum of all cur-
ics is the study of motion exclusive of mass and force. rents into any junction point is zero. Second law: The
Seismically it implies time and velocity effects. vector sum of all voltages around a closed loop is zero.
kinematic inversion: Solution of traveltime observations Kirchhoffs laws apply to three-dimensional materials
for velocity. such as earth as well as to conventional electrical cir-
kinematic restoration: A balanced section q.v. for cuits. Named for Gustav Robert Kirchhoff 1824
which there is a sequence of intermediate stages 1887, German physicist.
between undeformed and deformed states that are kine- Kirchhoff migration: Migration q.v. by integrating
matically reasonable. Ideally the reconstruction should along diffraction curves, in effect integrating with the
be three-dimensional. Kirchhoff equation q.v. and placing the results at the
kinematic similarity: The ratio of times in physical mod- crests of the diffraction curves. See Sheriff and Geldart
eling. See modeling theory. 1995, 327329.
kinetic: Relating to motion. For example, kinetic energy is kiss: Two curves or surfaces touching each other; oscula-
energy because of motion. tion. Also called a kiss singularity.
King Hubbert curves: See Hubbert curves. kitchen, hydrocarbon: See hydrocarbon:kitchen.
Kirchhoff diffraction equation: kerkh hof A form of
Kirchhoffs equation q.v. expressing the wave ampli-
tude at a point P that is several wavelengths from a
diffracting aperture; see Figure K-2.
Kirchhoffs equation: 1. An integral form of the wave
equation expressing the wave function p at the point P
as the sum of wave contributions from the surround-
ings. Wave contributions have to allow for the travel-
time from the sources to P, that is, what the source does
at an earlier time (tr/V) affects P at time t,
where r is the distance from the source to P and V is the
velocity. The earlier time is called retarded time. p
is expressed as an integral over the volume surrounding FIG. K-2. The Kirchhoff diffraction equation expresses
P to accommodate sources within the volume plus an the wave amplitude at a point P that is several wave-
integral over the surface surrounding the volume to lengths from a diffracting aperture in the plane B. If a
accommodate sources from outside. In source-free and b are the angles between the normal to B, the ampli-
space in terms of the values of and its derivative on a tude at P can be expressed as an integral over
surrounding surface S at the preceding time (t the aperture area, : P (1/2) (1/rs)(cos
r/V): cos )exp[j(rs)/]d .
- domain 202 K-wave
- domain: A wavefield in which the independent vari- C. Krey 1910, German geophysicist.
ables are wavenumber in the x-direction and wavenum- kriging: A geostatistical method of interpolating spatial
ber in the z-direction depth. Similar to the f, k domain data between locations at which values are known,
except with the frequency variable replaced by V/2 using a linear combination of weights to the known data
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knot: One nautical mile/hour1.1508 statute mile/
hour1.852 km/hr101.27 ft/min0.5144 m/s. 1 0 0
Knotts equations: notz Equations governing the parti-
tion of energy between reflected and refracted plane P- i jk 0 1 0 .
and S-waves at a plane interface, as a function of the 0 0 1
velocities, elastic constants, and densities in the two
media and of the incident angle. See Sheriff and Geldart Analogous to the Dirac delta function or impulse, q.v.
1995, 287288 and Zoeppritzs equations, with which in the mathematics of continuous systems. Named for
they are equivalent. Named for Cargill Gilston Knott Leopold Kronecker 18231891, German mathemati-
1856 1922, Scottish seismologist. cian.
knowledge-base: 1. The collection of facts, assumptions, KT event: The massive extinction of species that
and beliefs that are used in conjunction with a database occurred at the end of the Cretaceous, start of the
to achieve a diagnosis, solution, or interpretation. 2. Tertiary periods, often attributed to a meteor impact at
Expert system q.v.. Chicxulub, Yucatan, Mexico.
Koefoed method: A 2D method of estimating the depth of K-type section: A three-layer resistivity model q.v. in
a magnetic source based on the horizontal distance which the middle layer is more resistive than the layers
between points 1/2 and 3/4 of the maximum anomaly above or below it. See Figure T-7.
value. kurtosis: kur to sis A measure of the sharpness of a
Koenigsberger ratio Q: ka nigs ber, gr The ratio of population distribution. If x 10 , x 25 , x 75 , and x 90 are the
the remanent magnetization to the induced magnetiza- values for which 10, 25, 75, and 90% of the population
tion product of susceptibility and the Earths magnetic is smaller, respectively, then
field strength. A large Q indicates that the magnetic kurtosis x 75 x 25 /2 x 90 x 10 .
material will tend to maintain significant remanent
magnetization and indicates small mineral grain size. From the Greek word for curvature.
See Hood 1964. k-vane: A depressor paravane used to pull down a side-
Krey wave: kra Channel wave involving a Rayleigh- scan sonar or other underwater towed device. Also
wave type of particle motion in a low-velocity layer called k-wing. Trade name of Klein Associates.
between two higher velocity half-spaces, sometimes K-wave: A P-wave in the Earths outer core. Compare
called a pseudo-Rayleigh wave. Named for Theodore I-wave.
L
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L: 1. Liter, a volume of 1000 cm3. 2. A surface wave; L that is, in the factors multiplying y k the factor (x
stands for long waves. LQ and Q denotes a Love x k ) is omitted. Named for Joseph Louis Lagrange
Querwellen wave, LR and R a Rayleigh wave. See 1736 1813, French mathematician.
wave notation. 3. The area above a decay curve from Lagrange multipliers: A method whereby extrema of
0.45 to 1.75 s induced-polarization usage: functions of several variables are obtained. Also known
as undetermined multipliers.
1.75
0.45
V 0.45 V t dt.
Lagrangian differential operator: See Eulerian differen-
tial operator.
lag test: Determining how far a sensor is behind the
l: Cosine of the direction of a line with respect to the towing aircraft or boat by flying or sailing in opposite
x-axis. directions over a distinctive feature such as a large iron
1 : A least-absolute-deviation fit q.v.. bridge for a magnetometer bird.
2 : A least-squares fit q.v.. Implies Gaussian error dis- lag time: See lag.
tribution. lambda : 1. The Lame elastic constant q.v. some-
L1, L2: Carrier frequencies 1575.42 and 1227.6 MHz times called fluid incompressability. 2. Wavelength
used by GPS satellites. q.v.. 3. A medium-range phase-comparison position-
labilized: Astatized, as an astatized gravimeter; see ing system using two frequencies 100 to 200 kHz to
astatic. remove lane ambiguity.
Lg: Rayleigh wave q.v.. lambda, mu, rho: Inversion of AVO AVA data to obtain
lacuna: l kyoo n A gap in which information is the mediums elastic properties of and and the
absent, such as a gap in a seismic time-distance curve density
caused by a velocity inversion. From the Latin for Lambert conic projection: lam ba r A conformal secant
pool. or tangent conic map in which the Earths features are
ladder network: A step-type electrical network composed projected radially from the Earths center onto a cone
of H, L, T, or sections connected one after the other. that intersects the Earth along two or one standard
Often used so that one can pick off different voltages at parallels; see Figure M-4. Parallels are thus the arcs of
different levels. circles and meridians are straight lines and angles are
lag: 1. A difference in the arrival time of two events. 2. A preserved, but the scale varies except along parallels.
delay in the arrival time. Lagging refraction or reflec- Lambert projections are used as the standard map ref-
tion arrivals may indicate subsurface structure or delay erences in some states. Lambert coordinates on such a
caused by weathering variations, phase shifts in filter- map are rectangular grid coordinates with respect to an
ing, shothole fatigue, etc. Negative of lead. 3. The arbitrary reference point; they are not oriented precisely
phase angle by which the current is behind the emf in north-south except along the reference meridian nor
an inductive circuit. 4. The time delay between the east-west. The Lambert equal-area map is an azi-
breaking of the bridgewire in a detonating cap and the muthal projection. Named for Johann Heinrich Lam-
resulting explosion. 5. To be behind. 6. The distance a bert 1728 1777, German physicist.
sensor is behind the point where location is determined, Lambert coordinates: See Lambert conic projection.
as the distance an aerosurvey bird is behind the aircraft Lambertian surface: lam ba r shn An ideal perfectly
or a fish behind a boat; also called layback. 7. The time diffusing surface, which reflects energy equally in all
for cuttings to travel from the bottom of a drill hole to directions.
the surface. Lambs problem: An investigation of the effects of seis-
lagged product sum: The product sum of two values mic disturbances initiated by a point source on the
corresponding to different times. surface of a semi-infinite perfectly elastic medium.
Lagrange interpolation formula: l granj A method of Named for Sir Horace Lamb 18491934, English
calculating a polynomial for interpolating between a set mathematician.
of values which are not necessarily equally spaced. Lamb wave: A type of guided wave in a thin layer
(thicknesswavelength.
y 1 y x 1 ,y 2 y x 2 ,...,y n y x n ; Lame constants: la ma The elastic constants q.v.
and . Named for Gabriel Lame 17951870, French
y x xx 2 xx 3 ... xx n / x 1 x 2 ... mathematician.
lampitude: lam p tood The cepstrum-domain equiva-
x 1 x n y 1 xx 1 xx 3 ... xx n lent of amplitude. See cepstrum. A permutation of the
letters in amplitude.
/ x 2 x 1 ... x 2 x n y 2 ... xx 1 Lancing: Emplacing small explosive charges 100 g
xx 2 ... xx n1 / x n x 2 ... about 2 m deep with a 1 inch diameter spear. Prakla-
Seismos tradename.
x n x n1 y n , land air gun: An impulsive seismic energy source which
203
Landsat image 204 laserscan
involves an injection of highly compressed air into a The one-sided transform is often written with limits 0 to
water-filled expandable tank that is held against the , the limit being implied. Laplace transforms may not
surface of the earth. Bolt Technology Corp. exist for all values of s and hence many Laplace trans-
Landsat image: A photograph synthesized from mea- forms are limited to strips of convergence, the ranges
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surements made by a Landsat satellite, often shown in of values for the real part of s for which the above
false color. See remote sensing. intearals are finite. The Laplace transform domain is
lane: A unit of measuring position with standing-wave often called the s-plane. See Sheriff and Geldart 1995,
radio-positioning systems. In phase-comparison CW 545546.
systems, a lane is one cycle of the standing-wave inter- Laplacian: la pla se
n See Laplaces equation.
ference pattern resulting from two radiated waves and it Laplacian distribution: A distribution whose probability
depends on the position within the network. Phase- density is given by
comparison systems yield location within a lane but do
not necessarily determine in which lane; lane ambiguity 1 x / ,
has to be resolved by counting lanes or by some addi- f x e
2
tional measurement. Lane shape circular, hyperbolic,
elliptical, or a combination depends on the system where locates the mode of the distribution curve and
configuration. See Figure L-6. is a shape parameter. The maximum likelihood is the
langley: lang le A measure of heat flow, one median for independent random variables. Yields a
calorie/cm2. Named for Samuel Pierpont Langley normal distribution when the median equals the mean.
1834 1906, American physicist. See Johnson and Kutz 1969, 22.
language: A method of giving instructions to a computer. large aperature seismic array LASA: A particular geo-
Involves words and associated rules grammar. Com- phone array in Montana used to detect nuclear explo-
puter languages include Algol algorithmic language, sions and distinguish them from earthquakes. LASA
Cobol common business oriented language, Fortran consisted of 21 subarrays of 25 detectors each, the
formula translation in several versions, Basic, PL/1, subarrays being about 7 km in diameter and the LASA
C, C, etc. itself about 200 km in diameter. Other large-aperature
Laplace convolution: A smoothing procedure. arrays include NORSAR in Southern Norway and
Laplace filter: A grid-based way of calculating curvature. UKAEA United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority
Laplaces equation: la plas A differential equation that in Southern Scotland, Yellowknife in Canada, Australia,
describes field behavior in free space. The Laplacian and India. Also called phase array stations.
2 U of a potential function U vanishes in space that large-scale integration LSI: High-density integrated
contains neither sources nor sinks. is the operator circuits used for complex logic functions. Circuits can
del. In rectangular coordinates, include thousands of transistors on a small silicon chip.
Larmor frequency: lar mor The frequency with which
2 U2 U/x 2 2 U/y 2 2 U/z 2 0. gyromagnetic moments precess in a magnetic field.
Atoms and nuclei possess magnetic moments because
Gravity, magnetic, electrical, electromagnetic fields
of their spin and precess like small gyroscopes about
obey Laplaces equation in free space where there are
the direction of an externally applied steady magnetic
no sources. See Figure C-14 for the Laplacian in
field such as the Earths field. Radio-frequency energy
cylindrical and spherical coordinates. Compare Pois-
at right angles to the steady field will be absorbed
sons equation. Named for Pierre Simon Laplace
because of resonance when the RF-frequency equals
17491827, French mathematician.
the precession frequency. This principle is involved in
Laplace station: A location where the geodetic azimuth is
proton-precession magnetometers and optically
derived from an astronomic azimuth measurement.
pumped magnetometers and in the nuclear-magnetic
Laplace transform: The linear transform pair
resonance log see italicized entries. Named for Sir
F s f t e st dt, and
Joseph Larmor 18571942, English mathematician.
LASA: Large-aperture seismic array q.v..
laser: la zr Light Amplification by the Stimulated
f t 1/2 i F s est ds;
Emission of Radiation. A laser beam consists of highly
coherent light waves.
laser altimeter: See laser ranging.
s is a complex number and t is a real one. When the laser ranging: Determining distances by measuring the
limits of integration are , the transform is two- traveltime of a short pulse of laser light. The accuracy
sided. The two-sided Laplace transform becomes iden- of Satellite Laser Ranging SLR that employs 100 ps
tical with the Fourier transform when s is purely imagi- neodymium lasers at 532 nm is about 2 cm.
nary. More often the one-sided transform is used, laserscan: An optical process whereby a seismic record
especially in the study of transient waveforms. In this section undergoes two 2D Fourier transformations to
case, where f (t) is causal, the integral is make another record section. A lens accomplishes the
Fourier transform; see Figure L-2. If a grating is present
f t F s est ds.
which depends on the grating spacing. In optics, one
usually thinks of white light separating into its fre-
laser surveying 205 laterolog
Image Terrain coverage Ground lateral resolution means the horizontal spatial resolu-
Type of data scene resolution tion. 2. A type of resistivity log, now little used. A
constant current passed between electrode A in the
AVHRR GAC 27002700 km 1.11.1 km borehole and a remote electrode while the potential
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Landsat TM 185185 m 3030 m difference was measured across two electrodes, M and
SPOT XS 6060 km 2020 m N, located on the sonde; see Figure E-10. The MN
distance was small compared to the spacing, the dis-
tance between the current electrode and the midpoint
FIG. L-1. Surface images from Landsat-type satellites. between the potential electrodes, often 18 ft 8 inches
5.69 m. A short lateral sometimes used a spacing of
6 to 9 ft 1.8 to 2.7 m. The potential electrodes were
quency components as a result of passing through a usually below the current electrode, but on a reciprocal
uniform grating. In the Laserscan, monochromatic light sonde the functions were interchanged. 3. A horizontal
passed through a nonuniform grating e.g., a seismic well; see multilateral.
record section separates into the spacing components
lateral exploration: Profiling q.v., as opposed to sound-
of the record section as in f,k space. One lens thus
ing q.v..
accomplishes a Fourier transform of the record section
lateral resolution: The ability to tell that more than one
and a second lens synthesizes the components back into
a record section. By blocking certain components in the feature is present horizontally. The ability to see small
transform plane, their effect can be eliminated in the features such as channels or small reefs in map view.
image plane. A laserscan can accomplish frequency or lateral variations: Changes in a horizontal direction.
velocity filtering. LaserScan is a trade name of Conduc- lateral velocity variations: Velocity changes in the hori-
tron Corp. See Dobrin et al. 1965. zontal direction.
laser surveying: Use of a transit that transmits a beam of laterolog: lat, r o log A resistivity log generally used in
laser light to a mirror or corner reflector on a rod and salt muds, made with a sonde that is focused by use of
then measures the round-trip traveltime to determine guard or bucking electrodes which forced the survey-
the distance. ing current to flow nearly at right angles to the logging
latency: la t n se
Access time, the time delay between sonde. Also called guard log or focused log. One type
successive communications. Latency is caused by used three electrodes plus guard electrodes. In the
propagation delays and the queuing of disks or tapes. laterolog-7, sufficient current was fed into the bucking
For a disk, the time to move the disk arm seek latency electrodes A 1 and A 2 so that the current from electrode
plus the time waiting for the desired data to pass the A flowed nearly at right angles to the sonde cross-
head rotational latency. See also access time. hatched area in Figure L-3. Sensing electrodes M 1 ,
latent root: Eigenvalue q.v.. M 1 , M 2 , and M 2 were used to adjust the bucking-
lateral: 1. Horizontal, e.g., a lateral velocity gradient electrode currents until this flow condition existed. The
means change of velocity in the horizontal direction, dual laterolog measured resistivity at different depths of
FIG. L-2. Laserscan principle. (a) Each lens in effect Fourier-transforms the data. (b) Baffles accomplish filtering when
inserted in the transform plane.
laterolog 206 laterolog
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FIG. L-3. Laterolog. (a) Schematic of laterolog-7 showing current flow lines. (b) Laterolog plotted on hybrid scale.
(Courtesy Schlumberger.) (c) The array laterolog records the response to an unfocused current at many receivers and
determines resistivities in processing. (Courtesy Kurt Strack.)
latitude 207 layover
penetration. The array laterolog determines resistivities generated by mode conversion upon reflection.
by processing the data from an array of detectors rather law of refraction: See Snells law.
than by focusing the current. Laterolog is a Schlum- law of tangents: Electrical current lines at a boundary are
berger trade name. bent such that
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L-band: Radar frequencies between 390 and 1550 MHz; ria are sometimes used. One must determine the func-
see Figure R-1. tional form of the fit whether linear, quadratic, etc.
LCD: A Liquid-Crystal Display of characters. and what is to be minimized to define the problem. For
lead: 1. An indication of interesting structural or other example, different velocity functions result depending
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geological conditions; see resource. 2. The amount of on whether seismic time-depth data or velocity-depth
time by which one event is ahead of another, or by data are fitted, or if the data are weighted or differently
which an arrival is ahead of its normal arrival time. distributed in depth. Least-squares fitting is the same as
Negative of lag. 3. The phase angle by which current is the q.v. fit with p2. The 2 fit is the least-
ahead of emf in a capacitive electrical circuit. 4. An variance solution and corresponds to the maximum-
electrical conductor for connecting to electrical devices. likelihood estimate when the errors have a Gaussian
5. To be ahead. normal distribution. The best 2 estimate to a set of
leaf: 1. A node q.v. that has no children. 2. A 3D zone numbers is the average of the numbers.
such that travelpaths to anywhere in the leaf satisfy least-time path: The path between two points that takes
some condition within measurement errors. the least time to traverse, subject to certain constraints;
learning, supervisedunsupervised: Developing the cri- the path a seismic ray takes according to Fermats
teria parameter values or weights that identify an principle q.v. although Fermats principle dictates an
object; classifying. Supervised learning is based on a extremum path, which may not be the least-time path.
training set whose classification is known. Unsuper- Also called minimum-time path or brachistochrone.
vised learning determines the natural classes without The raypath will generally be curved or bent because of
prior examples. See also artificial intelligence. velocity variations.
lease: The contractual agreement that grants a company LED: A display employing Light-Emitting Diodes.
the right to search for oil or gas or minerals and to Lee partitioning method: A variation of the Wenner elec-
remove any that are discovered, in return for payments trode array q.v.. An additional electrode is placed
and royalties portions of the values of the minerals midway between the potential electrodes and the poten-
recovered. Often called a concession when granted by tials are measured between it and each of the other
a government. A lease generally specifies the lease potential electrodes.
terms, limitations, and restrictions. leeward: le -wrd The side away from the wind.
leakage: Low electrical resistance to ground where there left-hand rule: A rule which gives the direction of an
should be high resistance, as with a wet seismic cable. induced emf in a conductor that cuts a magnetic field.
leak-off test: A test performed after setting casing in a See Figure I-3.
well to determine the maximum pressure/mud-weight left-lateral fault: A strike-slip fault whose far side has
that can be applied before formation fracturing and loss moved to the left. See Figure F-3.
of borehole fluids. leg: A cycle of more-or-less periodic motion. When fol-
leaky mode: 1. A seismic wave that is imperfectly trapped
lowing a seismic event from trace to trace or from
between reflecting strata, where some energy escapes
record to record, one usually concentrates on a particu-
across a layer boundary by exciting another wave. See
lar trough or peak of the energy. If an erroneous corre-
Aki and Richards 1980, 319333. 2. Head-wave
lation is made into an adjacent trough or peak, one has
energy that leaks through a refractor. The amplitude of
jumped a leg.
head waves within a refractor for energy incident at the
critical angle or greater decreases exponentially away legacy data: Older data generally acquired for other pur-
from the interface. If the refractor is thin some of the poses that is used for comparison with newer data, as in
energy will leak through the refractor and appear as time-lapse studies.
seismic waves below the refractor. 3. Propagation in Legendre polynomial: la zhan dr Polynomials that are
imperfect wave guides. 4. Coherent noise produced by adapted to spherical symmetry. See Officer 1974,
energy bouncing at incident angles smaller than the 2127.
critical angle within beds that act as waveguides for Legendre Theorem: 1. The potential caused by a disk at
larger angles. points away from its axis can be found in terms of the
leap frog: A survey technique in which two units alter- potential on the axis. The solution on the axis can be
nately take the lead. E.g., the rodman precedes the determined in closed mathematical form, while the
transit instrument man, then the transit instrument man solution away from the axis can be found in terms of a
precedes the rodman, etc. Legendre Series. 2. For a spherical triangle which is
learning rule: Adjusting weights in neural nets. small compared with the spherical radius, the sides bear
least absolute deviation fit: An q.v. fit with 1. the same length relationship as a plane triangle whose
The 1 fit is the least mean deviation solution of a corresponding angles are smaller by a third of the
problem and corresponds to the maximum-likelihood spherical excess q.v.. This theorem is used in correct-
estimate when the errors have a Laplace double expo- ing plane surveying for Earth curvature. Named for
nential distribution. The best 1 estimate to a set of Adrien Marie Legendre 17521833, French math-
numbers is the median. ematician.
least-squares filter: Wiener filter q.v.. leg function: A curve composed of a series of segments.
least-squares fit: An analytic function that approximates a leggy: The character of a wavetrain that includes several
set of data such that the sum of the squares of the cycles with significant amplitude. Legginess is pro-
distances from the observed points to the curve is a duced by too narrow a filter bandpass.
minimum; an 2 fit. Usually implies deviation mea- Leibnitz rule: lib nits A formula for the n th derivative
surements along paths where xconstant; other crite- of the product of two functions f and g:
Lenzs law 209 linear ramp
Wilhelm Leibnitz 1646 1716, German mathemati- portional relationship between induced polarization and
cian. current density in which chargeability is constant, or b
Lenzs law: lenz z An induced emf is in such a direc- the symmetrical identity between voltage versus time of
tion as to generate a magnetic field that opposes the IP charge and decay curves, or c the proportionality
change which induced it. Named for Heinrich Friedrich between decay-curve amplitude and polarizing voltage.
Emil Lenz 1804 1865, Russian physicist. linearize: To approximate so that the relationship between
level: 1. A survey device used to ascertain which point on two quantities is directly proportional, i.e., expressible
a survey rod is at the same elevation as the instrument. as a straight line.
2. Amplitude, as in a potentiometer controls the volt- linearly independent: The property of not being express-
age level. 3. A track on digital magnetic tape, as in able as a linear combination of other elements. Thus a
7-level recording where seven magnetic heads set of equations or solutions is independent if none of
spaced across the tape width record seven bits of infor- them can be expressed as a linear combination of the
mation at one time i.e., in one byte. others. A set of linear functions,
leveling: 1. Determining elevations in land surveying by f i x 1 ,x 2 ,x 3 ,...,x n a i j x j ,
determining points that are at equal elevation. 2.
Adjusting a survey so that the values tie at line inter- is linearly independent if the determinant does not
sections. Corrects usually in a least-squares manner vanish i.e., if a i j 0 ; see Jacobian.
for elevation and location discrepancies at the intersec- linear mapping: Mapping vector space x into vector
tions, for instrument drift, for diurnal changes, etc. 3. space b with the equation Axb, where A is a
Adjusting gain to match amplitudes. transformation matrix.
Levinson algorithm: lev in sn A recursive algorithm linear-phase filter: A mixed-phase filter that time-shifts
used to solve the normal equations for a Wiener opti- frequency components proportional to their frequency,
mum filter; see Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 552553. thus introducing a constant delay but no change of
Lg-wave: A short-period guided surface wave that travels waveshape. The phase-shift versus frequency graph is
in the continental crust. The g refers to granitic layer. linear over the band-pass and has an intercept that is a
LHS: Left-Hand Side. multiple of 2. Also called a delay filter. If the inter-
library: A collection of programs and data which a com- cept is an odd multiple of it will invert the wavelet.
puter system has available to use. See Figure P-1 and phase characteristics.
lidar: Measuring the traveltime of reflections of intense linear-phase wavelet: A wavelet whose phase spectrum is
infrared light pulses generated by a laser. a straight line. Zero-phase and 90 wavelets are two
liftering: lif ter ng The cepstrum-domain equivalent of specific kinds of linear-phase wavelets.
filtering. A permutation of the letters in filtering. linear programming: Solution of a problem that involves
lightingshading: See sun angle. constraints expressed as inequalities. For problems that
light pen: An input device used with a graphical display involve many inequalities, involves searching the ver-
unit. The unit senses the position of the pen and relays tices of multidimensional polygons whose boundaries
this information to the central processing unit. are determined by the constraints. Often solved by the
lignite: A brownish-black intermediate between peat and simplex algorithm which does not check every vertex.
sub-bituminous coal. Calorific value less than 8300 See Figure L-5.
BTU/lb. linear ramp: See ramp.
likelihood: A function proportional to probability.
Whereas probability is associated with a forward
experiment, likelihood is associated with an inverse
experiment, e.g., likelihood specifies a probability
model for measurements and determines the model
parameters associated with the measurements. See
maximum likelihood.
limit of detectabilityvisibility: Detectable limit q.v..
limit of resolutionseparability: Resolvable limit q.v..
line: 1. A linear array of observation points, such as a
seismic line. 2. Equipment that is directly connected to
and controlled by a central controller is on-line while
that not so controlled is off-line. 3. A channel. 4. In a
power spectrum, the contribution of a single frequency.
Physically, the contribution of a very narrow frequency
band.
lineagenic: lin e gen, ik See tectonic types.
lineaments: A line up of various kinds of features.
linear: Having a straight line relationship; xaby, FIG. L-5. A linear-programming problem usually is one
where a and b are constants. See also linear system. of determining the set of values x that will maximize some
linear filter: See convolution. quantity Q(x) while subject to constraints C j .
linear sweep 210 line turn
linear sweep: Vibroseis signal where the vibrator fre- combination of circles and hyperbolas, etc.
quency varies linearly with time, that is, the sweep line of sight: The straight-line distance from an object to
amplitude is an observer. High-frequency short-wavelength radio
waves travel such raypaths so that the curvature of the
A cos 2 f o tbt 2 for upsweep, or
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FIG. L-6. Lines of position (LOP). The solid lines indicate constant range from A (or B) and are circles. The dashed
lines indicate constant difference in range from A and B and are hyperbolas. The short dashed lines indicate that the
sum of the ranges from A and B are constant and are ellipses.
lineup 211 lobes
lineup: In-phase alignment across the traces of a seismo- communication for a group of people about a particular
gram; showing coherent energy. subject.
linkage: 1. The instructions which connect one program to lithologic log: A log showing lithology as a function of
another, providing continuity of execution between the depth in a borehole. Sometimes a strip log based on
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programs. 2. The convention for exchanging control samples, sometimes interpreted from other borehole
and data between a subroutine and the module calling logs.
it. lithology nomenclature: Rocks are generally classified as
Linux: lih-nucks with a short i A C-compatible ver- sedimentary Figure L-7, igneous Figure L-8, or
sion of UNIX q.v. operating system, devised by Linus metamorphic Figure L-9.
Torvalds, a Finnish student at the University of Hels- lithosphere: The upper 100 km approximately of the
inki. The operating system including source code can Earth that is relatively rigid, thus including the Earths
be downloaded from the internet at no cost. Linux crust and uppermost mantle. Characterized by relatively
makes use of components developed by Free Software low attenuation of seismic waves high Q. Underlain
Foundation for the GNU project and is available on by the asthenosphere and the mesosphere. See Figure
many non-PC platforms as well. E-1.
link: 1. Highlighted or underlined words called hot lithostatic pressure: Overburden pressure q.v.. The
spots in a document; they may be called up linked by pressure caused by overlying rock and water in the
clicking on them. 2. To call up another program, docu- case of offshore wells.
ment, or vendor. lithostratigraphy: Differentiation, delineation, and classi-
liquefaction: Soil and sand behaving as a liquid upon fication of rock succession on the basis of gross lithol-
agitation such as by an earthquake that disrupts grain- ogy. Specification must give a distinctive name and
to-grain contacts. specify the distinguishing gross lithologic characteris-
liquefied natural gas LNG: Gas mainly methane that tics, the type location, how the boundaries are specified,
has been liquefied by refrigeration and pressure. how the units are subdivided, their thicknesses and
liquefied petroleum gas LPG: Lighter hydrocarbons thickness ranges, how they are geographically distrib-
mainly propane and butane that have been liquefied. uted, and their age. See Salvador 1994 and Hedburg
liquid junction potential: Also called liquid boundary 1976.
potential and diffusion potential. See electrochemical little endian: See endian.
SP. littoral: lit r l The depth zone between high and low
liquidus: lik wi ds The line on a state diagram above water; coastal. See Figure B-1.
which all phases are liquid. In the region between the live, alive: Said of geophone groups that are being
liquidus and the solidus both liquid and solid phases are recorded; responsive. A seismic channel is live if it is
present. Upon lowering temperatures it is the point responsive to input energy. As opposed to dead.
where solids begin to form; freezing point. live oil: Oil that is saturated with gas.
LIS: Log Information Standard. LLI: Log-Level Indicator q.v..
LIS format: A standard for the transmission of digital ln: Natural logarithm; logarithm to the base e. Ln x
well data. Originated by Schlumberger. 2.3026 log10 x.
Lissajous figure: le s zhoo, or le, s zhoo The steady Lloyd mirror effect: loid Interference between a sea-
pattern on an oscilloscope when periodic waves that are surface ghost and waves that follows a direct path along
harmonics of a common frequency are applied to the the seafloor. The separation of interference bands
horizontal and vertical plates. Such patterns are used to depends on offset. Named for Humphrey Lloyd 1800
ascertain that the frequencies are exactly the ratios of 1881, Irish physicist.
small integers and to determine their relative phase LMO: Linear MoveOut, applied in refraction statics
relationship. Named for Jules Antoine Lissajous 1822 q.v..
1880, French physicist. LNAPL: Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid, an environ-
list: 1. Overall average tilt of a ship to starboard or port mental pollutant that floats on the water table. Often
about an axis in the principal direction of motion. As hydrocarbons, which float on water. Compare DNAPL.
opposed to roll, which is periodic motion about this LNC: Local Noise Compensation q.v..
axis. 2. See listing. LNG: Liquified Natural Gas q.v..
listening period, listen time: 1. The time between peri- load: 1. The power that a device consumes or delivers. 2.
odic inputs. In time-domain IP surveying, responses are An impedance connected across an output. 3. The
measured during listening periods between periods amount of computer resources being used at a given
of current application. In Doppler-sonar navigation, the moment. 4. The weight pressing on a drill bit. 5. To
frequency is measured during the listening periods place explosive in a shothole. 6. To input program
between transmissions. 2. The time data are recorded and/or data into a computer.
after the cessation of source energy input. In vibroseis, loading pole: A pole usually in 10-ft sections for placing
the time between the end of the sweep and the end of an explosive charge in a shothole.
the record. load-point marker: A marker such as a band of metal
listing: A print-out of program statements or data. foil affixed on a digital magnetic tape which indicates
listric surface: lis trik A curved fault fracture surface to the computer the beginning of information on the
that flattens as one goes deeper. Because of fault-plane tape. Also called end-of-reel marker.
curvature, rotation of a downdropped block accompa- lobes: Passbands in a directivity graph. See Figure D-15.
nies fault slippage. Also spelled lystric. The main pass region is the main lobe and smaller pass
list-server: A computer and program facilitating e-mail regions are called side lobes. Used in connection with
lobes 212 lobes
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FIG. L-7. Lithology of sedimentary rocks. The top line indicates three steps to identifying a rock. (From Busch, 2000,
91.)
lobe switching 213 local pressure gradient
source and receiver directivity, radio antenna patterns, uppermost parts of the Earths crust.
etc. local noise compensation LNC: A technique for reduc-
lobe switching: A change in the location of deposition ing time-variant but spatially invariant noise. Data at a
resulting from a river changing course. base station are first stacked to remove time-variant
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local gravity: Bouguer value from which the regional has noise. Time-variant noise at the base is then determined
been subtracted; residual q.v.. by subtracting the stacked value. The difference at a
local hour angle: See hour angle. given time is subtracted from observations at nearby
local magnetic anomalies: Anomalies of restricted areal stations. See Stephen et al. 1991.
distribution caused by the magnetization of units in the local pressure gradient: The slope tangent of a pore
FIG. L-8. Lithology of igneous rocks. Classification is based on texture, color (% mafic), and mineralogy. (From
Busch, 2000, 70.)
lock on 214 log
fluid pressure versus depth curve. The interstitial pres- Phase-lock loops are used to maintain phase relation-
sure within connected pore spaces increases with depth ships when the received signal temporarily drops out.
depending on the density of the pore fluid. It is about locus: The set of all points that satisfy a given require-
0.10.2 psi/ft for gas, 0.250.4 for oils, 0.433 for pure ment. Thus a circle or sphere is the locus of points
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FIG. L-9. Lithology of metamorphic rocks. The top line indicates the steps to identifying a rock. (From Busch, 2000,
114.)
logarithmic contour interval 215 loran
logs, sample logs, borehole well logs see individual A and M electrodes in the sonde 64 inches 1.63 m
entries, etc. 2. An instrument for measuring a vessels apart.
speed or distance traveled, or both. long-offset: Situation where the source-to-detector dis-
logarithmic contour interval: lo, g rith mik Plotting tance exceeds the reflector depth.
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of data on a logarithmic scale is sometimes used where long-offset transient electromagnetics: A transient or
properties of materials vary by many orders of magni- time domain electromagnetic system for which the
tude. Resistivity and IP data often are contoured in source-receiver separation is comparable with the depth
intervals that are approximately logarithmic or geo- of investigation. The source is normally a long
metric, such as 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100; or 1, 3, 10, 30, grounded wire. See electric sounding and Strack
100, 300. 1992.
logarithmic decrement: The natural logarithm of the long-path multiple: A seismic reflection whose travel
ratio of the amplitudes of two successive cycles of a path is appreciably longer than required for a primary
harmonic event. Where the amplitude decay is because reflection from the deepest interface reached. A long-
of absorption, the logarithmic decrement can be related path multiple tends to appear as a separate event rather
to Q and to the absorption coefficient. than blending into the tail of the primary. For example,
logarithmic potential: A potential function applicable for the energy might be reflected by a deep reflecting
2D structures. See Telford et al. 1990, 8. interface, then at or near the surface, and again by the
logging: Determining some average of the physical prop- same or another deep interface. See Figure M-18.
erties of the material around and inside a borehole. See long shot: 1. A refraction profile where the source is offset
well log and mud log. inline from the end of the active line of geophones. 2. A
logical path: The precise sequence of instructions possibility that has relatively low probability.
executed by a computer. The logical path may be con- long-spaced sonic log: A sonic log q.v. run with a tool
trolled by a series of conditional tests applied at various having a spacing see Figure S-13 between source to
points. receiver array of 8 12 ft versus 35 ft for the normal
log inon log out: The method by which a user enters sonic tool. Designed to measure formation properties
leaves a multi-access system. beyond the portions possibly altered by invasion. Per-
log-level indicator LLI: A trace which indicates the log mits a more robust analysis of both P- and S-waves.
of the gain of one amplifier channel under AGC control. Requires mode conversion to generate S-waves and
See Figure R-6. therefore works best in fast formations.
log-normal distribution: A probability distribution in longwall mining: A long mining machine cuts a coal bed
which the logarithm of a parameter has a normal using a cutter that traverses back and forth along the
Gaussian distribution. length of the machine, the coal being removed by a
log-stretch trick: A logarithmic stretching of the time axis conveyor belt and the waste deposited behind the
that converts an integral encountered in Fourier-domain machine. The roof is allowed to collapse after the
DMO into a form of a Fourier transform. See Bolondi machine passes.
et al. 1982 or Notfors and Godfrey 1987. long wave: Surface wave q.v..
long air-gun array: A marine source array more than 50 long-wavelength statics: Statics variations over a dis-
m long. tance that is larger than the spread length. Conventional
longitude: Angle measured about the spheroid axis from first-break statics correction methods see static correc-
the prime meridian to the meridian through the point; tions may not yield adequate information to make
positive indicates east. long-wavelength corrections.
longitudinal: Along the major axis of a feature; as loop: 1. Field observations which begin and end at the
opposed to transverse. The longitudinal axis of a struc- same point with a number of intervening observations.
tural feature such as an anticline is its b-axis. Obtaining data in loops called looping is useful in
longitudinal conductance: The product of average con- correcting for drift in gravity-meter observations or
ductivity and thickness of a layer. Measured in siemens diurnal variation in magnetometer surveys, and in
1/ohm. detecting faults or other cause of misclosure in seismic
longitudinal parity check: The bits in each column along work. 2. An electrical circuit which provides feedback,
the length of the tape are counted and a parity bit is as an AGC loop. 3. A part of a computer program in
recorded at the end of the record block. When the which the last instruction is to repeat the preceding
record is read, the bits are again counted as a check. series of operations with or without modification until
The parity track as well as the data tracks are checked some particular condition is reached. 4. A transmitting
in this manner. Also called longitudinal redundancy or receiving coil used in electromagnetic surveying.
check. LOP: Line Of Position q.v..
longitudinal resistivity: Resistivity measured in the hori- Lorac: A medium-range surveying system that involved
zontal direction. the phase comparison of CW radio waves transmitted
longitudinal unit conductance: For a sequence of isotro- over different paths.
pic layers with thicknesses z i and resistivities i , the loran: lor n or lo
r n Long-Range Navigation. One of
quantity z i / i . See dar Zarrouk. several U.S. government long-range pulse-type elec-
longitudinal wave: P-wave q.v.. tronic positioning systems phased-out by the Global
long name: A structural textual description that provides Positioning System q.v.; see Figure L-10. Hyperbolic
an understanding of the named item. lines of position were determined by measuring differ-
long normal: A normal q.v. resistivity log made with the ences in the times of reception of synchronized pulse
Lorentz condition 216 p fit
signals from fixed transmitters at known geographic low: An area in which beds are structurally lower than in
positions. neighboring areas; a syncline or structural depression.
Lorentz condition: lor nts The condition, low-amplitude display: Seismic data displayed at low
gain so that the strongest events are not overdriven and
A /t ,
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data and the estimates the errors e i y i y i mini- hexagons are grouped as an aggregate for the next
mizes higher specification, the center one being designated 0,
the one north of 0 being 1, with 2 through 6 being
w e , p clockwise from 1. The specification 123 would indicate
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i i
i position 3 of hexagon 20, which is position 1 of hexa-
where w i are weighting factors. If p1, this yields the gon 100.
least-absolute deviation fit; for p2, least-squares; for LU decomposition: Replacing a matrix by the product of
pinfinity, the minimax or Chebychev results. a lower triangular matrix and an upper triangular
LPG: Liquefied Petroleum Gas q.v.. matrix. The solution can then be found in two steps by
LQ-wave: Love wave q.v.. forward and back substitution q.v..
LR-wave: Rayleigh wave q.v.. lumped circuit: An electrical network of concentrated
LSB: Least Significant Bit. resistance, capacitance, and other elements, as opposed
LSI: Large-Scale Integration q.v. or large-scale inte- to distributed resistance and capacitance as in a trans-
grated circuit. mission line, or as opposed to a solid-state system.
L-spread: 1. A seismic spread in which the source point is
LVL, LV: Low-Velocity Layer, Low-Velocity Zone q.v..
offset by an appreciable distance perpendicularly to the
Often refers to the weathering layer, occasionally to a
spread line, the source point being opposite one of the
end geophone groups. See Figure S-18. 2. A spread deeper layer.
often laid out for noise studies in which about half of L-waves: Long waves; seismic surface waves from earth-
the spread length is in-line with the source and the quakes that have long wavelength. LQ denotes a Love
remainder perpendicular. wave, LR a Rayleigh wave.
LST: Lowstand System Tract q.v.. LWD: Logging While Drilling; see measurement while
Lucasian coordinates: A 2D coordinate system consist- drilling.
ing of hexagons, used to specify map locations. Seven lystric: Listric surface q.v..
M
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m: 1. Milli-, the SI prefix for 10 3 . 2. Meter, the SI unit erogeneous crystalline rocks having magnetic suscepti-
of length. The context makes clear which is meant. bilities that are large compared with those of sediments.
M: 1. Mega-, SI prefix for 10 6 . 2. Roman symbol for Often but not necessarily coincident with the geologic
10 3 , as in MCF of gas. MM is used for 10 6 in the basement q.v.. Generally excludes magnetic sedi-
petroleum industry. 3. The earthquake phase with the ments, thin volcanic and other high-susceptibility rocks
maximum amplitude on the seismogram, now obsolete. intruded into the sedimentary section, but thick volca-
4. The ratio of porosity determined from a sonic log to nic rocks in the sedimentary section might be classed as
that from a density log. magnetic basement where the magnetic effects of
ma: Subscript used with log terms to indicate the rock deeper bodies would not be resolvable.
matrix. magnetic cleaning: Removing the soft secondary mag-
Ma: Millions of years. netization of a sample so the hard primary magneti-
machine language: An instruction code usually created zation can be studied. See demagnetization.
by assemblers or compilers directly executable by a magnetic compensation: Correction for the static and
computing machine. Object programs are in machine dynamic effects of the survey aircraft, often performed
language. by an onboard computer.
Maclaurin series: mk lor in A special case of a Taylor magnetic core: A small toroidal ferrite ring used to store
series q.v. in which expansion is about the origin. a bit of information in second-generation rapid-access
Named for Colin Maclaurin 1698 1746, Scottish memory.
mathematician. magnetic data correction: Corrections include compen-
macro: A single statement that causes the execution of a sation for a irregular solar micropulsations and mag-
series of programs. netic storms, b diurnal and secular variations, c
macromodel: A velocity model for use in ray tracing instrument drift d flight elevation, e location errors
and/or depth migration. Usually made up of a few thick and misties, f the International Geomagnetic Refer-
layers with variable thickness. ence Field (IGRF) q.v., g inclination and declina-
macroscopic anisotropy: The situation where measure- tion, and h cultural effects. Not all of these corrections
ment of a physical property perpendicular to the bed- are applied to all data nor in this sequence.
ding differs from measurement parallel to the bedding magnetic dip: Magnetic inclination; see inclination.
because of the inclusion of isotropic interbeds of mark- magnetic dipole: 1. The current loop that is the elemen-
edly different properties; see anisotropy. tary source of a magnetic field. The current may be free
macroscopic cross-section: See capture cross-section. or bound as in electron orbitals in magnetized materi-
macro-velocity model: A macromodel q.v.. als. See also magnetic pole and magnetic dipole
mafic: maf ik An igneous rock composed of a ferro- moment. 2. A source of electromagnetic energy created
magnesium mineral. Mnemonic for MAgnesium by an alternating current in a single or multiturn loop
FerrIC. Compare felsic. carried from an aircraft or laid out on the ground. 3. The
magma: A hot melt containing dissolved volatiles and magnetically polarized nature of rocks and ore bodies.
suspended crystals, resulting from partial melting of the See Figure M-1.
Earths crust or mantle. Upon cooling magma becomes magnetic dipole moment: The strength of a magnetic
igneous rock. A magma chamber is a region in which dipole a vector. Amplitude given in SI units by m
magma is received from a deeper source region and n/A where n is number of coil turns if applicable, I
from which it may move to the surface to form a is effective electric current and A is effective loop area.
volcano. The direction is normal to the plane of the current loop
Magnedisc: An early magnetic tape medium shaped like a with the sense given by a right-handed screw turning
large disc. GSI trade name. with the current. In magnetized materials the magnetic
magnetically quiet: Having ambient magnetic variations dipole moment is produced by the aggregate effect of
less than tens of nanoteslas. unpaired electron orbitals. See magnetic dipole and also
magnetic anomaly: The difference between observed and magnetization.
theoretical or predicted magnetic values. A residual magnetic dip poles: See magnetic field of the Earth.
magnetic anomaly is what remains after removal of magnetic disk: A thin metal disk coated with magnetic
the longer wavelength regional; the IGRF is used recording material used for data storage.
widely as the regional value. The shape of a magnetic magnetic disturbance: Magnetic storm q.v..
anomaly depends on a the geometry of a body, b the magnetic equator: The line on the surface of the Earth
direction of the Earths magnetic field, c the direction where a magnetic needle that is free to rotate remains
and intensity of the bodys remanent magnetism, c the horizontal, that is, where magnetic lines of force are
direction of the observations with respect to the Earths horizontal. Generally not coincident with the Earths
field. equator. Local field irregularities are often ignored.
magnetic artifacts: See cultural magnetic anomalies. Also called the aclinic line.
magnetic basement: The upper surface of extensive het- magnetic field: The space through which influence on, or
218
magnetic field 219 magnetic field
by, a magnet is exerted. The torque per unit dipole This is often written in terms of the force dF produced
moment at any point in space that would tend to orient on a small element of length d that is carrying a
a current-carrying coil or magnet if located at that current I:
point. A vector quantity also called the magnetic flux
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FIG. M-1. Magnetic quantities and units. See also Appendix A, SI units.
magnetic field of the Earth 220 magnetic permeability
magnetic polarization: Magnetization q.v.. during unusual sunspot activity as a result of bombard-
magnetic pole: 1. One of the two points near opposite ment of the Earth by high-energy particles from the sun.
ends of a magnet toward which the magnetic lines of Magnetic storms commonly have an amplitude of 50 to
force are oriented and concentrated. If the magnet is 200 nanoteslas, occasionally thousands of nanoteslas,
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permitted to rotate about its center, the pole which and their duration is often several days. They are usu-
points in the direction of the Earths north magnetic ally associated with auroral displays. Magnetic pros-
pole is the north-seeking or positive pole; the other pole pecting has to be suspended during magnetic storms.
is the south-seeking or negative pole. It always occurs magnetic survey: Measurements of the magnetic field or
as part of a magnetic dipole, which is the elementary its components such as the vertical component at a
source of a magnetic field. Different from magnetic dip series of different locations over an area of interest,
pole. See magnetic field of the Earth. 2. The pole usually with the objective of locating concentrations of
strength of a magnetized bar of cross-section A perpen- magnetic materials, mapping geological structure, or of
dicular to the magnetization M is MA. See Figure M-1. determining depth to basement. Differences from the
magnetic potential: The product of the current and the normal field are attributed to the distribution of mate-
solid angle subtended by a coil divided by 4 a sphere rials having different susceptibility.
subtends the angle 4. If there are several coils, their magnetic survey resolution: Goussev and Peirce 1999
individual magnetic potentials which are scalars are give Figure M-3 for required resolution:
added. The magnetizing force H is the negative gradi- magnetic susceptibility: A measure of the degree to
ent of the magnetic potential, a scalar representing the which a substance may be magnetized; the ratio k or k
work done against the magnetic field to bring a unit of the magnetization M or I to the magnetizing force H
magnetic pole to the point. A magnetic vector poten- that is responsible for it:
tial is a vector field whose curl gives the magnetic
induction. kHM in the SI system,
magnetic quiet zone: The Cretaceous period from the k HI in the cgs system,
Aptian through the Santonian 124 to 83 Ma during
which no reversals of the Earths magnetic field The susceptibility is dimensionless but of different
occurred, so that ocean-basin magnetic stripes are magnitude in the two systems:
absent.
k4 k .
magnetic reciprocity: The anomaly produced by a body
is the same if the induced field and magnetization The susceptibility is related to the magnetic permeabil-
directions are interchanged. ity
magnetic resonance: Interaction between the magnetic
moments electron spin and/or nuclear spin of atoms k 1,
with an external magnetic field. Magnetic resonance is k 1 /4 .
basic to the operation of the proton-resonance magne-
tometer and optically pumped magnetometer q.v.. See Susceptibility in cgs units is sometimes measured in
also nuclear-magnetism log and Larmor frequency. units of 10 6 micro-cgs. Rock susceptibility usu-
magnetic resonance sounding: An electromagnetic ally ranges from 0 to 0.01 cgs units 0 to 10 000
sounding method used for direct detection of water by micro-cgs and it is often proportional to the fraction of
causing proton precession in subsurface aquifers. See magnetite present. See Figure M-1.
nuclear magnetic resonance log. magnetic tape: A thin strip of plastic coated with a mag-
magnetic shield: High-permeability container that iso- netically sensitive material on which information can
lates its interior from external magnetizing forces. be stored in the form of magnetization patterns.
magnetic signature: The shape of a magnetic anomaly. magnetic tape transport: A device for writing or reading
magnetic storm: A period of rapid, irregular, transient magnetic tape data.
fluctuations of the magnetic field that are greater in magnetic transformations: A change to a magnetic map
magnitude, more irregular, and of higher frequency or profile in which the magnetizing field is effectively
than diurnal variations. These occur most commonly changed. Transformations include reduction to the pole
FIG. M-3. Magnetic resolution required for different targets. Courtesy Goussev and Peirce, 1999
magnetic vector potential 222 magnitude of earthquake
q.v. or equator, removal of remanence if its direction which the ground is energized with commutated direct
is known, change from total field to a field component current through a pair of widely spaced electrodes and
or vice-versa, etc. the anomalous conductivity distribution is surveyed by
magnetic vector potential: See magnetic potential. measuring the secondary magnetic field arising from
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magnetite: Strongly magnetic Fe3 O4 , a widely distrib- current flow. The magnetic measurement direction is
uted and very common mineral with susceptibility perpendicular to the line between electrodes. This tech-
120019200 henries/meter. The volume count of mag- nique is used to explore beneath a conductive surface
netite is the dominant parameter for magnetic proper- layer.
ties. magnetosphere: The space pervaded by the Earths mag-
magnetization: Magnetic moment per unit volume occa- netic field, usually extending to more than 10 Earth
sionally per unit mass, a vector quantity. Also called radii on the sunlit side and to 40 Earth radii on the
magnetic polarization or intensity of magnetization. shadow side. Charged particles particularly concentrate
Designated by symbols M or I. A measure of the effect at elevations around 1600 and 3000 km.
of the medium on the magnetic field B when subject to magnetostratigraphy: The use of reversals of the Earths
a magnetizing force H: magnetic field to determine stratigraphic age, or the use
of the orientation of remanent magnetism to determine
B o HM in SI system, polar wandering curves and hence paleolatitudes. Occa-
sionally includes identifying stratigraphic units on the
BH4 I in cgs system, basis of magnetic characteristics such as susceptibility.
where o is the permeability of free space. The propor- See Figures G-4 and S-5.
tionality between magnetization and H is the magnetic magnetostriction: mag ne , to
strik shn Change in the
susceptibility q.v., k or k. See Figure M-1. strain of a magnetic material as a result of changes in
magnetizing force H: A measure of the influence of a magnetization. The dependence of magnetization sus-
magnet in the surrounding space. Also known as mag- ceptibility or remanence on applied stress is termed
netic field strength. See magnetic field and Figure M-1. inverse magnetostriction or piezomagnetism. Magne-
magnetochronology: Changes in the polarity of the tostrictive acoustical sources and hydrophones are
Earths magnetic field from its present polarity have extremely rugged. A magnetostrictive hydrophone
occurred a number of times in the Earths history and might consist of a coil of wire wrapped around a
provide a method for rock age dating; see geomagnetic cylinder of magnetostrictive material. A pressure wave
reversal and Figure G-4. acting radially induces hoop-stresses in the core that
magnetohydrodynamics: mag ne , hi, dro
, to , di nam changes its permeability and thereby the flux linking
iks Phenomena associated with the motion of an elec- the coil wrapped around it. The change of flux induces
trically conducting fluid such as a liquid metal or an a voltage that is proportional to the derivative of the
ionized gas through a magnetic field. Also called pressure-wave signal.
hydromagnetics. magnetotelluric MT method: mag ne d o t loo, rik A
magnetohydrodynamic theory: The theory that coupling method in which orthogonal components of the hori-
between the mechanical and electrodynamic forces in zontal and magnetic fields induced by natural primary
the fluid core gives rise to a self-exciting dynamo and is sources are measured simultaneously as functions of
responsible for the Earths main magnetic field. frequency. Apparent resistivity a as a function of fre-
magnetometer: An instrument for measuring magnetic- quency f is calculated:
field strength. Ground magnetometers sometimes mea- a 1/ E i /H j 2 , 2 f .
sure the vertical component of the magnetic field,
sometimes a horizontal component, sometimes the total Also, a 0.2Z / f , where Z is the Cagniard imped-
2
field. Most airborne magnetometers are of one of three ance or tensor impedance q.v.; see Vozoff 1972.
types: a fluxgate, b proton-precession, or c opti- Resistivity as a function of depth can be calculated for
cally pumped see individual entries; all measure the a layered Earth. For a nonlayered Earth, two apparent
total-field intensity and cesium magnetometers measure resistivity curves result from rotating the MT tensor
the absolute field and achieve 0.001 nT accuracy. Vec- impedance and interpretation is more involved see
tor and vertical-component airborne magnetometers are tensor magnetotelluric method. The predominant
used occasionally. See also variometer and squid mag- sources of energy for magnetotelluric measurements are
netometer. micropulsations having frequencies of less than 1 Hz.
magnetometric induced polarization MIP: A mag- Sometimes magnetotelluric measurements are made at
netic induced polarization q.v. method that uses the audio frequencies using energy from sferics; the
survey procedures of the magnetometric resistivity method is then referred to as the audiomagnetotelluric
q.v. method. method AMT. See telluric current method.
magnetometric resistivity MMR: mag ne to
met, rik magnetotelluric noise: Unwanted voltages in the earth
1. caused by low-frequency earth currents whose sources
are electrical discharges in thunderstorms, power lines,
M M R anomaly H p H po /H po , ionospheric currents, or magnetospheric currents.
magnitude: 1. Amplitude q.v.. 2. Magnitude of earth-
where H p steady-state magnetic field amplitude and quake q.v..
H po predicted uniform ground primary magnetic magnitude of earthquake: A logarithmic measure of the
field. Involved in measurements of magnetic induced strength of an earthquake or of the strain energy
polarization q.v.. 2. An electrical surveying method in released by it, as determined by seismographic obser-
main beam 223 map projection
vations. Magnitude is a rating of an earthquake inde- magnetic. The mantle includes the lower lithosphere
pendent of the place of observation. The Richter scale and the asthenosphere. Below the mantle is the core
of magnitude indicates the base-10 logarithm of the separated from the mantle by the Gutenberg-Weichert
maximum amplitude observed or which might have discontinuity. See Figure E-1.
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been observed on an instrument of specified type 100 map: 1. To transform information from one form to
km from the epicenter. Empirical tables correct obser- another. The distribution may be with respect to vari-
vations at other distances. Each step of one in magni- ables other than geographic, as to map from the time
tude means multiplying the amplitude by 10. The larg- to the frequency domain. Transformations may
est earthquakes are of magnitude about 9. Zero involve a one point to one point correspondence or one
represented the smallest recorded earthquakes when the to several involving multibranched surfaces.
scale was devised but microearthquakes can have nega- Examples of multibranched maps might be the map of
tive Richter values. Various relations are used to give a geological formation in the vicinity of a reverse fault
the order of magnitude of the energy released in an where the same formation contact lies at two depths, or
earthquake from the magnitude M. Roughly, the energy a seismic reflection time map in a buried-focus situation
E in ergs is given approximately by log E102M; where the same reflector can be seen in several direc-
Bath 1966 gives log10 E12.241.44 M ergs. Dis- tions from the same observation point. 2. The product
tinction is sometimes made between magnitude based of such a transformation. The transformation may
on body-wave (M b ) versus surface-wave (M s ) mea- involve the geographical distribution of observations or
surements. See also seismic moment. of calculations based on observations, as a Bouguer
main beam: Main lobe q.v.. anomaly map or a seismic reflection map. 3. To plot.
main frame: 1. The main part of a computer system, map convolution: A 2D convolution often applied to
typically, the central processor unit and main memory. potential-field maps, whereby each point on the map
2. A large computer, typically requiring special power grid is replaced by a weighted sum of the values at
installation and controlled environment. other grid points.
main lobe, main beam: The portion of a directivity graph
that indicates the continuous band of directions or
apparent wavelengths in which the greatest energy is
x,y f
, x ,y ,
and is standard; the scale along meridians is therefore and velocity determination models. It involves strong
variable and the map is neither equivalent nor confor- horizontal and vertical velocity changes. See Versteeg
mal. g Transverse Mercator projections onto a 1994 and Figure M-5.
cylinder at right angles to the Earths axis and Lambert Marquardt inversion: mar kwart An inversion tech-
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conic projections q.v. form many official coordinate nique for nonlinear problems. See Lines and Treitel
systems; the Universal Transverse Mercator q.v. is 1984 or Marquardt 1963. Named for David Wesley
one standard system in widespread use. h A Robin- Marquardt 1929-, American mathematician.
son projection permits some distortion in size at high marsh buggy: A self-propelled vehicle designed to oper-
latitudes to maintain shapes at middle and low latitudes. ate over marsh or extremely soft ground, characterized
mare: A dark low-lying plain filled with volcanic rocks. by very low ground pressure. Some have large wheels
marine flooding surface: A surface above which rocks with very wide treads, tracks, or buoyant wheels or
were deposited in appreciably greater water depth than
tanks so that they will float in water.
those below the surface. See parasequence.
Marsh funnel: A calibrated funnel used to measure the
marker bed: 1. A bed or sequence of beds that yields a
viscosity of a fluid flowing through it.
characteristic reflection event over a more-or-less
extensive area. 2. A bed for a characteristic segment of marsh phone: A geophone or hydrophone designed to be
a refraction time-distance curve that can be followed planted in waterlogged conditions.
over a reasonably extensive area. 3. A bed with distinc- Marthor: A hammer source for generating S-waves. CGG
tive magnetic or electrical effects. trade name.
marker velocity: The velocity with which head mask: To eliminate contributions coming from certain
refracted waves are transmitted along a marker bed. locations.
Markovian variable: mar ko v e n A random variable masked layer: Hidden layer q.v..
that has a distribution of values that depend only on the masking effect: The effect whereby a highly conductive
preceding sample. Compare stochastic. Named for layer near the surface dominates resistivity or other
Andrei Andreevich Markov 1856 1922, Russian measurements so as to make undetectable the effects of
mathematician. deeper resistivity or other variations.
Marmousi model: mar moo se A complex 2D structural mass: With respect to a vibrator, the reaction mass q.v..
model and its seismic response devised by the Institut mass balance: See material balance.
Franc ais du Petrole, used to compare depth-migration massive parallel processor MPP: A processor with
FIG. M-5. Marmousi model. A 2D seismic model devised by the Institut Francais du Petrole to test 2D migration
algorithms. There is a hydrocarbon accumulation (and flat spot) in the anticline under the decollement. (a) The model
at 1:1 scale ratio (from Versteeg, 1994); (b) model with different grey density indicating different velocities: (c) CMP stack
of the seismic data. (d) Time migration of the CMP stack; (e) Prestack depth-migration of 1% of the data. (From Youn
and Zhou, 2001).
massive sulfides 226 massive sulfides
more than 32 or 64 nodes that can process a number of by volume, as opposed to disseminated sulfides that
tasks simultaneously. involve electrical phenomena that behave like massive
massive sulfides: Rocks that are more than 20% sulfides metallic substances.
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FIG. M-6. Matrix terminology. A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, called elements (which may be complex),
that obeys certain rules.
mass spectrometer 227 Maxwells equations
mass spectrometer: An analytic instrument used to iden- nonnegative periodic function under the assumption
tify isotopes and molecular species according to mass/ that the function is rational in e i T where T
charge ratio by separating their ions in a magnetic field. period, angular frequency with a constant
mast: See drill rig. numerator.
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master curve: See type curve. maximum-energy-sum filter: Output-energy filter q.v..
master station: 1. A radio transmitting station of a posi- maximum flooding surface MFS: The surface that
tioning system net that controls synchronization of marks the time in a eustatic cycle when the maximum
other transmitters in the net slave stations. 2. The amount of land is flooded. Generally indicated by the
control station of a network even where synchroniza- highest gamma, lowest resistivity readings.
tion is not maintained. maximum likelihood: The most probable value. The
MASW: Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves q.v.. concept that different probability models generate dif-
matched filter: 1. A filter that maximizes the output in ferent samples and that any given sample is more likely
response to a signal of particular shape. The elements of to have come from some models than from others. The
a matched filter are the elements of the signal in reverse method requires specification of a probability model,
order; hence filtering with a matched filter is equivalent determination of a formula for the likelihood function,
to crosscorrelating with the signal. Used where the and maximization of the likelihood function.
waveform of the signal is known, as in deconvolving maximum likelihood deconvolution: A nonlinear decon-
vibroseis data. Also called crosscorrelation filter and volution scheme in which the wavelet is modeled as a
correlator. The matched filter has the same amplitude- linear system and the reflectivity sequence as Bernouli-
frequency response and the negative phase-frequency Gaussian plus backscatter. Involves a wavelet estima-
response reversed in sign as the waveform to which it tion, b statistical parameter estimation, c reflectivity
is matched. A matched filter is the most powerful filter detection, and d reflectivity amplitude restoration
for identifying the presence of a given waveform in the using minimum-variance deconvolution. See Komylo
presence of additive noise. See Anstey 1964 and Trei- and Mendel 1983.
tel and Robinson 1969. 2. Matched filters are used to maximum likelihood filtering: Filtering that attempts to
separate data from more than one vibroseis source determine the most probable values.
operating simultaneously. maximum-minimum offset: The largest short offset trace
matched filter method: A method to separate the effects in the nominal survey geometry.
of sources at different depths where a log-power spec- maximum phase: A two-term wavelet [a,b] is maximum
trum shows distinctive linear slopes. Also known as phase if a b . Any wavelet is maximum phase if
depth slicing q.v. or pseudodepth slicing. See Cowan the two-term wavelets, into which its z-transform can
and Cowan 1993. be factored, are each maximum phase. Same as maxi-
material balance: A calculation of inputs and outputs mum delay. See phase characteristics and Figure P-1,
where no material is lost or gained; mass balance. and compare minimum phase.
math libraries: Optimized on-line library implementing Maxipulse: A marine seismic source involving detonation
common mathematical operations efficiently and accu- of small explosive charges at 7 to 15 m depth; they
rately. generate a sequence of bubble pulses that have to be
matrix: A rectangular array of numbers, called elements removed subsequently in processing. Western Geophys-
which may be complex, that obeys certain rules. ical Co. trade name.
Matrices are often indicated by bold face type. Matrices Maxwell Mx: maks wl Unit of magnetic flux in the
are used in electromagnetic work, in wave propagation cgs-emu system. 1 maxwell10 8 weber the SI
studies, in multichannel processing, and elsewhere. See unit.
Figure M-6 and Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 51922. Maxwells equations: The fundamental differential equa-
maxibin: A collection of adjacent bins. tions governing the behavior of electrical and magnetic
maximum: An anomalous area in which measurements fields. The four differential equations to which electric
show larger values than in neighboring areas, as a and magnetic fields are subject at every ordinary point.
gravity maximum. In SI units,
maximum convexity: The curvature on a seismic record E B/t , D ,
section of a diffraction from a point in the plane of the
section. This is the greatest convexity a primary coher- HJ D/t , B0,
ent wavetrain can have except for reverse branches in
buried-focus situations, diffracted reflections, and cer- where E is the electric field intensity, H is the magne-
tain other events involving complex raypaths. See dif- tizing force, B is the magnetic field strength, D is the
fraction curve. electric displacement, J is the current density, and the
maximum delay: Maximum phase q.v.. charge density. In the cgs system, 1/c where c
maximum depth: In gravity and magnetic interpretation, velocity of light in a vacuum precedes the time
the limiting depth below which the bodies causing an derivatives and 4 precedes the J and . These relations
observed anomaly cannot lie. can also be expressed by an equivalent system of inte-
maximum entropy filtering: Filtering that attempts to gral equations. In geophysical applications, it is normal
produce an output that is as unpredictable as possible to assume these fields are related by linear constituent
but which has the same autocorrelation as the input. See equations:
entropy and Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 5612. J E Ohms law ,
maximum entropy spectral estimate: A method to deter-
mine a finite number of Fourier-series coefficients of a DE,
Maxwells relation 228 Mercalli scale
ity, the magnetic permeability, and o the permeabil- the ground motion is accomplished by mechanical
ity of free space. Developed by James Clerk Maxwell means. Extensively used in early seismic prospecting.
1834 1879, English physicist. median: The value that half of the members of a set
Maxwells relation: See thermodynamic functions. exceed and half are smaller than. Values equal to the
Maxwell solid: A solid that is elastic over short time median may be placed in either subset to achieve this.
periods but viscous over long time periods. median filter: A nonlinear filter where the output is the
Mb, MB: Mbmegabits, MBmegabytes. median value within a running window.
MCF, Mcf: Thousand cubic feet; used to designate gas megabin: A bin made by combining several bins, often 4
volumes. MMCF is millions of cubic feet. or 9.
MCL: Maximum Containment Level, an Environmental Megger: A hand-cranked, magneto-driven instrument for
Protection Agency designation as the maximum amount measuring resistance.
of a substance permitted in ground water. Meissner technique: mis nr Determining wavefronts
MCU: Mid-Cretaceous Unconformity. from shots at various depths into a spread of geo-
md: Millidarcy or 1/1000 darcy. phones. Used to study near-surface anisotropy and
MD: Measured depth below Kelly bushing, the usual drill- S-waves. See Figure M-8 and Meissner 1965.
ing reference. Meissner wave: Head wave q.v..
M discontinuity: Mohorovic ic discontinuity or Moho meizoseismal region: The area of strong shaking and
q.v.. significant damage in an earthquake.
MDS: Minimum Data Set, a class of single-fold seismic M-electrode: Potential drop is measured between the M-
data suitable for migration. and N-electrodes in electrical-resistivity measurements.
MDT: Modular Dynamic Tester q.v. See Figure E-10.
Meades Ranch: The location in Kansas regarded as the Member: A lithostratigraphic subdivision; see strati-
center of the United States and the basis for the North graphic classification.
American Datum of 1927. membrane polarization: The induced-polarization effect
mean: Average. Various ways of averaging are indicated primarily caused by the restrictions of ion mobility as
in Figure M-7. Mean values for seismic measurements, opposed to electrode polarization. See also normal
such as the mean values of velocity, depend on the effect. Also called electrolytic polarization. Compare
traverse raypath; paths perpendicular to the bedding electrode polarization and overvoltage.
where bedding is parallel are often implied, some- membrane potential: See electrochemical.
times vertical paths. memorizer: A device used in recording well logs to shift
Meander: Crooked-line q.v.. Prakla-Seismos trade the reading of the sensors located at different places on
name. a sonde so that all are in register at the proper depth.
mean deviation: See statistical measures. memory: A part of a computing machine in which data
measurement-while-drilling MWD: Bottomhole data can be stored and from which it can later be retrieved.
are acquired incrementally from sensors located in the Primary or main memory is usually a solid-state type
drill string near the bit in a drilling well. Measurements MOS or bipolar, secondary memory is usually mag-
may include directional information hole inclination, netic disk or magnetic tape.
azimuth, tool facing, drilling parameters bottomhole memory function: Impulse response q.v. or memory
temperature, pressure, torque, weight-on-bit, RPM, rig response of a filter or system.
safety data, formation evaluation and correlation data MEMS: Micro-Electro-Mechanical System, a solid state
formation resistivity, gamma-ray, and sonic logs. Data geophone. Input-Output term.
can be transmitted to the surface in real time by pres- menu: A list of program options available.
sure pulses through the mud inside the drill pipe timed menuBar: Graphic user interface component providing
amplitude and phase encoding. Telemetry by conduc- pull-down lists of options for program configuration
tor cable integrated with the drill pipe or temporary and operation.
digital recording at the sensor for later wire-line Mercalli scale: mer kal e A descriptive scale that indi-
retrieval are alternative data recovery methods. Com- cates the degree of shaking at a specific location as a
pare Tomex. result of an earthquake. The original scale was devised
in 1902. An abridged version of the modified Mercalli
scale devised in 1931 is given in Figure M-9. Com- rock, used in the interpretatation of IP data. Metal factor
pare magnitude of earthquake. Named for Giuseppi is the percent-frequency-effect q.v. normalized by
Mercalli 18501914, Italian geologist. dividing by the measured resistivity in ohm-feet
Mercator projection: mr ka tr A conformal cylindri- and multiplied by a constant:
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FIG. M-8. Meissner technique for empirical construction of wavefront chart. (a) Traveltime from source B in the
borehole into geophone 6 is posted at (6,B), etc.; contouring the results gives the wavefronts that would have resulted
from a source at the top of the borehole (for uniform horizontal layering). (b) Example of a chart showing the effect of
a leached salt bed. (After Meissner, 1965.)
metallic-conduction factor 230 microlog
trodes gives a 1 1/2-in. microinverse lateral-type mea- Earths magnetic field, usually in the frequency range
surement. Because the mud cake usually has from 0.01 to 3 Hz and usually with amplitudes less than
appreciably smaller resistivity than the formation, the 10 nanotesla. Micropulsations having amplitudes up to
microinverse reads less than the micronormal when tens of nanotesla result from interactions between
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mud cake is present; this difference called separation plasma emitted from the Sun solar wind and the
indicates a permeable formation. Similar to the contact Earths field. Micropulsations also result from lightning
log or Minilog. Microlog is a Schlumberger tradename. strikes. Micropulsations are classified as continuous
See Figure M-10. ( p c ), irregular ( p i ), pearl (p p ), etc. Also called pulsa-
micronormal: See microlog. tions. See also bay, magnetic storm, and Figure M-2.
microphone detector: A seismic detector utilizing contact microresistivity log: A well log designed to measure the
resistance as part of the vibration-detecting element. resistivity of the flushed zone about a borehole,
microphonics: m, kr fon iks Electrical noise gener- recorded with electrodes on a pad pressed against the
ated by mechanical vibration. borehole wall. See microlog and microlaterolog.
microprobe: An analytic instrument that focuses a beam microscopic anisotropy: See anisotropy.
of electrons on a mineral to excite x-rays that are then microseism: m kr s, zm Feeble earth tremors due to
used to identify the minerals. natural causes such as wind, water waves, etc.
microprogram: 1. A hardware program that controls how microseismogram log: Similar to the variable-density log
a computer functions. It determines how a computer or three-D log q.v.; see Figure C-1.
interprets an instruction in machine language. 2. A microspread: A spread with very short geophone group
software program constructed from the basic subcom- intervals 1 to 15 ft, used in noise analysis q.v..
mands of a computer which the system hardware trans- midocean ridge: A belt of elevated seafloor where plates
lates into machine subcommands. A microprogram pro- are separating.
vides a means of building various instruction midpoint: The point midway between a source and a
combinations out of the subcommand structure of the geophone.
computer. Mie scattering: me Multiple reflection of light waves by
micropulsations: Small amplitude fluctuations in the atmospheric particles that have approximately the same
dimensions as the light wavelengths. Named for Gustav
Mie 1868 1957, German physicist.
migration: 1. See migration (seismic). 2. Movement of
ions in a solution because of an electric-field gradient;
called mobility. 3. Movement of hydrocarbons between
the locales of their generation and accumulation. 4.
Movement of fluids e.g., of a oil and water in a
reservoir.
migration seismic: An inversion operation involving
rearrangement of seismic information elements so that
reflections and diffractions are plotted at their true
locations. The need for this arises since variable veloci-
ties and dipping horizons cause elements to be recorded
at surface positions different from the subsurface posi-
tions. Time migration assumes that velocity varies
only in the vertical direction whereas depth migration
allows for horizontal variation of velocity also; both
time and depth migration results can be displayed in
either time or depth. Originally done by hand on inter-
preted seismic data, migration is now a computer opera-
tion on uninterpreted data using some form of, or
approximation to, the wave equation. Also called imag-
ing, the transformation of seismic data recorded as a
function of arrival time into a scaled version of the true
geometry of subsurface geologic features that produced
the recorded seismic energy. Imaging involves focusing
and positioning and depends on a specific earth model.
Focusing involves collapse of diffractors, maximizing
amplitude, reproducing wavelet character, etc; position-
ing involves locating events correctly, sharpening event
terminations relative to faults, salt flanks, unconformi-
ties, etc. A type of inversion q.v..
Hand migration was based on measurements of the
arrival time and direction of the apparent dip which
defined the direction of the raypath. Because a
FIG. M-10. Microlog (micronormal and microinverse) and common-midpoint stack does not correctly stack dip-
microcaliper log (on left) and microlaterolog (on right). ping events, poststack migration is cheaper than, but
(Courtesy Schlumberger.) inferior to, prestack migration. DMO q.v. operation
migration distance 232 Milnes method
simply an extension of 2D methods but often 3D migra- Earth receives. Cycles resulting from variations in the
tion is done by first migrating in one direction and then Earths orientation, precession, and orbit eccentricity
migrating this intermediate result in the cross direction that presumably affect insolation and hence climate,
double 2D migration. Migration can be accom- and thus produce periodicity in climate, sedimentation,
plished by integration along diffraction surfaces/curves and eustasy. Orbital perturbations precession and
Kirchhoff migration, by numerical finite-difference eccentricity variations have periods of about 413, 123,
or phase-shift, downward-continuation of the wave- 95, 41, and 21 ka. The periods 100, 41, 23, and 19 ka
field, and by equivalent operations in frequency- can also be seen in oxygen isotope and other data. Van
wavenumber or other domains frequency-domain Houten cycles of about 400, 100, 21 ka determined
migration. See Figures M-11 and 12 and also map from sediment repetitions in the Newark Basin roughly
migration from unmigrated time maps, Kirchhoff dif- correlate with Milankovitch cycles. Named for Milutin
fraction collapse migration, downward continuation, Milankovitch, a Serbian mathematician. See Figures
Stolt f-k migration, - p migration, Gadzag phase- M-13 and S-5, Arthur and Garrison 1986, or Berger et
shift migration, imaging principle, pseudospectral al. 1984.
migration, DMO poststack versus prestack migration, milli- m-: A prefix meaning 10 3 . Seismic events are
time versus depth migration, Sheriff and Geldart 1995, often timed in milliseconds ms.
326 33.
milliard: A thousand million; 10 9 .
migration distance: The horizontal distance between
milligal mGal: A unit of acceleration used with gravity
migrated and unmigrated positions.
migration equation: In a constant-velocity isotropic measurements; 10 5 m/s2 . Sometimes abbreviated
medium, the reflection from a reflector dipping at the mG.
angle has apparent dip Figure M-11a given by the milliradian mrad: A unit of angle or phase measure-
migration equation, ment equal to 0.0573 degrees of arc. One degree equals
17.45 milliradians.
sin tan . millisecond ms: 1. A thousandth of a second. 2. A unit
migration fringe: See fringe. of chargeability, the area under the decay curve of a
migration velocity analysis MVA: Determining veloc- pulsed , 0, , 0 square wave. See Figure S-19 and
ity distribution by iterative migration of profiles while chargeability.
perturbing velocities, in an effort to maximize the stack Milnes method: milnz A technique for the numerical
power and optimally focus events. Used to determine solution of differential equations. See Sheriff and Gel-
lateral velocity variations. dart 1995, 529.
FIG. M-11. Migration a in two and (b) three dimensions. (From Hagedoorn, 1954.) A point in unmigrated space
migrates to a wavefront surface and a point in migrated space specifies a diffraction surface. The shape of the wavefront
and diffraction surfaces depends on the velocity distribution above the reflecting point. Lateral velocity variations distort
the shape of these surfaces and shift the intersection of the surfaces away from the diffraction crest.
mineralization potential 233 Mintrop wave
mineralization potential: Natural voltages associated amplitude spectrum as the original pilot sweeps auto-
with mineral deposits. Includes electrochemical SP and correlation function.
electrolytic contact potentials q.v. and probably other minimum-time path: Least-time path q.v..
causes. minimum-variance deconvolution: A recursive decon-
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minimax, min-max: See p . volution scheme in which the wavelet is known and the
minimum delay: Situation where causal energy arrives as reflectivity sequence is assumed to be white. The error
early as possible. See minimum phase. variance between the output and the true reflectivity is
minimum-maximum offset: The smallest long-offset minimized.
trace in the nominal survey geometry. Miniranger: A high-frequency radiopositioning system
minimum phase: A two-term wavelet [a,b] is minimum that operates in rho-rho mode, used for short line of
phase if a b . Any wavelet is minimum phase if the sight ranges. Motorola tradename.
two-term wavelets, into which its z-transform can be Mini-Sosie: A shallow seismic method see Sosie
factored, are each maximum phase. Same as minimum employing pseudorandom impacts from soil-
delay. Much seismic processing assumes minimum- compaction tampers whackers as the energy
phase properties. See phase characteristics and Figure source. Tradename of SNPA.
P-1. Opposite of maximum phase. min-max: Minimax; see, p .
minimum-phase vibroseis correlation: Correlation with minor: See matrix and Figure M-6.
a pilot sweep whose phase spectrum has been modified Mintrop wave: min trup Head wave q.v.. Named for
to yield minimum-phase wavelets that have the same Ludwig Mintrop 18801956, German geophysicist
FIG. M-12. Migration types. DMO (q.v.) is also thought of as a migration process. (After Yilmaz, 1987, 246.)
minus values 234 mob
who developed the refraction seismic method. butane, and ethane. Carbon dioxide flooding has been
minus values: See plus-minus method. the most promising. Nitrogen flooding has been effec-
MIP: Magnetometric Induced Polarization q.v. method. tive in some circumstances.
MIPS: Millions of instructions per second. misclosure: Mis-tie q.v..
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pressures, samples, and to determine in-situ stresses modulus of compression: Bulk modulus; see elastic con-
through mini-fracturing. stants.
modulation: 1. The process by which some characteristic modulus of elasticity: See elastic constants.
of one signal is varied in accordance with another modulus of rigidity: Shear modulus; see elastic con-
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0
r
m r r 2 dr.
selection of possible values. The result gives a statisti- which are then stacked; used to determine the optimum
cal estimate for a solution. normal moveout for emphasizing certain events; see
montmorillonite to illite: A transition in clay that velocity analysis. 2. Different amounts of dip moveout
involves releasing bound water. Occurs at about 8000 are introduced successively in making an f-k analysis
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MSI: Medium-Scale Integration; a type of integrated cir- mud roll: The equivalent of ground roll in a shallow
cuit. marine environment.
MSL: Mean Sea Level. mudstone: Indurated mud without the laminations of
MS pickup: MagnetoStrictive geophone or other trans- shale. Compare wackestone, packstone, grainstone.
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ducer. mud weight: The density of drilling fluid see mud, usu-
MSS: MultiSpectral Scanner q.v.. ally expressed in pounds per gallon. 9.0 lb/gallon mud
MT: MagnetoTelluric q.v.. produces hydrostatic or normal pressure 0.465 psi/ft or
MTBF: Mean Time Between Failures. 1.0510 4 Pa/m; exact values depend on the fluid
MTTR: Mean Time To Recovery. density. Equivalent mud weight EMW is the mud
mud: An aqueous suspension used in rotary drilling. Mud weight needed to balance formation-fluid pressure, i.e.,
is pumped down through the drill pipe and up through it is the formation pressure divided by the depth below
the annular space between it and the walls of the hole. the Kelly bushing converted to pounds per gallon the
The most common bases of drilling muds are bentonite, conversion factor is 0.0519 psi/ft1 lb/gal. Gener-
lime, and barite in a finely divided state. The mud helps ally mud weight must be kept between normal hydro-
remove cuttings, prevent caving, seal off porous zones, static and fracture pressures to avoid risking a blow-
and hold back formation fluids. Oil-based muds out; if it is smaller than the normal pressure, formation
inverted muds are sometimes used; they generally are fluids are apt to flow into the borehole, if it is too large,
nonconductors of electricity. the formation is apt to fracture at some pressure lower
mud cake: Filter cake, the residue deposited on the bore- than lithostatic pressure.
hole wall as the mud loses filtrate the liquid portion of multichannel analysis of surface waves MASW:
mud into porous, permeable formations. The mud cake Mathematical inversion of surface-wave dispersion to
average thickness of from a half to a few centimeters estimate shear-wave velocity.
generally has very low permeability and hence retards multichannel filtering: 1. Filtering wherein the filter
further loss of fluid to the formation. See invaded zone. characteristics are based partially on the characteristics
mud cup: A container used to measure mud resistivity. of other channels. 2. A multichannel filter is often
mud filtrate: Fluid that enters permeable formations from expressed as a matrix of output responses on various
the mud, leaving a mud cake on the borehole wall. See channels to impulsive inputs on various channels:
invaded zone.
mud gun: An air gun q.v. that can be operated in an
open borehole or in soft mud. Often about 150 in3
capacity.
mudline: The seafloor; the transition from a suspension to
grain-grain contact that begins to develop shear
strength and support S-waves is sometimes very
gradual. multichannel processing: Processing in which data from
mud log: 1. As a rotary well is drilled, samples of the different input channels different geophone groups, for
circulating mud and its suspended drill cuttings are example are combined in some manner.
examined for lithology and hydrocarbons by visual multicomponent: 1. Three-component recording involves
observation including ultra-violet fluoroscopy and for the use of three orthogonal geophones, usually vertical
gas-phase constituents by a Wheatstone bridge hot- and two horizontal. Four-component recording adds a
wire partition gas chromatograph or hydrogen-flame hydrophone. Nine-component recording involves the
ionization analyzer. A mud log is a plot of such mea- use of three orthogonal sources into three orthogonal
surements, together with a lithologic log and a drilling- spreads of geophones. Occasionally, only two compo-
time log showing rate of penetration. Used to detect nents are recorded, sometimes in the two horizontal
fluids that have entered the mud from the formations. directions, sometimes vertical and inline. See Tatham
Hydrocarbons may be evidenced by fluorescence, by and McCormack 1991. 2. Recording multiple modes
chromatographic analysis, gas, and other ways. The of particle motion such as pressure, velocity, accelera-
mud is also monitored for salinity and viscosity to tion.
indicate water loss. Plots of such data are usually multidimensional convolution: See convolution.
included with a sample log and drill-time log. 2. A log multidimensional Fourier transform: See Fourier
made with a microlog sonde with the arms collapsed so transform.
that the measuring pad is not pressed against the bore- multidrop: A telecommunication system in which mul-
hole wall. Measures resistivity of the mud at in-hole tiple devices are served by a single physical line.
conditions. multilateral: One of several horizontal wells drilled from
mudrock equation: An empirical equation relating the the same vertical borehole.
velocities of P- (V P ) and S- (V S ) waves in water- multipath error: An error because of the interference of
saturated clastic rocks: radio waves that have traveled by different paths.
V P 13601.16 V S m/s. multiple: Seismic energy that has been reflected more
than once. While virtually all seismic energy involves
Preferably the equation constants should be varied some multiples, the important distinction is between
empirically to fit local conditions. See Castagna and long-path and short-path multiples: a long-path mul-
Backus 1993. tiple arrives as a distinct event whereas a short-path
mudrock line: The line given by the mudrock equation multiple arrives so soon after the primary that it merely
q.v.. adds tail to the primary i.e., changes the waveshape.
multiple branches 239 multiplicity
Short path multiples may obscure stratigraphic detail multiplex: 1. A process that permits transmitting several
even where structural aspects are not affected signifi- channels of information over a single channel without
cantly. The attitude of long-path multiples does not crossfeed. Usually different input channels are sampled
represent the portion of the section associated with their in sequence at regular intervals and the samples are fed
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arrival time. Usually long-path multiples have traveled into a single output channel; digital seismic tapes are
more in the slower shallower part of the section than multiplexed in this way. Multiplexing can also be done
primaries with the same arrival time, so that they ordi- by using different carrier frequencies for different infor-
narily show more normal moveout and can be attenu- mation channels and in other ways. 2. A stereoscopic
ated by common-midpoint stacking. See Figure M-18 plotting instrument used in preparing topographic maps
and Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 161-9, 292-3. by stereophotogrammetry.
multiple branches: The situation where f ( ) has more multiplexed format: Time-sequential format, a data
than one possible value for the same value of . For sequence in which the first sample of channel 1 is
example, more than one reflection is obtained from a followed by the first sample of channel 2, then the first
reflector in a buried focus situation see Figure B-11. sample of channel 3, etc., until the first sample of all
multiple completion: Preparing a well for production channels is given; then follows the second sample of
from more than one formation. channel 1, the second sample of channel 2, etc. As
multiple coverage: Seismic arrangement whereby the opposed to trace-sequential format in which the first
same portion of the subsurface is involved in several sample of channel 1 is followed by the second sample
records, as with CMP shooting. The redundancy of of channel 1, etc., until all of channel 1 is given,
measurements permits the attenuation of noise in pro- followed by channel 2, etc. If an array of data is thought
cessing. of as a matrix:
multiple geophones: A number of geophones a group
feeding a single channel; see array (seismic). Used a
to attenuate ground roll and other undesirable energy
that approaches the spread more or less horizontally
see Figure D-15, b to improve the signal-to-noise
ratio by increasing the sampling and thereby random-
izing planting factors, noncoherent energy, etc., and c
to increase sensitivity. the multiplexed format may be thought of as reading by
multiple reflections: See multiple. columns and trace-sequential format as reading by
multiple regression: A mathematical procedure for find- rows. The data output of digital recording equipment is
ing the empirical equations that best fit a set of data in usually in multiplexed format whereas most data pro-
the least-squares sense. See factor analysis. cessing is done in trace-sequential format. Converting
multiple sources: Two or more sources at nearby loca- from the one format to the other demultiplexing is
tions that are activated simultaneously. Used to one of the first steps in data processing and usually part
decrease ground roll, to produce a directional wave, to of the edit routine. Such a format conversion is called
build up the strength of the downgoing wave, etc. The matrix transposition.
objectives are thus similar to the use of multiple geo- multiplier tube: Photomultiplier q.v..
phones q.v.. Also includes the situation in which multiplicity: 1. The number of common-midpoint traces
sources are activated sequentially and the results are that sample essentially the same portion of a reflector
stacked vertically. but with different offsets. For example, 12-fold
common-midpoint recording involves recording each of a stack with record time. 1. In the early part of the
subsurface point 12 times, once with each of 12 differ- record, long-offset traces may be muted excluded from
ent offset distances. 2. The number of traces acquired the stack because they are dominated by refraction
with independent raypaths which add together to pro- arrivals or because their frequency content after NMO
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vide a single output trace, also called effort q.v.. correction is appreciably lower than other traces. Mut-
Recording by reciprocal raypaths usually does not ing may be either abrupt or gradual, and may distort the
count toward increased multiplicity. design for deconvolution or other operators. Muting is
multiprocessing: 1. A processing method in which pro- shown in Figure V-7. 2. Muting may be done over
gram tasks are divided among a number of independent certain time intervals to keep ground roll, air waves, or
CPUs with the tasks being executed simultaneously. noise bursts out of the stack. See also tail mute inside
See parallel processing. 2. Processing where the com- mute and surgical mute, and compare diversity stack.
puter is working on several independent jobs simulta- Also called fade.
neously. mutual: Relations between circuits, such as the mutual
multiprogramming: A programming technique in which inductance, capacitance, or resistance impedance
two or more programs are operated on a time-sharing between the transmitter and receiver circuits of an IP
basis, usually under the control of a monitor that deter-
survey system. See coupling.
mines when execution of one program stops and
mutual inversion: The simultaneous inversion q.v. of
another begins. Also called multitasking.
two independent data sets, as for example gravity and
multispectral scanner MSS: A device that determines
the amplitude in each of several frequency windows of seismic data, to achieve a compatible model; joint
a series of samples from successive locations. Early inversion.
Landsat images q.v. included such a device and mutual resistance: See electrode resistance.
looked at areas in four bands: green band 4, red band MVA: Migration Velocity Analysis q.v..
5, a narrow near-infrared band band 6, and a broader MWD: Measurement While Drilling q.v..
infrared band band 7. See Figure I-1. My, MYBP: Millions of Years Before the Present. The
multitasking: Working on several projects simulta- proper SI symbol is Ma.
neously; see multiprogramming. Mylar: A polyester film of high strength and dimensional
multitemporal analysis: Comparison of images taken at stability, used as a base stock for drafting, light-
different times to observe changes. Often involves sensitive film, and magnetic tape. Tradename of
forming difference images. As applied to remote sens- DuPont Co.
ing images, often involves seasonal changes. See also mylonite zone: A fine-grained, narrow, foliated zone
time-lapse seismology. resulting from mechanical shearing stresses, often from
multithreaded: A program operated under multiple lines faulting.
of control, sharing common memory. myriameter waves: Electromagnetic waves in the VLF
multivariant analysis: Factor analysis q.v.. range, 10 4 10 5 m 3 to 30 kHz.
mute: To change the relative contribution of components Myriaseis: A telemetry seismic system. IFP trade name.
N
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n: Nano-, the SI prefix for 10 9 . NAND gate: The negative of an AND gate. A circuit with
N: 1. Newton q.v., the SI unit for force. 2. The ratio of multiple inputs that functions unless signal is present at
porosity determined from a neutron log to that from a all inputs. See gate and Figure B-5.
density log. 3. The dimensionality degree of homoge- nano- n-: A prefix meaning 10 9 .
neity in Eulers homogeneity equation q.v.. nanosecond ns: 10 9 second.
: Nuq.v. nanotesla nT: A unit of magnetic flux density. A
nabla : nab l Del q.v.. nanotesla10 9 tesla1 gamma.
NAD83: North American Datum 1983 q.v.. National Center for SuperComputing Applications
nadir: The point on the celestial sphere 180 from zenith NCSA: A University of Illinois center for Mosaic
q.v.. q.v..
Nafe-Drake relation: naf e drak A postulated relation natural bin: A bin whose dimensions are related to source
between density and P-wave velocity; see Figure N-1. and receiver-group spacings.
Named for John Elliott Nafe 1941 and Charles Lum natural coordinate system: The coordinate system in
Drake 1924 , American geophysicists. which expressions are simplest, minimizing cross
name: A character string that is characteristic of a set, terms. See also principal direction.
object, or attribute. natural frequency: The oscillation or vibration frequency
namelist: A keyword format for giving parameter values of a system in the absence of an oscillatory disturbing
to a computer. An item in a namelist might look some- force; eigenfrequency.
thing like this: natural gamma-ray spectroscopy log: See gamma-ray
&List TIME3, NTRACE6, V5000, &END. spectroscopy log.
natural gas: A highly compressible mixture of hydrocar-
bons occurring naturally in a gaseous form. The prin-
cipal component gases are approximately 80% meth-
ane, 7.0% ethane, 6.0% propane, 1.5% isobutane, 2.5%
butane, 3.0% pentane plus higher hydrocarbons.
natural gasoline: Light liquid hydrocarbons liquified
from natural gas or present as a condensate at the
wellhead.
natural polarization direction: A direction along which
wave displacement of a given body wave P, S1 , or S2
lies for propagation in an anisotropic rock. Polarization
can also relate to the orientation of the source or
receiver.
natural remanent magnetism NRM: See remanent
magnetism.
Naudy filter: A space-domain filter that replaces very
small anomalies such as spikes by interpolated values.
Naudys method: An automated profile-based depth-
estimation method see also inflection-tangent-
intersection method involving cross-correlation of a
magnetic profile with theoretical anomalies, usually
dikes or plates. See Figure I-5 and Shi 1991. Named
for Henri Naudy 1928 , French geophysicist.
navigation: Directing a craft from one point to another;
determining a the location at a given moment and/or
b the direction and distance to a desired location. See
positioning.
Navstar satellite system: Global Positioning System
q.v..
NCN: A NitroCarboNitrate shothole explosive. Requires a
primer to detonate.
NCSA: National Center for Supercomputing Applications
q.v..
near-dc: The commutated dc or low-frequency ac used in
resistivity and IP surveying.
near-field: The field near a source. Relationships near a
FIG. N-1. Nafe-Drake density-depth curve. source involve effects that attenuate rapidly with dis-
241
near-offset stack 242 neutron-lifetime log
tance as well as those that attenuate more slowly such Nernst potential: nernst See electrochemical SP.
as spherical divergence. At large distances many near- Named for Hermann Walther Nernst 1864 1941,
field phenomena are relatively unimportant. If the dis- German physicist.
tance from the source is R and the wavelength is , nest: 1. An array of geophones, especially one containing
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near-field implies R. In the near-field zone of an many geophones close together; a patch. 2. To embed a
antenna, fields vary predominantly as the inverse cube subroutine or block of data in a larger routine or set of
of the distance. With EM methods, near-field implies data.
receiver-transmitter separation less than three skin nested-variogram model: A linear combination of two or
depths q.v.. Compare far field. See Sheriff and Geldart more variogram models; e.g., a short-range experimen-
1995, 48. tal model combined with a longer-range spherical
near-offset stack: A stack of only traces with small off- model.
sets so that reflection angles are small near normal; nesting: A programming technique in which one or more
used In AVO studies to compare with a far-offset stack. iterative loops are included in a larger iterative loop.
Usually includes no more than the nearest third of the net: 1. Internet q.v.. 2. The network of sensors that
traces. Also near-range stack. positions the elements in a streamer system. 3. A neural
near-surface geophysics: Generally means investigating net q.v..
the uppermost 50100 m. The objectives of near- net to gross thickness: The net thickness of a unit is the
surface geophysics are often noninvasive investigations thickness of reservoir-quality lithology usually sand
of pollution problems, obtaining engineering informa- in the unit. This sometimes tends to be proportional to
tion, locating and defining archaeological sites, near- the seismic amplitude, if the beds gross thickness is
surface structural features such as paleochannels and less than a quarter of the dominant wavelength. The
faults, cavities and tunnels, minerals, groundwater, gross thickness is the entire thickness of the unit often
pipelines, etc. Methods include surveys using gravity given by the time interval between reflections from the
and magnetics, electrical resistivity, self potential SP, top and base of the unit where the thickness
electromagnetics, ground-penetrating radar GPR, wavelength/4 , sometimes given by peak-to-trough
seismic reflection, seismic refraction, and other meth- measurement.
ods. network: 1. A set of points connected by communication
near-surface corrections: Corrections applied to seismic channels. 2. A system that converts an input function
reflection times to accomodate changes in elevation and into an output function. 3. Many small connected pro-
velocity within the first hundred feet or so. Static cor- cessors that share computer power, storage, and periph-
rections q.v.. erals. 4. Neural net q.v..
near-trace cube: A 3D volume composed of short-offset Neumann problem: nu man An initial-value problem
data only. Used for quality control during acquisition. where the normal gradients at the boundaries of a
near-trace section: A seismic section that comprises only spatial region of interest are specified.
the data from the geophone group or few groups neural net, neural network: Artificial neural net. A
nearest the source. Also called short offset section. pattern recognition network that is used to divide data
near-zone sounding: An electromagnetic sounding q.v. into classes see classification. The network consists of
in which the source-receiver spacing is less than the three layers of nodes input, hidden, and output layers
depth of investigation q.v.. that are interconnected by artificial neurons that
Neel point: See Curie point. develop weights that increase or decrease the signals
negative area: An area subject to more-or-less continual that come over them. Each node fires an impulse when
subsidence. the sum of its inputs exceeds a threshold. Supervised
negative frequency: The frequency of a sinusoidal classification involves using a training set learning
wavetrain traveling in the negative direction. set consisting of examples of inputs and corresponding
negative IP effect: An IP decay voltage opposite in sign to desired outputs to train the network. Training
that of the charging current, because of the geometric involves adjusting the weights of the artificial neurons
relationship of a shallow polarizable body and the so that the desired outputs are achieved. Unsupervised
measuring-electrode array. classification seeks to find the natural classes into
negative pole: A south-seeking magnetic pole q.v.. which the data may be subdivided. Useful for classifi-
negative screening: An electromagnetic phenomenon in cation of nonlinear, statistical, large, poorly understood
which the presence of a conducting host enhances the data sets.
anomaly produced by a buried conductor. The effect neutral surface: The surface that separates compression
involves current flow between the host and the conduc- and tension regions. When a layer is folded, the inside
tor. See current channeling. of the fold undergoes compression and the outside
negative standard polarity: See polarity standard and tension.
Figure P-6. neutron activation log: See gamma ray spectroscopy log.
neper: ne pr or na pr A unit for measuring ratios such neutron-lifetime log: A well log of the capture cross-
as voltage ratios. N is the number of nepers if N section of thermal neutrons; similar to the thermal-
ln(V1/V2). It is thus similar to the decibel q.v.. One decay-time log. A Van de Graaf neutron generator in the
neper8.686 dB. See Figure D-3. Named for John sonde periodically releases a burst of neutrons that
Napier 15501617, Scottish mathematician, inventor enter the formation and begin to lose energy in colli-
of logarithms. sions. The neutron-lifetime log measures the thermal
neritic: n rit ik Relating to water depths between low neutrons at two discrete time intervals after a neutron
tide and 200 m. burst. Measurements are made of the gamma rays that
neutron log 243 NN
result from the capture of neutrons by nuclei in the Newton-Raphson technique: An iterative method of
thermal-decay-time log. The quantity plotted is some- finding a numerical solution of an equation, f (z)0. A
times a the reciprocal of the percentage that decay per first value of z i is tried, and then the next trial value is
unit of time, called the thermal decay time ; b the z i1 z i f (z i )/ f (z i ), where f is the first derivative
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time for the thermal neutron population to fall to half with respect to z. Where the process converges, trials
value, called the neutron lifetime L; or c the macro- are repeated until successive values come sufficiently
scopic capture cross-section that is derivable from close together.
the foregoing (4.55/ 3.15/L). Thermal neu- Newtons laws: 1. First law of motion: A body does not
trons are captured mainly by the chlorine present and change its state of motion unless acted on by an exter-
hence this log responds to the amount of salt in forma- nal force. Second law: Acceleration equals the unbal-
tion waters. Hydrocarbons result in longer decay times anced force divided by the mass. Third law: If two
than salt water. Log readings are porosity-dependent bodies interact, the force exerted by the first on the
and sensitive to clay content and permeability changes. second equals the force exerted by the second on the
This log is used in cased holes where resistivity logs first. 2. Newtons law of universal gravitation: See
cannot be run or to monitor reservoir changes to opti- gravitational constant Named for Sir Isaac Newton
mize production. It resembles a resistivity log with 16421727, English physicist.
which it is generally correlatable. Dresser Atlas trade n-factor: The exponent that expresses the change in
name. See Figure N-2c and pulsed neutron capture log. amplitude of a field with distance. For an actual
neutron log: A porosity well log that measures hydrogen anomaly, n may be determined by a gradiometer
density; a low hydrogen density indicates low liquid- arrangement or calculated from field measurements.
filled porosity. Porosity calculated from the neutron log NFS: Network File System.
is affected somewhat by the formation matrix and by NG: No Good.
the presence of gas. Neutron log values are used in NGL: Natural Gas Liquids, a mixture of ethane, propane,
crossplots with other porosity log values to detect gas butane, and pentanes.
and determine lithology. Neutron logs are sometimes NI: Normal Incidence reflection coefficient, R :
scaled in API units, sometimes in porosity units assum- V 2 2 V 1 1
ing a limestone or sandstone matrix. The neutron log NI R ,
V 2 2 V 1 1
can be recorded in cased holes. See Figure N-2a. Fast
neutrons emitted by a source in the tool are slowed to where V is velocity and is density, and the subscripts
thermal speed by collisions with mainly hydrogen refer to values on opposite sides of an interface. The
atoms. The thermal neutrons are then captured by abbreviation is used in connection with Poissons
atomic nuclei of the surrounding material mainly chlo- reflectivity in studies of amplitude variation with offset.
rine atoms at which time a characteristic gamma ray of nine-component 9-C recording: Recording of three
capture is given off. a The epithermal neutron tool components of motion from each of three sources that
detects neutrons at high energy level after they have generate orthogonal motions.
been slowed down by atoms in the formation; b the nine-component three-dimensional survey: A 3D sur-
thermal neutron tool detects neutrons with energy of vey employing nine-component (9-C) recording q.v..
about 0.025 eV. c The neutron-gamma tool detects See Tatham and McCormack 1991.
gamma rays that originate from the absorption of ther- ninety-degree wavelet: A linear-phase wavelet q.v.
mal neutrons by atoms with high absorption power, whose phase is 90 everywhere.
such as chlorine. See also sidewall neutron log. nitrocarbonitrate: A class of mostly non-cap-sensitive
Newmont EMP: A transient electromagnetic method explosives based on ammonium nitrate mixed with
q.v. that employs a large fixed transmitter loop. Acro- organic material; used as a seismic source.
nym for ElectroMagnetic Pulse method. Nitramon: An ammonia-gelatin explosive, not cap sensi-
newton N: noot n The SI unit of force; the net force tive, which requires a primer to detonate it. Trade name
on a kilogram that will produce an acceleration of one of E.I. DuPont.
meter per second per second. 10 7 dynes. N-layered earth: A layered earth q.v. consisting of N
Newtonian liquid: A substance in which the rate of shear 1 layers overlying a half-space the N th layer.
strain is proportional to the shear stress: NML: Nuclear Magnetism Log q.v..
NMO: Normal MoveOout q.v..
2 d/dt, NMO stretch: The shift toward lower frequencies that
results from applying the normal-moveout correction
where the proportionality constant is the viscosity. q.v. to offset seismic traces. Measured by the change
The deviatoric stress is proportional to the shear strain in a period as a result of applying NMO. A shift to
rate. lower frequencies generally means poorer resolution.
Newtonian interpolation: For a function known at regu- Muting is often done at 50100% NMO stretch.
larly spaced points, y n f (x o nh), the value at y u NMO velocity: Stacking velocity; see velocity.
f (x o uh) can be approximated by a series for NMR: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. See nuclear mag-
which the k th term is u(u1)...(uk) k y o /k!, netic resonance log NMRIL.
where is the forward difference operator. A similar NMR core analysis: In addition to NMR log data, NMR
relationship can be used for backward prediction, its k th laboratory measurements can deal with nuclei of carbon
term being u(u1)...(uk) k y o /k!. to give oil saturation, sodium to give salinity, and
Newtonian potential: A potential associated with the fluorine for tracer tests.
inverse-square law, e.g., gravitational potential q.v.. NN: Normal Null, a mark for sea level.
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NN
244
FIG. N-2. (a) Neutron log; (b) sidewall neutron log; (c) neutron lifetime log. (Courtesy Schlumberger.)
NN
NOAA 245 nonsingular
NOAA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- versus-wavenumber graph see Figure N-3b.
tion, a part of the United States Department of Com- noise level: Noise level is sometimes indicated by the
merce. ratio of the autocorrelation of the signal plus noise to a
nodal plane: 1. A surface within a steady-state wavefield crosscorrelation taken to represent the signal.
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that does not involve motion. 2. The first motion from noise survey: Ground noise survey, mapping ambient
an earthquake may be either a push or pull, depending seismic noise levels within a given frequency band. A
on the orientation of the station with respect to the technique for detecting geothermal reservoirs that are
epicenter and the direction of motion along the earth- often a source of short-period seismic energy.
quake fault. A nodal plane separates the region where nominal time: The record of the time sequence of events,
the first motion is a push from the region where it is a e.g., the time scale on a seismogram, as contrasted with
pull. There are two such planes for first-energy real time, the time when the events actually occurred.
P-waves, one of which is the fault plane. nomogram: A set of scales arranged on a sheet of paper
node: 1. An end point of a branch in a network, or a such that straight lines drawn through points on two
junction common to two or more branches in a network scales intersect another scale to yield a solution to a
or mesh. 2. One data item in a linked list. 3. A point of mathematical expression. See Figures A-7 and F-26.
rest in a vibrating system, a result of the interference of nonconditional simulation: A method that does not use
oppositely directed wavetrains standing waves; e.g., control data during the simulation. Used to observe the
one of the stationary points on a vibrating string. 4. The behavior of a spatial model and neighborhood design.
intersection of the Earths orbit with the ecliptic plane. nondipole field: See magnetic field of the Earth.
5. A single seismometer often multicomponent as nonexclusive data: Data available to be used for a fee and
opposed to a receiver group. 6. A node system for subject to restrictions that protect the interests of the
3-component recording uses single seismometers with- owner of the data.
out a cable connecting them to avoid biasing the hori- nonfaradaic path: The virtual passage of current near an
zontal component recordings. Data are sometimes electrode as a result of reorientation of the ionic layers
transmitted by radio, or sometimes stored for future of the double layer. The process is analogous to charg-
harvesting. ing a capacitor in that charge carriers are not trans-
noise: 1. Any unwanted signal. 2. A disturbance that does ported across the interface.
not represent part of a message from a specified source. nonhyperbolic normal-moveout velocity analysis:
3. Sometimes restricted to random energy. To the extent Analysis that allows for typical vertical changes in
the noise is random but most noise is not, its ampli- velocity and anisotropy when using long offsets, that is,
tude can be attenuated by a factor of n by composit- where the offset exceeds the reflector depth. In this case
ing n signals from independent measurements. 4. Geo- the hyperbolic equation for a reflection can often be
logic noise is interference from unwanted geologic expressed as
conditions. See also noise (electrical); noise (gravity t x 2 t 0 2 1 x/t 0 V 2 2 x/t 0 V 4 /
and magnetic); noise (seismic).
noise electrical: 1. Noise in electrical or IP surveying 1 12 x/t 0 V 2 ,
can be a result of interference from power lines, motor- where t 0 is the zero-offset traveltime, x is offset, V is
generator or electronic components, atmospheric elec- P-wave velocity, and /12 where and
trical discharges sferics, or low-frequency magneto- are Thomsen anisotropic parameters q.v.. Use of the
telluric phenomena. 2. Electrical circuit noise is caused 4th-order term given by a Taylor expansion corrects for
by the randomization of conduction electrons Johnson the undesirable hockey-stick effect.
noise, the discreteness of magnetic transitions nonimaging: See remote sensing.
Barkhausen noise, the discreteness of charge carriers nonlinear sweep: A vibroseis sweep where more time is
in semiconductors shot noise, modulation noise, and spent sweeping high frequencies than low frequencies,
other causes. to compensate for high-frequency attenuation in the
noise gravity and magnetic: Disturbances in observed signals travel through the earth, or to shape to a Ricker
data caused by more-or-less random inhomogeneities in wavelet.
surface and near-surface material and errors in obser- nonnormal: 1. Not Gaussian; see Gaussian distribution.
vation and reduction of data. 2. Not perpendicular. 3. Different from the ordinary.
noise seismic: Seismic energy other than primary reflec- nonpolarizable electrode: An electrode whose potential
tions; includes microseisms, source-generated noise, is not affected by the passage of current through it. An
multiples, tape-modulation noise, harmonic distortion, electrode that is free of potentials caused by electro-
etc. Sometimes divided into coherent noise including chemical action between the electrode and the ground.
nonreflection coherent events and random noise wind See porous pot.
noise, instrument noise, and other noncoherent energy. nonreciprocity for C-waves: The travelpaths of con-
Ambient seismic noise refers to the background of verted waves are asymmetric and hence the conversion
random earth movements. Sometimes restricted to seis- point is different if source and geophone are inter-
mic energy not derived from the source. changed.
noise analysis seismic: A profile or set of profiles nonseismic geophysics: Geophysical techniques other
designed to gather data for an analysis of coherent noise than seismic reflection. Seismic refraction and passive
trains, usually made with closely spaced geophones seismic is sometimes included, sometimes not.
microspreads q.v. without any ground mixing so that nonsingular: Having an inverse. The determinant of a
low-velocity noise trains will be evident. See Figure nonsingular matrix does not vanish so the matrix has
N-3a. Results are often illustrated on a frequency- an inverse. There is an inverse transformation for a
nonuniqueness 246 normal
FIG. N-3. Noise analysis or walkaway. (a) Source was vibroseis, geophones were spaced 1.5 m apart, offset to first
phone was 425 m. The 1890 m/s arrival is a refraction from the base of the weathering; the 530 and 620 m/s arrivals
are ground-roll modes; the 330 m/s event is an airwave. (Courtesy Chevron Oil Co.) (b) Frequency-wavenumber sketch
for the data; see also Figure F-11.
normal compaction trend 247 normal pressure
q.v.. 4. A now-obsolete resistivity well log in which a cant bit or digit is held in the highest position of the
constant current is passed between a current electrode mantissa, thereby permitting maximum precision to be
in the sonde and a remote electrode electrodes A and represented. 3. Scaling so that the rms amplitudes of all
B while the potential difference is measured between traces are equal. 4. To adjust measurements so that they
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another electrode in the sonde and a reference electrode fall within a prescribed range.
at the surface electrodes M and N. The spacing is the normalized apparent resistivity: Apparent resistivity
distance between the A- and M-electrodes for the nor- divided by the resistivity of the upper layer. In con-
mal. A spacing of about 16 inches was used for the structing type curves, normalized apparent resistivity is
short-normal and 64 inches for the long-normal. See plotted against normalized electrode interval electrode
Figures E-10 and S-17. interval divided by depth to the second layer. See
normal compaction trend: The change with depth of apparent resistivity curve.
physical properties, especially seismic velocity, that are normalize VSP on first breaks: Adding or subtracting
compatible with normal pressure q.v.. first-break times or changing trace spacing to align
normal correction: 1. Subtracting the normal magnetic upgoing or downgoing events prior to interpretation.
field from magnetic data. 2. Normalizing the ratio of normal log: See normal.
successive Turam readings by dividing by the ratio of normal magnetic field: 1. A smooth component of the
the primary fields. Differs from the free-air Turam Earths magnetic field that is free of anomalies of
correction where the ground is conductive. exploration interest. Ordinarily computed from a low-
normal dispersion: A decrease of velocity with frequency order spherical harmonic expansion constrained by sat-
that leads to the higher frequencies in a wavelet arriving ellite measurements. The normal field of the Earth
later as wave-propagation time increases. Decrease of varies slowly with time. Often identified with the Inter-
velocity with frequency is the usual situation for a national geomagnetic reference field q.v.. 2. The mag-
seismic surface wave. See dispersion. Antonym: netic field of the Earth q.v. during an epoch when it is
inverse dispersion. roughly aligned with the present-day field. Antonym:
normal distribution: See Gaussian distribution. reversed magnetic field.
normal effect: An unwanted background IP effect caused normal mode: Free vibrations of a system; the character-
in part by membrane polarization, found to some extent istic frequency of each mode is its eigenfrequency. The
in most rocks. See also background polarization. number of independent normal modes equals the
normal equations: The set of linear simultaneous equa- degrees of freedom. See also normal-mode propaga-
tions whose solution gives a least-squares fit in par- tion.
ticular, a Wiener filter, q.v.: normal-mode propagation: Waves trapped in a wave-
zx f t xx t . guide channel waves, q.v..
normal moveout NMO: The difference in reflection
A digitized input x t passed through the filter f t yields arrival time because the geophone is not located at the
the actual output y t which in a least-squares sense is source point, i.e., because of source-to-geophone dis-
closest to a desired output z t ; xx ( ) is the autocorre- tance offset. Usually applied to common-midpoint
lation of x t and zx ( ) is the cross-correlation of z t gathers, it is the additional traveltime required because
with x t as a function of a time shift . See Levinson of offset, assuming that the reflecting bed is not dipping
algorithm. and that raypaths are straight lines. this leads to a
normal fault: See fault and Figure F-3. hyperbolic shape for a reflection. Because the raypath
normal gravity: The value of gravity at sea level accord- actually curves as the velocity changes, fitting a hyper-
ing to a formula that assumes the Earth to have a bola assumes that the actual velocity distribution is
simple, regular ellipsoidal shape. See latitude correc- equivalent to a constant NMO velocity, but the NMO
tion. velocity changes with the offset. However, the assump-
normal incidence: A raypath impinging on an interface at tion often provides an adequate solution for offsets less
right angles. In isotropic media, equivalent to a wave- than the reflector depth. The NMO correction applied to
front striking an interface broadside, i.e., so that the long-offset data generally creates a hockey-stick
angle between the wavefront and the interface angle of effect giving long-offset traveltimes that are too small
incidence is zero. and causing waveshape broadening and loss of resolu-
normalize: 1. Forming a ratio with respect to a standard tion. For long-offsets the reflection curvature becomes
the normal. A normalized value usually is dimension- nonhyperbolic because of vertical changes in velocity
less. Normalizing often consists of scaling such that and anisotropy and a nonhyperbolic normal-moveout
something equals one, the something being the analysis q.v. has to be used. Reflector dip also has
rms value, the maximum value, etc. For example, effects that often require a DMO correction. The func-
an array response may be normalized by dividing tions of the NMO and DMO operations are illustrated
each value by the rms value; hence for the array graphically in Figure D-20e.
X(x 1 ,x 2 ,...,x n ), the rms value is Y [(x 21 normal-moveout correction: The time correction applied
x 22 ...x 2n )/n] 1/2 and the normalized array is to reflection times because of normal moveout.
(x 1 /Y ,x 2 /Y ,...,x n /Y ). Autocorrelations are normal- normal moveout spectrum: The energy of a stacked trace
ized by dividing by the value at zero time lag so that the as a function of arrival time and normal moveout.
maximum value of one indicates perfect correlation. normal moveout velocity: Stacking velocity q.v..
Type curves calculated effects for a model body often normal pressure: Formation fluid pressure equal to
are normalized so that the maximum effect is one. 2. To hydrostatic pressure, the pressure produced by a col-
adjust a floating point number so that the most signifi- umn of formation fluid extending to the surface. Hydro-
normal problem 248 NSF
static pressure is about 0.465 psi/ft 1.05 nose: 1. A plunging anticline with structural closure in
10 4 Pa/m, equivalent to 9.2 lb/gallon mud; it would three out of four directions. 2. An anomaly for which
be 0.433 psi/ft for pure water. Fluid pressure greater the contours do not close, as a gravity nose or
than normal is called overpressure, that lower than magnetics nose.
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normal, underpressure. See Figure P-12. nose stinger: A mounting for an instrument often a mag-
normal problem: A direct problem q.v.. netometer that protrudes from the nose of a survey
normal ratio: Ratio between the readings of two coils in aircraft.
electromagnetic surveying, in the absence of conduc- notch filter: A filter that is designed to remove a narrow
tive material. See primary ratio. band of frequencies. Often used to remove high-line
normal ray: A reflection raypath that is perpendicular to effects; see high line.
the reflector. Compare image ray that is perpendicular not drillable: See undrillable.
to the earths surface. NR: No Reflection events. 1. Denotes an event believed to
normal strains: See strains. not be a reflection. 2. Denotes absence of reflections. 3.
normal traveltime curve: A time-distance curve for a No record.
geologic section that does not contain anomalies of the NRM: Natural Remanent Magnetization; see remanent
type sought. Departures from the normal may indicate magnetization.
structures. Used in fan shooting q.v.. NRZ: NonReturn to Zero. A method of digital recording
NORSAR: A very large seismic array located in Norway; on magnetic tape in which magnetization in one direc-
see Large-aperture seismic array. tion indicates a 0 and in the opposite direction indi-
North American Datum 1983 NOAD83: The geocen- cates a 1. Compare NRZI.
tric ellipsoid that is the official frame of reference for NRZI: Non-Return to Zero Invert, a system of encoding
locations in North America. Supercedes the North bits of information on magnetic tape, wherein a reversal
American Meades Ranch Datum of 1927. of the magnetization polarity indicates a 1 and no
northing: nor thing 1. Distance north of an east-west change of polarity indicates a 0. Compare NRZ.
reference line. See latitude. 2. The latitude difference NS: No Source; designates a scheduled source-point loca-
between a point and the previous point. 3. In the Uni- tion on a map that has not been used.
versal Transverse Mercator system q.v., northing indi- NSC: Necessary and sufficient conditions; a minimum
cates distance in meters north of the equator. In the complete set of conditions which are needed for a
Southern hemisphere, the equator is assigned the value problems solution to exist or for a situation to be true.
of 10 000 000 m so that false northing values will be NSF: National Science Fountation, an organization
positive. funded by the United States government to support
north-seeking pole: See magnetic pole. fundamental research.
OBC: See Ocean-Bottom Cable. Ocean Drilling Program ODP: An international pro-
obducted: ab duk td The overriding of oceanic crust gram from 1985 to the present to drill boreholes in the
onto the leading edge of continental plates. deep ocean floor for geologic knowledge. As of March
object: A data item having a name and attributes, such as 1990, 180 holes had been drilled. The Deep Sea Drill-
a row in a table of information. ing Program (DSDP) q.v. preceeded it.
objective function: A function of parameters and possibly oceanic layering: See Figure L-4.
data that is maximized or minimized by choices of oceanic trench: A long narrow depression of the ocean
parameters. floor, commonly associated with subduction of an oce-
object-oriented: Software development strategy that anic plate. See plate tectonics and Figure P-5.
organizes software as a collection of objects that com- oceanography: See geophysics.
bine related data and operations on that data. OCR: Optical Character Reader, a device that recognizes
object program: A computer program in machine lan- text from a bit-map image.
guage. Compare source program. OCS: Outer Continental Shelf
oblique configuration: ble k or blik A type of offlap octal: A number system with a base of 8. See Figure N-4.
reflection configuration associated with high deposi- octave: The interval between two frequencies having a
tional energy. The top of the pattern indicates the wave ratio of 2 or 1/2. Filter rolloff is often given in
base See Figure R-8. decibels per octave.
oblique fault: A fault that has both dip and strike slip. odd function: A function that changes sign when its argu-
obliquity factor: blik wi te
A factor derived by Stokes ment changes sign:
for use with Huygens principle to show that the major
energy in a wave moves forward and to prevent back- F x F x .
ward propagation:
Also called antisymmetric function. An odd function
cos /2 1cos /2, may be synthesized from zero-phase sine waves of
different frequencies.
where is the angle between the directions of reradia- odograph: o d graf, A time-distance graph.
tion and of approach. odometer: o dom i tr An instrument that measures
OBM: Oil-Based drilling Mud q.v.. distance traveled.
OBS: Ocean-Bottom Seismometer q.v.. ODP: Ocean Drilling Program.
obscurationtransparency: See opacity. oersted: ur sted A unit of magnetic-field intensity in
observed gravity: May refer to Bouguer, free-air, the cgs-emu system in free space; the field that would
regional, or residual gravity fields, sometimes raw exert a force of 1 dyne on a unit magnetic pole. Equal
gravity q.v.. to 1 ampere turn/4103 m. See Figure M-1. Named
observer: 1. The person in charge of the recording on a for Hans Christian Oersted 17771851, Danish physi-
seismic crew. Sometimes the observer is also the field cist.
manager and sometimes principally an electronic tech- off-end shooting: Having the seismic source located
nician. 2. The one who reads the gravimeter on a inline and beyond the end of the geophone spread.
gravity crew. offlap: 1. Successive termination of strata farther seaward.
Occams Razor: A dictum of scientific reasoning that the When at the top of a depositional unit, also called
simplest explanation of observations is the most prob- toplap. When at the base, called downlap. See Figures
able: It is vain to do with more what can be done with R-9 and S-32a. 2. Without overlap.
fewer. Named for William of Occam 13001349, offlap break: The usually rather abrupt change in slope
English philosopher. from the continental shelf to the continental slope,
occultation: ok, ul ta shn An eclipse of a body by which often shows in progradational seismic patterns.
another body, as of a star by the moon. The observation off-level error: Gravity measurement errors because of
of an occultation sometimes helps determine geodetic the effect of high-amplitude horizontal accelerations on
location. a gyrostabilized platform.
ocean-bottom cable OBC: A cable designed to be laid off-line: 1. An operation that is not continuous with that of
or dragged on the sea floor that contains receivers for the main system, or an instrumental element that is not
several stations. Four-component 4-C receivers con- in the mainstream of data flow through a processing
stitute three orthogonal geophones and a hydrophone. system. For example, an off-line plotter in a playback
OBC are sometimes dragged into position, sometimes system is not directly connected to the main processing
dropped so that they drape over any ocean-floor topog- system. 2. Referring to geophones or other instruments
raphy. placed away from the profile line; opposite of inline.
ocean-bottom seismometer OBS: A seismometer off-line processing: Processing performed on equipment
designed for planting on the sea floor, usually 3- or not under the control of the central processor.
4-component three mutually orthogonal geophones offset: See Figure O-1. 1. The distance from the source-
plus a hydrophone. See also ocean-bottom cable. point to the center of a geophone group. Unless a
250
offset frequency 251 oil well
particular geophone group is specified, the distance to direction because of normal moveout. See Figure O-2
the nearest geophone group center is implied; some- and DMO.
times the distance is to an individual geophone. Often offset studies: Studies of seismic amplitude variation with
resolved into perpendicular offset, the distance at right offset q.v..
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angles to the spread line, and inline offset, the distance offshore shooting: Marine seismic surveying.
from the projection of the source onto the line of the off time: The time an IP pulse-type or an electromagnetic
spread. 2. The distance between transmitter and time-domain transmitter is off, during which the decay
receiver in electromagnetic surveys. 3. In vertical seis- voltage is measured at the receiver.
mic profiling, the horizontal distance between source OH data: Open Hole data.
and receiver. The distance from source to wellhead may ohm : o m A unit of electrical resistance or imped-
be different if the well is not vertical. 4. Sometimes in ance. The potential drop across one ohm is one volt per
refraction work the displacement q.v.. 5. In plotting ampere of current. Named for Georg Simon Ohm
marine data, the stepback q.v.. 6. The horizontal com- 17871854, the German physicist.
ponent of migration q.v.. 7. The horizontal component ohmic: 1. A system that is electrically linear, i.e., obeys
of fault displacement, measured parallel to the strike of Ohms law. 2. The resistive component of an imped-
the fault. ance as opposed to the reactive component.
offset frequency: The difference between an observed ohmic contact: See galvanic contact.
frequency and a reference frequency. See Figure D-21. ohm-meter: A unit of resistivity, also written
offset distribution: 1. The distribution of offsets within a ohm-meter2/meter; the resistance of a meter cube to the
CMP gather. 2. The change of offset mix between CMP flow of current between opposite faces. Reciprocal of
gathers. mho/m.
offset section: A display of traces having constant source- Ohms law: The voltage drop across a linear element
to-geophone distance offset. equals the current through it times its resistance. Earth
offset space: A way of thinking of a line of seismic materials are not necessarily linear and therefore do not
reflection data in which the independent variables are always obey Ohms law, especially at high current
arrival time, location along the seismic line, and source- densities.
to-geophone distance offset. Events curve in the offset oil well: See GOR.
Omega: A long-range very-low-frequency U.S. Navy ity gives reflector depth for a flat reflection and flat
positioning system to provide world-wide all-weather velocity layering. One-way time is what VSP measures.
positioning with an accuracy of about one mile com- onlap: 1. Successive landward termination of strata at the
parable with celestial navigation, now phased out by base of a depositional unit. 2. A reflection termination at
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the Global Positioning System q.v.. the base of a unit where the reflection is flat or dips
omega-x domain: ,x2 f , x. see f x domain. away from the termination. Onlap is evidence of rise of
Omnipulse: An impulsive seismic energy source that can relative sea level. See Figures R-8 and S-32a.
operate in both P-wave and S-wave modes. Trade name on-line: 1. A linear set of observation points, especially a
of Bolt Technology Corp. seismic line. 2. Equipment under the control of a central
ones complement: The radix-minus-one complement processing unit. 3. A process usually data output that
form for representing negative binary numbers. It can is concurrent with other operations. 4. To be connected
be found by replacing all the ones by zeros and all the to the internet or another computer network.
zeros by ones. For example, the decimal number 27 onset: The beginning of a wavetrain; see break. In electric
might be represented as 0011 011, and 27 as 1100 sounding, the start of a transient.
100. When a number is added to its negative all bit on time: 1. The time during which an IP transmitter is
registers are full; e.g., 0011 0111100 100 supplying current. 2. The time during which the charg-
1111 111. This system contains two representa- ing current or field from a pulse-type transmitter is
tions of zero; all ones or all zeros. Compare twos observed at the receiver.
complement. opacity: The lack of ability to transmit light. When visu-
one-dimensional inversion: 1. Interpretation of geophys- alizing data in 3D, some events need to be made trans-
ical data in terms of a 1D or layered-earth model. 2. The parent to clearly see other events; this involves reduc-
manufacture of a synthetic acoustic impedance log ing their opacity.
q.v.. opal transition: A change in the mineral form of opal to a
one-and-a-half dimensional 1.5D model: A model that higher pressure/temperature form opal CT, sometimes
allows for velocity variation in the vertical direction produces a seismic reflection.
only but involves source-receiver offsets. open chamber exploder: A marine seismic source that
one-sided function: 1. A function whose value is zero for involves the detonation of an explosive mixture of
all negative values of the argument, i.e., F(x)0 if gases in a chamber open to the water on the bottom side
x0 or alternatively, zeros for all positive arguments. so the waste gasses are vented directly into the water.
2. A function that is not defined for negative or posi- open data: Data that are unrestricted in use or range. No
tive values of the argument, or for other defined license is required for their use.
regions. open ended: 1. The situation where the addition of new
one-sigma: See standard deviation. elements does not disturb the prearranged system. 2.
one-way time: Half the corrected traveltime for a reflec- Able to accommodate additional data.
tion arrival. One-way time multiplied by average veloc- open hole: A wellbore that has not been cased where
measurements are made.
open question: A question for which the answer is not
known.
operand: 1. A quantity participating in the execution of a
computer instruction. An operand can be an argument, a
result of computation, a parameter, an address, or the
location of the next instruction to be executed.
operating system: An integrated system of routines for
supervising the operation of a computer. Also called
executive.
operation: A mathematical or sometimes physical pro-
cess to be performed on data, usually indicated by a
symbol. For example, a plus sign means the operation
add the number ahead of it to the number behind it.
Differentiation, integration, convolution, Fourier trans-
formation, cross-correlation, etc., are operations. See
also operator.
operational amplifier: A high-gain, high-input-
impedance amplifier requiring minimal current for
operation. Ideally a voltage-controlled voltage source.
External feedback components are used to obtain
desired operations such as summing, integrating, differ-
entiating, etc.
operator: 1. The specific thing involved in a particular
operation. Thus, a filter operator is a specific filter
algorithm involved in filtering convolution. See also
operator length. 2. A symbol indicating an operation to
be performed, and itself the subject of operations. 3.
FIG. O-2. Offset space. (Courtesy CGG.) That part of an instruction that tells the machine which
operator length 253 Ormsby filter
function to perform: read, write, add, subtract, etc. 4. means a Wiener filter in which the mean-square dif-
An observer. ference between actual and desired outputs is mini-
operator length: The time-domain or distance-domain mized.
length of the impulse response of a convolution opera- optimum wideband: A filtering/stacking process that
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tor. Often specified as a certain number of points; for maximizes cancellation according to certain math-
example, for a 56-point operator at 2-ms sample rate it ematical criteria of one type of event a multiple in the
is 110 ms from the first point to the last. case of horizontal stacking, a ghost in the case of
ophiolites: An assemblage of ultramafic and mafic intru- uphole stacking, regardless of frequency content and at
sive and extrusive rocks that were oceanic crust the same time reinforces another type of event the
obducted in a plate collision. primary. Application requires precise knowledge as to
optical disk: A rapid, random-access memory device that the time differences between the events on the records
can store an enormous amount of data by using lasers to to be stacked i.e., precise differential normal-moveout
burn tiny pits into an optical substrate. information for multiple cancellation, precise uphole
optical holography: See holography and Figure H-6. data for ghost cancellation. For optimum wideband
optically pumped magnetometer: A magnetometer such horizontal stacking, see Schneider et al. 1965.
as the cesium or rubidium-vapor magnetometer that For optimum wideband uphole stacking, see Schneider
involves nuclear magnetic resonance as a transfer et al. 1964.
mechanism between light and an RF field at the Larmor orbit: The path of a satellite around a body under the
frequency. See Figure O-3. Such magnetometers can be influence of gravity.
made extremely sensitive 0.001 nT. They measure order: See pole.
absolutely the total magnetic field. order of magnitude: The nearest integer to log10 X/S,
optical pumping: Accumulating atomic electrons in cer- where X and S are two quantities being compared. One
tain energy levels by irradiation with light or radiofre- order of magnitude indicates that one quantity is of the
quency waves at the transition frequency. Assume two order of ten or a tenth times the other value, two
fine-structure energy states A 1 and A 2 10 8 eV orders of magnitude 100 or 1/100 times, etc. Used to
apart separated because of electron spin alignments; make crude comparisons or to give the error or uncer-
these states are apt to be equally populated. If we tainty of measurement.
irradiate a sample with light from which the line A 2 B order of a matrix: See matrix.
has been filtered out, we can raise the A 1 population to orders of cyclicity: Sequence stratigraphic cycles are
an elevated state B; then in falling back to the A states, given order numbers and names as shown in Figure
an equal number will fall to A 1 as to A 2 . As the cycle E-13a.
is repeated, A 2 will become overpopulated at the ore: A mineral or rock that can be extracted economically.
expense of A 1 . This principle is involved in masers, OR gate: A circuit with multiple inputs that functions
lasers, and optically pumped magnetometers. See Fig- when a signal is present at any input. Also called
ure O-4. inclusive OR gate. For inputs A and B, signified by
optimum: Best, according to some criteria. A meaningless (AB) or (AB). An EXCEPT gate is called exclu-
term unless the criteria are specified. Optimum in a sive OR but inclusive OR is intended unless exclu-
least-squares sense means that the sum of the squares of sive is specifically stated. See Figure B-5.
all errors is minimized. O-ring: A rubber, Neoprene, Teflon, or other elastic, cir-
optimum damping: See damping. cular gasket with circular cross-section, used to effect a
optimum filter: A filter designed to maximize or mini- seal between parts of an apparatus.
mize a certain performance measure. See p fit. Often Ormsby filter: A filter of trapezoidal shape specified by
FIG. O-3. Optically pumped magnetometer. Atoms in a vapor cell precess about the steady magnetic field that is to
be measured, which is at an angle of 2070 to the instrument axis. Monochromatic light, which is circularly polarized
in the plane perpendicular to the instrument axis, has a component that can be absorbed by the precessing atoms. Once
this absorption is complete, no further absorption can occur and then the cell becomes transparent, a condition that
causes an increase in the light to a photocell. The polarized precessing atoms have a component along the axis of a
transverse RF field that permits the atoms to undergo transitions and hence become available to absorb more light. The
precessing atoms thus become a transfer mechanism between the light and the transverse RF field when the field is at
the Larmor frequency. The light intensity is used to monitor the precession and automatically adjust the RF frequency,
which can be measured to give the intensity of the steady magnetic field.
orogenic 254 overburden pressure
four corner frequencies, f 1 , f 2 , f 3 , f 4 . The filter rejects osculation: os, ky. la sh.n Two curves or surfaces
below f 2 and above f 3 , is linear from f 1 to f 2 and from touching each other; kiss.
f 3 to f 4 , and flat from f 2 to f 3 . OSF: Open Software Foundation.
orogenic: o roj . nik Involving mountain-building by outcrop: Formations or structures that appear at the
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FIG. O-4. Optical pumping. (a) Assume three possible energy levels A 1 , A 2 , and B where under normal conditions
atoms occupy the ground states A 1 and A 2 , which differ in energy by only a very small amount (1). If we irradiate a
sample with light from which the line A 1 B has been removed (2), atoms in A 1 can rise to B but not those in A 2 . When
the atoms fall back to the ground state, they are as likely to fall to A 2 as to A 1 (3); the result will be depletion of A 1 and
overpopulation of A 2 . (7) shows the completion of pumping and (8) the nullifying effect of an RF signal. (b) Schematic
of measurements without pumping (above), with complete pumping (center), and when pumping effect is nullified
(below). (From Telford et al., 1990.)
overdamped 255 OWC
overburden stress and lithostatic pressure. Rock fail- ratio within the linear operating range.
ure prevents formation pressure from exceeding this overpressure: The amount by which the formation-fluid
value; see Figure P-12. Often specified by a pressure pressure exceeds hydrostatic or normal pressure q.v..
gradient, about 1 psi/ft 2.2610 4 Pa/m or 20 lb/ Overpressure, which can have several causes, generally
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gallon mud; the value depends on rock density and indicates that fluid pathways to the surface were cut off
tends to increase with depth. Overburden pressure gra- at some time so that the interstitial fluid could not
dient is often expressed as EMW, equivalent mud escape to restore equilibrium. The top of overpressure
weight q.v.. is sometimes abrupt, sometime gradational. Normal
overdamped: See damping. pressure may exist below overpressured formations.
overdetermined: A system with more equations to be override: A fractional interest in royalty payments often
satisfied than independent variables. granted as part of the terms in a farm-out, farm-in q.v.
overflow: A condition occurring when a computer opera- agreement.
tion produces a result that has a magnitude exceeding overshoot: 1. Momentarily assuming too large or too
the capacity of the computers data-word size. small a value before settling down to the correct value
Overhauser-effect magnetometer: o v.r how, z.r after a step change. 2. An amplitude that exceeds the
Instead of using an impressed polarizing field to align gain permitted before clipping.
proton nuclei with the external magnetic field, as in the overvoltage: The potential in induced polarization IP is
conventional proton magnetometer, the proton nuclear proportional to impressed current density. Overvoltage
spins are polarized by interaction with free electrons. is the extra potential caused by an electrochemical and
Resonance of paramagnetic free electrons results from electrokinetic barrier set up at an electrode-to-electrode
excitation by a VHF field. interface. Activation overvoltage is caused by current
overlapping: Combining pairs of adjacent signals mix- passage stimulating an electron-transfer reaction such
ing and recording their sum as a single signal. The that the electrode potential deviates from its reversible
consequent section has one fewer trace than the input. potential without appreciably changing the ion concen-
overlay: 1. Superimposing two or more images. 2. The trations at the electrode surface. Concentration over-
technique of repeatedly using the same blocks of voltage is brought about by a depletion or accumulation
memory during different processing stages. A technique of oxidized and reduced ion species at the electrode
for managing memory where data or code share the surface, causing a change in the reversible potential of
same memory location; used with systems that do not the electrode. See induced polarization.
support virtual memory q.v.. overvoltage method: Induced-polarization method; see
overload point: The input-signal amplitude for which the induced polarization.
ratio of output to input first differs by 3 dB from the OWC: Oil/Water Contact.
P
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p: 1. Pico-, the SI prefix meaning 10 12 . 2. The raypath into the rapid-access memory only as needed. In this
parameter q.v.. way the effective memory can be larger than the rapid-
: f or fe
Greek phi; capital, . 1. Symbol for porosity, access memory. Such storage is called virtual
also for a function. 2. Particle size; see Figure W-11. memory.
P1 90 P2 91: Standard format for final raw positioning paint: To color portions of a display on a computer screen.
data for marine surveys. pair production: Annihilation of a gamma ray having
P&A: Plugged and Abandoned. See dry hole. energy greater than 1.02 MeV, resulting in production
Pacific margin: See active margin. of an electron-positron pair.
package program: A standard set of computer programs, paleodatum: See datum.
as opposed to tailoring the processing to the specific paleomagnetism: Study of natural remanent magnetiza-
needs of the data. Often implies back-to-back process- tion of rocks and other materials to determine the
ing without intermediate decisions between stages in intensity and direction of the Earths field at the time
the processing. the materials were magnetized. It has as adjuncts
packer: An expandable plug to isolate part a of borehole archeomagnetism study of the Earths magnetism
to test or to complete a reservoir formation. A straddle during historical times and rock magnetism basic
packer isolates a reservoir from both above and below study of the magnetic properties of rocks and minerals.
it. See remanent magnetism.
packet: Piece of information. paleosection: A cross-section showing bedding and struc-
packet switching: A method of automatic communication ture as it is assumed to have been at some past time.
between computers in a network where each packet May refer to a seismic section on which one horizon
carries a code to indicate its destination. has been flattened, assuming that this horizon was laid
packing: 1. The number of bytes of information per unit down horizontally and therefore that the resulting sec-
length of magnetic tape, often measured in bytes per tion shows deeper structure at the time of deposition of
inch bpi. 2. Increasing the density of stored data so the flattened horizon. Compaction because of overbur-
that more data can be stored in the same space, as in den and other changes subsequent to deposition are
placing more bits in a given length of magnetic tape. 3. often ignored. Also called a palinspastic or restored
Arrangement of particles in a matrix, as of grains in section.
sandstone. paleosols: Ancient soils used for age dating.
packstone: A granular carbonate rock containing a matrix palette: pal it The table of colors or patterns from which
of calcareous mud. Compare mudstone indurated mud one can select those to be used to represent particular
but without the laminations of shale, wackestone features such as reflection events or attributes or par-
mud-supported carbonate containing more than 10% ticular ranges of the data. Used in interactive interpre-
grains 20 m, grainstone grain-supported with tation and in computer drawing.
1% mud. palinspastic restoration: pal n spas tik See paleosec-
pad: Sidewall pad; a footing on the end of an arm that tion.
presses against the borehole wall. pallet: pal it The moveable portion of a platform that
padding with zeros: Adding extra zeros before executing can hold a sensor.
a Fourier transform to make the fundamental period palynology: Study of spores and pollen, used to age-date
larger. Adding extra zero traces before an F,k or p, rocks.
transform to prevent wraparound q.v. aliasing. pan: To cause the view on a workstation screen to move
pad time: For each vibrator source point, the number of so that off-screen data become visible. To move
sweeps times the sweep length. through a large volume of data so that different portions
page back: To add a constant to values being plotted so become visible.
that a wider range of values can be plotted on the same panel: 1. An area of a coal seam that can be mined by one
piece of paper. See paging and Figure P-15. longwall setup. 2. One of several displays involving
page through: To look through successive pages of a changes of a parameter, such as a filter panel or a
document. velocity panel.
pagination: 1. The function in a printer routine that sepa- pantograph: pan t graf 1. A device for copying a
rates tabulations into separate pages. 2. The function in drawing at a different scale. 2. A device for mapping
a plotter routine that adds a fixed amount to a coordi- from one domain to another where there is a one-to-one
nate so that a graph being plotted will not run off the correspondence between the domains. 3. A device for
paper. Magnetometer and seismic-profiler records often plotting seismic events in their migrated position.
are paged so that a large plotting scale can be used parabolic Radon transform: A type of -p transform
without requiring excessively large paper. 3. Division involving summation along parabolic trajectories rather
of data or program instructions into blocks called than linear dipping lines.
pages. Some of the pages may be stored elsewhere than paradigm: 1. A model. 2. A display of a set in a fixed
in the computers rapid-access memory and brought arrangement.
256
paradox of anisotropy 257 partition gas chromatograph
paradox of anisotropy: Relations between the apparent flooding surfaces Van Wagoner, 1995. One results
resistivity and true resistivity in a homogeneous from a small-scale relative sea-level rise and stillstand
transversely-isotropic medium. If resistivities perpen- with little intervening fall, often with cyclicity of 100-
dicular and parallel to the bedding are and , 150, 40, or 20 ka. A parasequence is terminated by
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respectively, the apparent resistivities in the transverse another rise of sea level.
and longitudinal directions aT and aL are: parasitic ferromagnetism: A weak ferromagnetism asso-
ciated with imperfect antiferromagnetism in such sub-
aT , stances as hematite.
paravane: pair va n, A device that is towed through
aL 1/2 . the water to maintain equipment in a certain position
Resistivity anisotropy coefficient is discussed under relative to the towing vessel. The force of the flowing
anisotropy (electrical). water on the paravane causes the device to dive or rise
parallax: pair laks A change in the apparent position or move to the side, or to maintain a particular orien-
of an object such as a meter needle with respect to a tation. Used, e.g., to tow a seismic streamer or sources
reference such as the meter scale that is determined at depth or to the side of the towing ship. See also
from a different direction. Parallax error results when barovane.
the observer is not positioned correctly for the reading. paraxial ray: Rays near the central ray. A ray surrounded
parallel field: A uniform field in which current flow lines by a narrow beam in which the wavefield is calculated.
or equipotential surfaces are parallel. parent: The source from which an object called the
parallel geometry: Acquisition geometry where source child originates. The radioactive isotope whose disin-
and receiver lines are parallel. tegration gave rise to another isotope, or the astronomic
parallel processing: Using several computers to work on body from which a meteorite or other body was
the different portions of a calculation at the same time derived.
after dividing the problem into portions, and then put- parity bit: pair i te One of the bits in a defined set
ting all the work back together to obtain the solution. which is dependent upon the other bits in such a way as
parallel record: A test record made with amplifiers con- to detect dropout. See check.
nected in parallel and activated by a single geophone. parity check: See check.
Also called a bridle. Used to check that all amplifier Parsevals theorem: par s vlz For two aperiodic
circuits perform similarly with respect to lead or lag, functions h 1 (t) and h 2 (t) with respective Fourier
polarity, and phasing. transforms H 1 ( f ) and H 2 ( f ),
paramagnetic: pair, mag net ik Weakly magnetic with
small positive susceptibility. The magnetic moments of 12 0 h 1 t h 2 t dt H 1 f H 2 f d f 12 0 .
unpaired electron orbitals within individual atoms are
uncoupled so that each atom behaves independently.
Thus the zero-lag value of the crosscorrelation 12 (0),
Paramagnetism usually contributes only a few nan-
the two values on the left, equals the integral of the
oteslas to the magnetic field at the Earths surface.
cross-product spectrum and the cross-power-spectral
Compare diamagnetic and ferromagnetic.
amplitude at zero frequency 12 (0), the two terms on
parameter: p ram t r 1. A variable that can be
the right. Both equal the cross-energy in the time
changed independently and often arbitrarily between
domain. See Figure F-22. Named for Marc-Antoinne
calculations but which remains constant during any
Parseval des Chenes 17551836, French mathemati-
calculation. Different parameter values give different
cian.
cases. 2. Quantities each of which may represent a
parsimonious: Requiring few variables.
combination of quantities that are sufficient to deter-
parsimonious deconvolution: par, s mo s A
ne
mine the response characteristic of a system.
deconvolution technique that minimizes
parametric inversion: Determining the parameters of a
set of prespecified geometrically simple bodies, an p 1/ p / q 1/q ,
overdetermined problem.
parametric sounding: An electromagnetic depth sound- where is the prediction error and p is slightly larger
ing in which the frequency or time are varied while than q. See Postic et al. 1980.
holding the geometry constant, as opposed to geomet- parsing: pars ng Breaking a unit into component parts,
ric sounding where the frequency is held constant and as is done in some computer operations.
the geometry is varied. Observations can be made at partial fraction: One of a series of terms expressed as
different times after the primary field is extinguished. fractions involving roots of an expression; the sum of
Used to resolve resistivity layering assuming that the the series equals the expression. See Sheriff and Geldart
layering is horizontal. See polarization ellipse. 1995; 530531.
parasection: A plot of electrical measurements as a func- particle displacement, velocity, acceleration: The move-
tion of position and depth where the depth parameter is ment of a particle from its equilibrium position because
computed by means of a 1D layered earth algorithm. of the passage of a wave, or the particles velocity or
Most commonly used on profiles of frequency- or time- acceleration. A vector quantity. Conventional geo-
domain electromagnetic data. It approximates a 2D phones generally detect only the vertical component.
inverted section where electrical properties vary slowly partition gas chromatograph: A device for quantitative
with lateral distance. analysis of hydrocarbon constituents. A fixed quantity
parasequence: pair, se kwns A relatively conform- of sample is carried with a stream of sweep gas through
able succession of genetically related beds bounded by a partition column packed with an inert solid coated
party 258 pearls
with a nonvolatile organic liquid. The lighter fractions patchy saturation: Nonuniform distribution of different
traverse the column faster than the heavier fractions so fluids in pore spaces.
that the components appear separately at the column pattern: 1. A regular repetition of values or tones in an
exit, where their amounts can be measured. image. 2. An array q.v., especially a source array.
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party: The group working together to carry out a geo- pattern recognition: Analyzing data to discover the com-
physical field project. Also called crew or troop. binations of different kinds of measurements features
party chief: The head of a geophysical party. that are distinctive of specific patterns classes. Some-
party manager: The person working under the party chief times thought of as the automatic identification of
or supervisor, if no party chief, who is responsible for shapes and forms. The basic problem is to determine
the field work. combinations of the features discriminants that sepa-
Parzen window: See Figure W-12. rate the different classes. The members of the classes
pascal Pa: pa skal A unit of pressure, a newton per generally involve distributions often Gaussian that
square meter. 1 MPa145 psi. Named for Blaise overlap so that the individual features do not permit
Pascal 16231662, French mathematician. effective separation. Each feature can be thought of as
Pascal: A high-level computer language that enforces a dimension and the problem thought of as mapping
structural techniques. from a multidimensional space to a simpler space
pass: 1. A complete cycle through a computer involving where the classes are well separated feature selec-
input, processing, and output; a machine run. 2. The tion. Techniques include discriminant, factor, cannoni-
passage of a satellite from rise to set over the horizon. cal, principal-component, cluster, regression analyses
passband: The range of frequencies that can pass through see individual methods. This is a generalized eigen-
a band-pass filter without significant attenuation. value problem. Often done by first eliminating those
passive: 1. Having no source of energy. A passive filter kinds of measurements that are not very helpful in
involves no amplification and merely attenuates certain distinguishing the classes and then in finding combina-
frequencies more than others. A passive beacon is a tions of the remaining measurements that permit opti-
radar reflector that merely reflects radar energy, as mal separation of the classes. The first part of this
opposed to an active beacon that transmits in response process involves reducing the number of dimensions
to a signal. 2. Applied to a system that does not gener- eliminating the very small eigenvalues and the latter
ate an output if there is no input. 3. A positioning as coordinate rotation into orthogonal eigenvector
system that does not involve transmitting a signal from space to construct surfaces that separate the classes.
the measuring craft but only observing and measuring pattern shooting: The firing of charges arranged in a
angles, amplitudes, phases, times, etc., in a system that definite array (seismic) q.v..
exists independently of the craft being positioned. pay zone: The interval of rock in which an accumulation
passive margin: Continental margin formed during the of oil or gas or other mineral is present in commercial
original rifting apart of continents to form an ocean. quantities.
passive seismic methods: Seismic investigations using P-band: Radar frequencies between 225 and 390 MHz;
listening capabilities only, that is, no seismic energy is see Figure R-1. Used in remote sensing because it
added by the investigator. Earthquake seismology and penetrates vegetation and shows a combination of veg-
natural noise studies are examples. Such techniques are etation and surface-soil effects.
used for thermal exploration, studies of micro- PBR: Primary-Bubble Ratio q.v..
earthquakes, amplitude spectra of ground noise, frac- PC: Personal Computer, a low-cost computer intended for
ture detection, P- and S-wave delay studies, etc. use by a single person. 2. Continuous-type micropulsa-
pass region: Passband q.v.. tions q.v.; also written Pc. See Figure M-2.
patch: 1. A jumper or a temporary connection, especially PC board: Printed Circuit board.
one that can be changed easily, as a connection on a PCM: Pulse-Code Modulation, See modulation.
patch panel. 2. A section of coding or a subroutine P-code: Protected 10.23 MHz code used with the GPS
used to correct a mistake or alter a routine. 3. More-or- system which can be reserved for military use.
less uniform distribution of geophones over an area PDE: Partial Differential Equation.
template, that gives single-fold subsurface coverage PDMI: Percent Decrease in Mutual Impedance q.v..
for a single source over an area of one-half the dimen- PDR: Potential-Drop Ratio q.v..
sions. The sources or patch then can move in a sys- peak: The maximum upward positive excursion of a
tematic way to provide multiple coverage. Also called seismic wavelet; crest. Opposite of trough.
template. 4. A large geophone group feeding a single peak force: The maximum force that a vibrator can apply
channel, occasionally several hundred feet across con- to the ground.
taining several hundred geophones. Used in transposed peak-to-bubble ratio: A measure of an air-gun signature
recording q.v. with surface sources in poor record relating the peak amplitude of the initial pulse to the
areas. 5. See patch shooting. amplitude of bubble oscillation.
patch shooting: 1. A geometry especially used with peak-to-peak ratio: 1. A measure of the amplitude ratio
ocean-bottom cables OBC and vertical cables, in of successive peaks. 2. For gun signatures, the ratio of
which sources are fired into a static receiver patch, after the maximum positive and negative ghost signals.
which the patch is picked up and moved without having pearls: Continuous-type micropulsations of the first
common receiver locations. 2. See shooting through the kind with periods from 0.2 to 5 s and amplitudes from
patch. 0.05 to 0.1 nanotesla. Strip-chart records of pearls look
patchy gas: Small accumulations of gas that present like amplitude-modulated sinusoidal waves resembling
potential hazards but of no commercial value. a pearl necklace. See micropulsations and Figure M-2.
peel-off time 259 Peters length
peel-off time: 1. A static correction q.v.. 2. The time perfect fluid: A fluid that cannot support a tangential
above which data are to be removed. Used in making stress.
restored palinspastic sections. perforating: Opening holes through casing and into a
PEF: General POSC exchange format, a format that formation so that fluids can flow from the formation
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mass magnetized body. Peters rule gives the depth as such as a time slice or picked horizon.
the Peters length horizontal distance between the phase characteristics: 1. Of the set of all those wavelets,
points on the side of an anomaly where the slope is half filters, or systems that have the same amplitude spec-
of the maximum slope divided by the Peters index trum or autocorrelation, particular members can be
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0.8 1.0 for vertical thin sheet, 1.0 for horizontal thin characterized by their phase spectra phase as a func-
sheet, 1.6 for thick sheet, 1.8 2.0 for wide body or tion of frequency. They can also be characterized in
contact, default often 1.6. See Peters 1949 and Figure other ways, for example by the location of their roots in
D-10. the z-domain; see Figure P-2. The principal feature of
petroleum: Generic name for hydrocarbons, including minimum phase is that the energy arrives as early as
crude oil, natural gas, natural gas liquids, and refined possible. The phase of a minimum-phase wavelet is
products. smaller and its energy builds up faster i.e., it is mini-
petrophysics: Study of relationships among the physical mum delay than for any other causal wavelet with the
properties of rocks. Specifically, studies of how poros- same amplitude spectrum or same autocorrelation. A
ity, permeability, etc. measurements made with well two-term wavelet or doublet a,b is minimum phase
logs relate to seismic velocity, electrical resistivity, minimum delay if a b . Any wavelet may be
temperature, etc. Also called rock physics. represented as the convolution of doublets and a wave-
PFE: Percent Frequency Effect q.v.. let is minimum phase if all of its doublet factors are
PFN: Prompt Fission Neutron log. minimum phase. For example, the z-transform of a
PGC: Preset or Programmed Gain Control q.v.. wavelet might be (6zz 2 ), which can be expressed
pH: A measure of acidity or alkalinity. A value of 7 as (3z)(2z), each of which is minimum phase;
indicates neutral, 7 acidic, 7 alkaline. hence the wavelet is minimum phase. Minimum phase
phantom: 1. A line on a seismic section drawn parallel to is sometimes expressed as having all roots outside the
the dip of nearby reflection events. Phantoms are unit circle in the z-plane, or as having no zeros in the
mapped where one cannot follow an individual event right half of the Laplace transform S-plane. A
far enough to map that event. 2. To pick the onset of a maximum-phase or maximum-delay doublet a,b has
head wave where the onsets do not have enough ampli- a b . Maximum-phase wavelets have all their roots
tude to be seen, based on later cycles of their inside the unit circle in the z-plane. For a linear-phase
wavetrains. Involved in picking first breaks to deter- wavelet, the phase-frequency plot is linear. If its inter-
mine near-surface corrections. cept is n where n is any integer, such a wavelet is
phantom diffraction: A diffracted reflection or a reflected
diffraction.
phase: 1. The argument of a wave. If the representation of
a wave is a function of ( x t), the argument ( x
t) is the phase; ttemporal phase, x
spatial phase. 2. The angle of lag or lead of a sine
wave with respect to a reference; how far rotation,
oscillation, or variation has advanced, considered in
relation to a reference or instant of starting. Commonly
expressed in angular measure. Phase information, being
the measure with respect to the instant of starting,
carries the timing information of a seismogram and
hence proper phase preservation is of utmost impor-
tance. See also phase characteristics, phase response,
and compare phasing. 3. In earthquake seismology, an
event on a seismogram marking the arrival of a new
group of waves, indicated by a change of period or
amplitude, or both. 4. A portion of a nonhomogeneous
system that is bounded by a surface and may be
mechanically separated from the other phases. The
three phases of H2 O, for example, are ice, water, and
steam. 5. A short period of time, as a phase of igneous
activity.
phase angle:
tan1 quadrature component/in-phase component .
The phase angle is in quadrants 1 or 2 if the numerator
is positive, in quadrants 1 or 4 if the denominator is
positive. In induced polarization, phase angle is usually
measured in milliradians.
phase array station: See large aperture seismic array.
phase attribute: Display of phase angle, sometimes the
cosine of the phase, of a volume of data. Sometimes
only peaks, troughs, or zero-crossings are considered. FIG. P-1. Permeabilities from laboratory measurements.
Often a display of only data along a particular surface (From Best and Katsube, 1995.)
phase characteristics multichannel 261 photomultiplier
symmetrical. A zero-phase wavelet has phase identi- of is equivalent to a time shift of /2 f , where f
cally zero; it is symmetrical about zero but is not frequency of the respective component being shifted.
causal. Phase shifts result in change of waveshape unless all
phase characteristics multichannel: A multichannel components are shifted proportional to their frequen-
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FIG. P-2. (a) Phase characterization of wavelets having the same amplitude spectrum. (b) Minimum-phase wavelet
and its phase spectrum: (10.8z) 2 (10.5z) 2 10.6z0.71z 2 0.24z 3 0.16z 4 . (c) Linear phase: (10.8z)
(0.8z)((10.5z)(0.5z)0.40.18z1.25z 2 0.18z 3 0.4z 4 . (d) Maximum phase: (0.8z) 2 (0.5z) 2
0.160.24z0.71z 2 0.6z 3 z 4 . (e) Zero phase: 0.4z 2 0.18z 1 1.250.18z0.4z 2 . The zero-phase
wavelet is anticipatory, that is, it begins before time zero. Phase curves depend on the time reference. Other mixed-
phase wavelets can also be made from these component doublets. (f) Z-plane plot of the roots of the autocorrelation
function for the foregoing, all of which have the same autocorrelation: xy (z)(10.8z) 2 (0.8z) 2 (10.5z) 2 (0.5
z) 2 . In a more general case roots may be complex.
photon log 263 plane polarized
successively on other electrodes before finally reaching pigtail: The wire that connects a geophone to the seismic
the anode, resulting in a multiplication of the electron cable. A corkscrew shape results from twisting the
current. The intermediate electrodes are called dyn- wires together.
odes. See Figure S-2. pigtail chart: See dipmeter.
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photon log: A well log of scattered gamma rays, differing pillow: A small nonpiercement uplift caused by mobile
from a density log in that the sonde is not pressed salt concentration.
against the borehole wall and hence the log is sensitive pilot: An estimate for use as a basis of some analysis or
to changes in hole diameter and the density of the fluid process.
in the borehole. piloting: Determining location with respect to known geo-
physically realizable: Satisfying two conditions: a Not graphical points. See positioning.
existing having values of zero before some initial time pilot trace: The seismic trace toward which other traces
and b containing finite energy hence dying out are adjusted. Used in time shifting for static corrections
toward infinity. or in cross-equalization processes. The pilot trace may
physical modeling: Subjecting a physical model to cer- be composited from the traces being adjusted.
tain tests. In contrast to conceptual modeling, where pinch out: The termination of a bed that thins gradually.
processes are imagined in a thought sequence, or com- See Figure T-17.
puter or numerical modeling, where processes are simu- pinger: 1. A transponder or device that emits an acoustic
lated by mathematical algorithms. Analog modeling or signal upon being activated by sensing a coded electri-
scale modeling. cal signal, or vice versa. Pingers placed on the sea
Pi: Irregular-type micropulsations q.v.. bottom or in anchored buoys can be interrogated by a
pick: 1. To select an event on a seismic record, as to ship transmitting a coded acoustic sonar signal and
pick reflection events. 2. An event or time on an the distance to the pinger determined by traveltime
event that has been selected. The arrival of an event measurements. 2. A shallow-penetration, high-power
signifying new energy should cause an increase in transducer used in marine engineering studies in soft-
amplitude and should affect different channels in a bottom areas.
systematic coherent way. Various statistical tests are pingo: A conical mound of soil-covered ice up to 50 m
used to make picking decisions, ranging from simple high and 400 m diameter formed because of high for-
summing along possible coherent patterns to schemes mation pressure below permafrost.
like semblance criteria. Some criteria search only for pipe: 1. Production casing. 2. Drill pipe. 3. A narrow
phase coherence, others look at the amplitude buildup, cylindrical intrusion such as a kimberlite pipe.
integrate over several half cycles, equalize spectral pipelining: Hardware and software where the output of
variations, etc. Grading is intimately related to picking. one process feeds directly into another process without
See also tracking.
the need for buffers.
pickup: 1. Geophone q.v.. 2. Reception of a disturbance
piston corer: See corer.
such as inductive or other input from an electric power
pitch: 1. Angle between the major axis of polarization and
line high-line.
the horizontal. Also called dip or tilt. See polarization
pico- p-: A prefix meaning 10 12 .
ellipse. 2. Rotational motion of a ship or aircraft about
picture files: A file that stores pixel data. Also called an
a horizontal axis perpendicular to the ships course.
image file.
Compare roll, yaw, and trim. 3. The frequency of sound
pi diagram: Pole diagram q.v..
piecewise inversion: Nonlinear operations such as inver- that is used in conjunction with other senses in virtual
sion can be handled in pieces that individually are reality studies. In addition to frequency, information
nearly linear. may be conveyed by volume, duration of a signal,
pie slice: A fan-filter or velocity-filter q.v. process aimed stereo effects, etc.
at emphasizing a band of moveouts independent of pivot: The element in a matrix by which one divides to
frequency. Compare butterfly filter. Texas Instruments make the element unity. The best pivot for improving
trade name. numerical stability is often the largest available element
piezoelectric: pe, zo
i lek trik or p e, zo
e lek trik 1. in magnitude.
The property of a dielectric that generates a voltage pivoting: Interchanging matrix rows and columns so as to
across it in response to a stress, and vice-versa. In a put a desirable element in the diagonal position from
hydrophone the stress is produced by the pressure, and which the pivot q.v. is about to be selected. In partial
in an accelerometer the stress is produced by the inertia pivoting only rows are interchanged.
of the reaction mass. Piezoelectric transducers are com- pixel: pik sl A picture element, a discrete element of a
monly made of barium titanate or zirconate. Also called digital image. An addressable point in a raster image,
electrostrictive. From the Greek to press. 2. An such as a point on the screen at a work-station terminal.
impulsive seismic energy source that is comprised of a A Landsat pixel represents an area of 1.2 acres 57 m
high-voltage powered transducer held against the sur- E-W, 79 m N-S.
face of the earth. plane surveying: Surveying in which Earth curvature is
piezomagnetic: See magnetostriction. ignored.
piezoremanent magnetism PRM: pe , zo
rem nnt Plancks law: plonks An expression for blackbody
See remanent magnetism. radiation flux per unit area solely as a function of
piggy-back thrusts: A series of imbricate thrusts resulting wavelength and temperature. Named for Max Karl
in the piling up of sheets or slivers of rock somewhat Ernst Ludwig Planck 1858 1947, German physicist.
like overlapping roof tiles. plane polarized: Having all oscillation within one plane
plane table 264 PL1
for a type of oscillation with more than one degree of volume change, elastic rebound, or rupture.
freedom. plate: 1. A large rigid lithosphere unit in plate tectonics
plane table: A survey instrument consisting of a drawing q.v. 2. A sheet-like magnetic body with a vertical
board that can be leveled on a tripod. An object is thickness of 0.1 to 1.0 times the depth to its top.
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sighted through an alidade Figure A-9 that rests on the plateau production: The time during the production his-
table, allowing one to plot the line of survey directly
tory of an oil well or oil field where production is
from the observation by drawing a line along a ruler
attached to the sighting telescope. Figure P-3 shows limited by surface conditions rather than the production
uses of the plane table. ability of the well or field.
plane wave: Having wavefronts that are planar with no plate wave: Vibrations in a thin solid less than a wave-
curvature, as might originate from a very distant length thick.
source. A common assumption in seismic and electro- plate tectonics: A concept that envisions the Earths crust
magnetic wave analyses that is only rarely true in actual divided into various more-or-less rigid plates Figure
situations. A plane wave can be expressed as P-4 that move slowly with respect to each other, being
f xmynzVt , carried along by slow convection currents in the
asthenosphere. Along major rifts such as midocean
where , m, n are the direction cosines giving the wave ridges the plates are separating and new crust is being
direction, V is the velocity of the wave, and t is time. created. Elsewhere plates are overriding one another at
plane-wave decomposition: Finding the amplitudes,
subduction zones or sliding by one another along
phases, and directions of plane waves which, when
added together, approximate an arbitrary wavefront. transform faults q.v., as along the San Andreas fault.
Accomplished by the Radon transform; see tau-p map- See also Benioff-Wadati zone, and Figure P-5.
ping. platform computer: The hardware and software envi-
plane-wave simulation: Simulation of plane or cylindri- ronment providing support functions for computer
cal waves by summing observations with spherical tasks.
waves; Simplan. See Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 322 platform independent: A program or device that will
324. function regardless of the platform.
plant: 1. The manner in which a geophone is placed on or play: See resource.
in the earth. 2. The coupling to the ground. The nature playback: 1. To produce a new form of record from
and quality of the plant affect the overall system magnetic tapes or other reproducible recording. Seis-
response. 3. To place a geophone in its proper place on
mic playback may include filtering, gain adjustment,
the ground.
planter: A device that pushes geophones or hydro- time shifting, mixing, stacking, migrating, etc. A pos-
phones into soil or soft marsh, perhaps as much as sible program is shown in Figure P-14. 2. The result of
8 10 ft deep. such processing, as opposed to the original recording.
plasticity: The material property that allows a body to PL1: pe el wun Programming Language one, an early
undergo permanent deformation without appreciable high-level computer language designed for both com-
FIG. P-3. Plane-table methods. (a) Plane-table traversing. The plane table is set at A and oriented north, the rod at
B is sighted with alidade and the line ab is drawn along the alidade edge, the line length depending on the stadia
reading. The table is then set up at B, oriented by back-sighting on A, then the alidade is sighted on C and bc is drawn,
and so on until the loop is closed at E by sighting on A. (b) Plane-table intersection method. The plane table is set at
A and oriented north, the rod at B is sighted with the alidade and ab is drawn depending on the stadia reading. Rod
readings at points C, D, E, F, and G are sighted on and their directions plotted. The same points are then sighted on with
the plane table set up at B. (c) Plane-table resection. The plane table is set at an unknown location H and the table
is sighted on known points A, B, and D. Point H is determined by the line intersections.
plot 265 point sort
mercial and scientific applications. PL/C was a simpli- lated for each location and plotted to give the velocity
fied version. of the refractor. Plus values, t A t B t AB , are cal-
plot: 1. A graph or plotted section. 2. To draw points and culated for each location and plotted to give a picture of
lines representing events on a cross-section or map. the refractors depth. See Hagedoorn 1959 or Sheriff
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plot point: The location where a datum value is plotted. and Geldart 1995, 442 443.
For symmetrical electrode arrays, the midpoint of the plutonic: Igneous activity at depth.
array; with asymmetric arrays, the convention may Pn: Symbol for a headwave from the Mohorovicic discon-
vary. tinuity.
plotted section: Section on which seismic events are indi- pockmarks: Cone-shaped depressions in the seafloor,
cated by lines or sequences of points. The horizontal sometimes 510 m deep and 15 45 m in diameter,
scale is usually distance along the seismic line and the perhaps formed by the leakage of ascending gas and
vertical scale is usually either depth or reflection time. fluids.
Data may or may not be migrated. Often called simply podded geophones: Having all phones in a group planted
a cross-section or seismic cross-section. very close together.
plotter: 1. A device that makes a graphic display. 2. A point: One of a sequence of values, as in a 56-point
device for graphing data, as an X-Y plotter. 3. A person filter. See convolution.
or device for drawing graphs, maps, or sections. point bar: A low crescentic sand deposit that forms on the
plough: plow A device for burying detonating cord for inside of river meanders.
use as a seismic source. point detectorssources: Use of single detectors/sources
plug back: To seal off a zone that is dry not productive avoids the averaging that detector/source arrays
or depleted. involve.
plugged and abandoned P&A: See dry hole. pointer: 1. A data element that contains the address of
plumbing: 1. Determining the point vertically over a sur- data, as opposed to a data value. 2. The links between
vey point by dropping a weighted string plumb line nodes q.v. in a tree structure. 3. A cursor.
to it. 2. The connectivity for the flow of fluids in a pointing error: Systematic error in a ships sense of
reservoir. direction such as might be caused by misalignment of
plunge: 1. The direction of the axis of a fold with a sensors with the ship. Doppler-sonar pointing error
downward component. 2. To set the horizontal cross- shows as fictitious cross-course velocity.
wire of a theodolite in the direction of a grade. point mass: A mass theoretically concentrated at a point
plus-minus method: A refraction interpretation method whose geophysical response is equivalent to some other
using reversed refraction profiles, also called Hage- mass distribution. In gravity, a uniform sphere can be
doorn method. Let t AB be the surface-to-surface time treated as if its mass were concentrated at its center.
between A and B and let t A and t B be arrival times at Nonspherical masses at large distances can be approxi-
various intermediate locations from sources A and B, mated by point masses.
respectively. Minus values, t A t B t AB , are calcu- point sort: Gather q.v..
point source: 1. A source whose actual size is unimportant narily range from 0.5 no shear strength, e.g., fluid to 0
as far as the effects being observed are concerned. 2. A but theoretically from 0.5 to 1.0; see Debski and
single-current electrode whose companion is a great Tarantola, 1995.
distance away, such as the current pole of pole-pole or Poisson reflectivity PR: The coefficient of the sin2
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FIG. P-5. (a) Plate-tectonic model. Arift zone where plates P 1 and P 4 are moving apart (such as the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge) where new crust is being created. Cocean trench resulting from overriding of plate P 3 over P 1 (or P 2 over P 4 );
BBenioff-Wadati zone of earthquakes dipping along the contact of plates P 1 and P 2 which are colliding. T
transform faults where plates are sliding by each other. (After Isaacs et al., 1968.) (b) There are three kinds of plate
boundaries. The junction of three plates constitutes a triple junction (q.v.); See also Fig. T-16.
polar form of complex number 267 polarization filtering
A sequence of generally horizontal, isotropic layers ber, that is, by a downward deflection when displayed
such as sedimentary bedding tends to produce layer- graphically; see Figure P-6. This standard is historically
ing anisotropy sometimes called periodic thin-layer based; early refraction first arrivals broke downward. A
anisotropy, although the layering need not be periodic reflection indicating an increase in acoustic impedance
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for wavelengths that are appreciably larger than the or a positive reflection coefficient also begins with a
layer thickness. The axis of symmetry is generally downward deflection. 2. For a zero-phase wavelet, a
perpendicular to the bedding, more-or-less vertical, positive reflection coefficient is represented by a central
with the velocities of P-waves parallel to the bedding peak, normally plotted black on a variable area or
and S-waves that are polarized parallel to the bedding variable density display; see Figure P-6. This conven-
being larger than for those perpendicular to the bed- tion is called positive standard polarity and the
ding. Parallel isotropic layering, where there are more reverse convention is negative standard polarity or
than eight or so layers per wavelength, behaves as a reverse polarity. In the North Sea and some other areas
polar anisotropic medium. Roughly horizontal layering the convention for zero-phase wavelet is reversed.
is also called transverse isotropy because properties Polarity standards are not specified for wavelets other
are the same in any transverse direction with a vertical than minimum-phase or zero-phase ones. See also dual
axis of symmetry TIV. See also azimuthal asymmetry. polarity displays.
With a vertical symmetry axis, pure P- and S-waves polarization: po , lr i za
shn 1. Dipole moment per
may exist only in certain directions. SH-wavefronts are unit volume. In induced polarization, current dipole
ellipsoidal in shape see Figure A-14c and SV- and moment per unit volume. Also called magnetization
P-modes of propagation are coupled with nonelliptical q.v.. 2. The polarity or potential near an electrode. 3.
wavefronts that in general are not othogonal to the A preferential direction of wave motion, as the compo-
directions of wave propagation. Phase velocity wave- nent of S-waves whose motion is confined to a horizon-
front velocity perpendicular to the wavefront surface tal plane SH. 4. Preferential direction of motion
of constant phase and ray velocity in the direction of involved in seismic wave passage, as determined with a
energy transport also called group velocity are gen- three-component geophone or triphone. See polariza-
erally not in the same direction see Figure A-14a. The tion filtering. 5. Magnetic orientation concerning only
reciprocal of phase velocity also a vector quantity is the vector direction and not the magnitude.
called slowness. SV-wavefronts may have cusps. See polarization diagram: Hodogram q.v..
Thomsen, 2002. polarization ellipse: The locus of points in space
polar form of complex number: Expressing a complex described by the superposition of two fields having
number zx jy in the form zAe j ; Amodulus different directions and whose variations in time are of
(x 2 y 2 ) 1/2 , and phasetan1(y/x). the form A cos(t) and B cos(t). In electromag-
polarity: 1. The condition of being positive or negative. 2. netic prospecting, neither the direction nor the phase of
Power-supply terminals being electrically positive or the primary and secondary fields are the same so that
negative. If opposite terminals are connected, electrons the superposition of the two fields results in elliptical
flow from the negative to the positive in the external polarization. For the ellipse shown in Figure P-7, the
connector. 3. The north or south character of a modulus of the magnetic wavetilt is given by
magnetic pole. 4. For a seismic display, see polarity H z / H x , the tilt angle or pitch by , and the ellip-
standard. ticity by H 2 / H 1 . Ellipticity is positive or negative
polarity reversal on horizontal-component section: The as the vector rotates clockwise or counterclockwise.
horizontal component of SV-motion reverses polarity at See Smith and Ward 1974.
the source. polarization filtering: 1. A technique for enhancing one
polarity standard: 1. The SEG standard for causal seis- mode of propagation with respect to another, or of
mic data specifies that the onset of a compression from determining the direction of approach of a seismic
an explosive source is represented by a negative num- wave by combining the outputs of three-component
recordings. The different phase relationships for P-, S-,
and surface waves can be used to distinguish between gather to be muted or a portion of an f k section to be
them. See White 1964 and Sheriff and Geldart 1995, muted. 2. Representation of a fault surface by a network
480, 483. 2. See linear-phase filtering. of planar polygons; fault polygons.
polarization flip: Reversal of polarization of SV-wave polymer: pol m.r A substance with extremely high
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recording on opposite sides of the zero-offset location. molecular weight that forms long chains resulting in
polarization potentials: Induced polarization q.v. high viscosity. Used to improve mobility in enhanced
potentials. oil recovery.
polarization resistance: The factor (RT/nFJ o ) polymer flooding: See chemically enhanced recovery.
employed in overvoltage theory, relating overvoltage pool: A connected hydrocarbon reservoir; see resource.
to current density J: poop shot: Weathering shot q.v..
population: The aggregate of a set of observations whose
RT/nFJ o J;
subaggregates have the same statistical properties.
R is the gas constant, T the absolute temperature, n the Where subaggregates have different statistical proper-
number of molar equivalents, F the Faraday, and J o the ties, they may be said to be of different populations.
exchange current density, all in cgs units. The units of See statistical measures.
polarization resistance are ohm-cm2. pop-up menu, pull-down menu: A list of choices that
polarized: A connector is said to be polarized if the con- appears when one keys on a symbol.
nector and its mate are so designed that they fit together pore pressure: Interstitial pressure q.v., the pressure of
in only one way. This prevents getting the wires con- the fluids in the interstices in a rock.
nected incorrectly. pore-pressure gradient: 1. Changes in formation-fluid
polarized electrode: See ideal polarized electrode. pressure divided by the depths over which they are
polar projection: See stereographic projection. measured; the slope of the interstitial-fluid pressure
polar wandering: Rocks become magnetized according versus depth curve, the local pressure gradient q.v.. 2.
to the direction of the Earths field at the time of their The average pore-pressure gradient formation-fluid
formation. As the Earths plates drift with time, the pressure divided by the depth is what determines mud
direction of the remanent magnetism q.v. changes and weight q.v.; usually measured in equivalent mud
consequently the apparent location of the magnetic weight EMW, psi/ft, or Pa/m. See also normal pres-
pole. The polar wandering curves for different plates sure.
differ; see Figure P-8a. The magnetic poles also move porosity : Pore volume per unit gross volume. Poros-
with time in addition to plate movement effects, pro- ity is determined from cores, sonic logs see Wyllie
ducing secular changes, including the westward drift relationship, density logs q.v., neutron logs, or resis-
of the magnetic pole; see Figure P-8b. tivity logs see Archies formula. See also movable oil
pole: 1. A singular point, where the value of a function plot. Primary porosity refers to the porosity remaining
becomes infinite. If a function has the factor (x after the sediments have been compacted but without
a) m . a is a pole of order m. If m1. a is a simple considering changes because of subsequent chemical
pole. 2. A magnetic pole q.v.. 3. One electrode of a action or flow of water through the sediments. Second-
pair whose companion electrode infinite electrode is ary porosity is additional porosity created by subse-
so far away that its location does not affect the mea- quent changes, especially fissures, fractures, solution
surements. vugs, and porosity created by dolomitization. Effective
pole diagram: A stereographic projection q.v. on which porosity is the porosity available to free moveable
the direction of lines is plotted. Also called a dia- fluids, excluding unconnected porosity and space occu-
gram. A plane is represented by the direction of the line pied by bound water and disseminated shale.
perpendicular to it. Compare cyclographic diagram. porosity logs: Density, neutron, and sonic logs, each of
pole-dipole array: See array (electrical) and Figure which is sensitive to porosity q.v. but also other
A-18. factors.
pole-pole array: See array (electrical) and Figure A-18. porosity overlay: A plot of porosity values calculated
pole of spreading: Plate movement associated with sea- from different logs, plotted on top of each other. Com-
floor spreading can be described as rotation of one plate pare crossplot.
with respect to the other about an axis through the porous pot: A nonpolarizable electrode that allows free
Earths center, the axis intersecting the Earths surface ionic flow into the earth. A copper rod in a saturated
at the pole of spreading. Also called an Euler pole. copper-sulfate solution contained in a porous pot is
Transform faults are latitude circles about the pole of such an electrode. Used in making voltage measure-
spreading. Convergence is not necessarily subduc- ments where negligible current flows through it. A
tion. The rate of spreading is given as that at 90 even nonpolarizing potential electrode used in electrical and
though the plates may not extend to 90. electromagnetic surveying. See Figure P-9.
pole strength: See magnetic pole. port: 1. Connection point for an input or output device. 2.
polling: Calling a terminal in a multi-access system to The connection to a computer where data can be input
establish whether it has data for transmission to the or output.
computer. portable: A computer program that can function on
polyline: The sequence of straight lines between specified another computer.
points that outline a polygon. portable software: Software that can be used with differ-
polyconic projection: See map projection. ent hardware.
polygon: 1. A polygonal-shaped portion of a surface positioning: 1. Determining the location of a survey ship
selected for special treatment, such as a portion of a or aircraft, usually with respect to geodetic coordinates
positioning 269 positioning
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FIG. P-8. (a) Polar wandering curve showing location of the magnetic pole based on paleomagnetic data from different
plates. The divergence of the curves backward in time indicates different movements for the different plates. P
Precambrian, Cambrian, OOrdovician, SSilurian, DDevonian, CCarboniferous, PPermian, Tr
Triassic, JJurassic, LT, MT, UTLower, Middle, Upper Tertiary. (From Garland, 1979.) (b) Time variation in incli-
nation and declination of the paramagnetic field at London, showing westward drift. (After Parasnis, 1961.)
positive 270 powderman
but sometimes with respect to reference beacons whose postplot: Computation of locations that have been previ-
geodetic locations may not be known. Positioning is ously occupied, based on the best reconciling of all
sometimes divided into a celestial navigation, locat- available data.
ing oneself by observing celestial bodies, which some- poststack migration: Migration q.v. of stacked data, as
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times includes satellite navigation such as the global opposed to migration before stacking.
positioning system GPS; b piloting, determining pot: 1. To fire a small charge in a hole to create space for
position with respect to geographical points, including loading a charge. 2. A potentiometer q.v.. 3. A porous
many radio-navigation methods; and c dead reckon- pot q.v..
ing, positioning by the extrapolation of track and direc- potential: 1. The amount of work required to position a
tion from a previously known point of departure, unit charge, unit pole, or unit mass at a given position,
including inertial positioning, Doppler-sonar, and usually with respect to infinity. Electric, magnetic, and
Doppler-radar methods. Some modern positioning sys- gravitational fields are scalar potential fields. The gra-
tems measure traveltime or differences in traveltime dient of a potential field is called the field strength,
from reference stations, some measure the phase in field intensity, or flux density; see Gauss theorem. 2. A
standing-wave patterns set up by pairs of transmitter function from which a quantity can be determined by
stations, some measure Doppler frequency shifts, some specified mathematical operations, as a potential field
measure the direction of strongest signal. See Figure from which seismic displacement, velocity, etc. can be
L-6. Features of some systems are listed in Figure P-10. ascertained by differentiation.
2. Locating reflecting points; see migration. potential-drop ratio: An electrical-survey method that
positive: 1. An anomalous area in which values are larger compares ratios of voltages between two adjacent,
than expected or larger than in neighboring areas, as a aligned pairs of potential electrodes.
gravity positive. 2. An area characterized by uplift. potential electrode: The contact of an IP and/or resistivity
Positive often is used in a relative sense and might refer receiver circuit with the ground, usually a porous-pot
to an area that is subsiding less rapidly than surround- electrode.
ing areas. potential electrical: Electrical voltage with respect to a
positive polarity: See polarity standard and Figure P-6. reference point. See also electric potentials.
positive pole: A north-seeking magnetic pole q.v.. potential field: A field that obeys Laplaces equation, such
positive separation: See separation. as gravity, magnetic, or electrical fields. For such fields,
posting: Marking data on a map or section at the appro- the vector field may be expressed as the gradient of
priate location, often as a step prior to contouring. some scalar potential or the curl of a vector potential.
See potential q.v..
potential-field tilt: tan1 vertical derivative/horizontal
derivative.
potential function: Mathematical relation from which
other relations can be derived by simple mathematical
operations such as differentiation. For example, the
gradient of a magnetic or gravity potential function
might give the magnetic or gravity field, or the diver-
gence and curl of a seismic potential function might
give the displacements involved in P- and S-waves.
Potentials are used because they are often easier to
describe than the relations that can be derived from
them.
potentiometer: An electrical instrument for measuring
low-level dc voltages without drawing current from the
measured circuit, by using the unknown voltage as an
arm in a direct-current bridge circuit.
pot resistance: The electrical resistance from a potential
electrode to ground; the effective electrical resistance of
a porous-pot potential electrode and adjacent region.
Too high a pot resistance reduces sensitivity and
increases susceptibility to noise.
Potsdam ellipsoid: The now-obsolete international geo-
detic reference ellipsoid; see Figure G-2 and Geodetic
Reference System.
Potsdam gravity: A former gravity standard q.v., the
gravity at the Pendelsaal of the Geodetic Institute in
Potsdam, East Germany.
FIG. P-9. A porous pot nonpolarizing electrode Poulter method: po l tr See air shooting. Named for
consisting of a metal electrode in a solution of its own salt Thomas C. Poulter, American geophysicist.
(such as Cu and CuSO4 .); the porous pot allows the solu- powder: Explosive.
tion to leak slowly and make good contact with the ground powder factor: Pounds of explosives required to break a
without setting up a contact potential. (From Telford et al., ton of rock to the required size.
1990.) powderman: An individual licensed to handle explosives.
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powderman
271
power series: An expression of the form yabx precession: pre sesh n The tendency of a gyroscope to
cx 2 ... . See Taylor series. turn when under the influence of a torque that tries to
power spectrum: 1. A power-density versus frequency change the direction of its axis of spin. See Figure P-11.
relationship. The power spectrum P( f ) is the square of precision: The repeatability of an instrument measured by
the amplitude-frequency response or the Fourier the mean deviation of a set of measurements from the
cosine transform of the autocorrelation function. 2. average value. Different from accuracy q.v..
Occasionally implies cumulative power P ( f ), where precision index: See error function.
P( f ) is the power density at the frequency f: precise leveling: Determining relative levels to very high
precision, usually to detect changes in levels with time
P f
f
0
P f d f .
as a result of subsidence, fault movement, etc. preset gain control: Programmed gain control q.v..
preconditioning: Processing to make the input to another pressure: Force per unit area. Usually the difference in
process more suitable, usually to remove noise or zero pressure relative to some other situation is meant,
values that otherwise might interfere with the process- sometimes the pressure gradient or the pressure of
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Also called normal ratio. See Turam. principal value: If x S is a singular point of f (x) and a
primary recovery: Oil production that relies on the natu- x S b, then the principal value is
ral energy sources in the reservoir to move fluids to the
wellbore. b x S b
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primary reflection: Energy that has been reflected only PV f x dx lim f x dx f x dx.
once and hence is not a multiple. Usually includes the a x S a x S
contribution of short-path multiples.
primary voltage: In IP surveying, the peak asymptotic principle of equivalence: Two conductive layers can
charging voltage observed at a time-domain receiver. carry nearly the same electrical current if their ratios of
primary wave: P-wave q.v.. thickness to resistivity are the same conductance
prime: To prepare an explosive for firing, as to insert a equivalence. Two resistive layers can carry nearly the
blasting cap in a stick of dynamite. same electrical current if their resistivity-thickness
prime mover: A steam engine, electric motor, or internal- products are the same transverse resistance equiva-
combustion engine that is an independent source of lence.
power. principle of least time: See Fermats principle.
primer: pr mr An intermediate explosive that is set off principle of reciprocity: The seismic concept that the
by a cap and whose function is to detonate another same trace would result if source elements were
explosive which is not cap-sensitive. replaced with receiver elements and vice-versa. Similar
principal alias: A frequency between the Nyquist fre- concepts are involved with other methods, for example,
quency and twice the Nyquist frequency. interchanging current and potential electrodes in elec-
principal alias lobe: See directivity graph. trical exploration. A consequence of linearity. Reciproc-
principal axis: 1. One of the axes that permit a quadratic ity is not valid with converted waves unless the direc-
function to be written in terms of only the coordinates, tional senses of the source and receiver are also
that is, involving no cross terms. One of the eigenvector interchanged.
directions obtained from diagonalizing a rank-two ten- principle of superposition: The concept that the result
sor. See natural polarization direction. 2. A special or from two or more simultaneous causes can be obtained
preferred symmetry axis. by summing the results of individual causes. Implies
principal component analysis PCA: 1. A procedure linearity.
that transforms a number of possibly correlated vari- principle of suppression: Resistant layers sandwiched
ables into a smaller number of uncorrelated variables between conducting beds are electrically equivalent if
the principal components. It ranks the principal the products of their thicknesses and resistivities are the
components according to the amount of the data vari- same.
ability for which each accounts, so that components printed circuit: A thin laminated board circuit board
whose effects are only minor can be ignored. Principal on which electrical circuits are drawn and components
component analysis is generally used to identify the mounted. Usually easily removed for testing and
meaningful variables and reduce the dimensionality of replacement.
the data set. In an eigenanalysis, the first principal prism: A semi-infinite, vertical parallelepiped source
component is in the same direction as the eigenvector body.
associated with the largest eigenvalue, and so on to prism waves: Body waves that are reflected twice from
other components in descending order of importance. the same reflector because of large structural relief. The
PCA is often done by singular-value decomposition reflector has to have a high-impedance contrast such as
q.v.. 2. Where images correlate because they contain a chalk or salt to yield a significant reflection.
portions of the same information, the separation of the private line: A communications channel dedicated to
information into orthogonal images. For example, some exclusive use.
much of the information on different Landsat bands privileged: 1. A computer function whose use is
correlate and PCA separates the information into uncor- restricted. For example, the ability to read a file of
related images. authorized passwords is a privileged function usually
principal diagonal: The matrix elements a ii , that is, those restricted to the system manager. In a computer system,
elements lying along the diagonal line from a 11 to a nn , privileged instructions may be executed only by the
where n is the number of rows or columns whichever operating system when in the proper mode e.g., super-
is smaller in the matrix. visor state, kernal mode, etc.. 2. A computer operation
principal direction: One of the natural directions of a that has priority over other operations. 3. Data whose
system. When oriented in the principal directions, input has priority over other computer operations.
cross-coupling terms disappear, tensor impedances PRM: Pressure- or Piezo- Remanent Magnetism. See
decouple, nondiagonal terms of matrices vanish, or remanent magnetism.
other simplifications occur. The normal curvature has probabilistic: See deterministic.
its maximum and minimum values in the principal probability functions, F(x) : See Figure P-13.
directions. probable error: The range within which half of a series of
principal maximum: The largest of several local measurement of a quantity probably lie. For a Gaussian
maxima. distribution, the probable error is 0.674 times the stan-
principal point: The center of an aerial photograph; the dard deviation. Note: probable error is not an error
photocenter. which is more probable than others. See statistical
principal profile: A profile oriented perpendicular to the measures.
strike of a 2D feature. probing: Sounding q.v..
processing 275 program
programmed gain control. 4. To plan a program. mation, b conversion of input data, c availability of
program flowchart: A display showing the sequence in reference data such as tables and files, d requirements
which operations and decisions are done. Program for accuracy and methods of checking, e ability to
flowcharts are used as aids in program development, as restart in case of interruptions and error conditions, f
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guides to coding, and as documentation of a program. automatic monitoring to ascertain that devices and the
See Figure P-14. computing are operating properly, g housekeeping or
programmed gain control PGC: Predetermined gain procedures to preset switches and registers, type opera-
for a seismic amplifier. The function describing ampli- tor messages, check file labels, etc., h format of output
fier gain with respect to time after the source. See gain data, i availability of preexisting programs that may
control. be used in this program, j editing of data, and k
programmer: One who develops the series of instructions provision for exceptions that are not processable.
required for a computer. Programming involves know- projection: A system for displaying 3D data on a planar
ing the available operations and the procedure that must surface. See map projection, isometric, perspective, and
be translated. Considerations include a allocation of Figures H-8 and T-6.
storage locations to data, instructions, and related infor- PROM: Programmable Read-Only Memory.
FIG. P-14. A processing flow chart for seismic data. (After Sheriff, 1980, 405.)
prompt 277 proton-precession magnetometer
prompt: A symbol displayed by a computer indicating proppant: The structurally strong materials injected into
that it is waiting for input. fractures opened during hydraulic fracturing to prevent
proof mass: The suspended weight in a gravimeter. collapse of the fractures upon release of the fracturing
propagation constant: In electromagnetic theory, the pressure.
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FIG. P-15. Profiler record. The ship traveled 8.5 km between the 30-minute marks at the top of the record. The seafloor
multiple B obscures primary reflections after its arrival. Events D result from multiples of C that have been paged back.
G indicates an unconformity truncating reflections below it and onlapped by reflections above it. F indicates diffractions.
H a second-order seafloor multiple. (Courtesy Teledyne Exploration.)
provenance 278 pseudosection
value of the Earths magnetic field. For the normal a function of invasion depth.
Earth field of about 50 000 nanotesla, f L 2100 Hz. pseudogravity: The gravity field calculated from
As the protons gradually relax into random orientation, magnetic-field measurements by means of Poissons
the induced-field strength drops to zero. The rate of relation q.v.. Calculation involves conversion of sus-
drop depends on interatomic forces and hence on ceptibility to density and vertical integration of
molecular structure. Achievable accuracy: 0.1 nT. Also reduced-to-the-pole magnetic data. The original defini-
called proton-resonance magnetometer. Compare tion of this term Baranov, 1957 referred purely to pole
optically pumped magnetometer. reduction.
provenance: The source area for sediments or sedimen- pseudolayer half-space: A high-resistivity layer of vari-
tary rock. able depth overlying a half-space. A pseudo-two-layer
proximity survey: A survey to determine how far a well model consists of two layers over the half-space, where
is from some feature. For example, shooting from the the top layer simulates the air for airborne methods.
surface into a geophone in a deep well with the objec- pseudorandom: A nonrandom sequence whose autocorre-
tive of determining the position of the flank of a salt lation has negligible values except at zero; a character-
dome. See also offset vertical seismic profile, salt prox- istic of a random-noise sequence is that its autocorre-
imity survey, and ultra-long-spaced electric log. lation values are zero except at zero shift.
prune effect: When a surface has many local highs, meth- pseudorange: The distance to a satellite before correcting
ods of finding the maximum may find local maxima for the time differences between the receivers and
instead of the largest maximum if they begin with a bad satellites clocks.
initial guess. pseudo-Rayleigh wave: See Rayleigh wave.
PS: 1. P- to S-wave conversion, C-waves. 2. PreStack. 3. pseudosection: soo, do sek shn 1. A plot of electrical
Phase-Shift. measurements or calculations, often of apparent resis-
PSDM: PreStack Depth Migration. Sometimes PrSDM to tivity or induced polarization as a function of position
distinguish it from poststack depth migration, PoSDM. and electrode separation which is nonlinearly related
pseudoanisotropy: soo, do an so trp e See anisotropy to the depth of investigation, q.v.. A pseudosection
(electrical). indicates how the parameter varies with location and
pseudocolor: Color arbitrarily assigned to values. Also depth, but it can only be converted into a 2D model by
false color. inversion. Also called a quasi-section or pseudodepth
pseudodepth section: Pseudosection q.v.. section. For the dipole-dipole electrode configuration,
pseudodepth slice: The result of spectral-domain filtering the data are plotted Figure P-17 beneath the midpoint
that emphasizes possible sources around a specified between the dipoles at a depth of half the distance
depth determined from power spectrum slopes. Also between the dipole centers. For the Schlumberger array,
known as depth slicing q.v.. the data are plotted beneath the potential electrodes at a
pseudogeometric factor: A coefficient used for estimat- depth of half the separation of the current electrodes
ing the response of a resistivity measurement R a at AB/2. 2. For frequency-domain measurements, the
different invasion depths: vertical scale is sometimes increasing period or
FIG. P-16. Proton-resonance magnetometer. Proton spin axes precess about a magnetic field. A polarizing field
normal to the Earths field is impressed for a short time to polarize the nuclei and is then removed. The nuclei, now
oriented together, precess about the Earths magnetic field at the Larmor frequency, inducing this frequency in a
measuring coil. The induced frequency controls the length of time that a gate is open, the time being measured by
counting cycles of a standard frequency, and the time duration is a measure of the Earths field.
pseudospectral method 279 pulse-width modulation
decreasing frequency. 3. Also used for plotting mag- pull-apart zone: A region subjected to extension, which
netotelluric apparent resistivity as a function of fre- often is accommodated by normal faulting. Implies a
quency z -axis and traverse distance x-axis. rift zone.
pseudospectral method: Spatial derivatives calculated by pull boat: A boat or raft on pontoons that moves by
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using a square carrier wave, the width of whose pulses sional wave, longitudinal wave, push-pull wave,
are proportional to the amplitude of the modulating pressure wave, dilatational wave, rarefaction wave,
wave. See Figure M-16. Also called ratio modulation. and irrotational wave. In an isotropic homogeneous
punch card: A card formerly used for communication solid, the P-wave velocity V P can be expressed in terms
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with computers. A standard card provides 80 vertical of the elastic constants and the density :
columns with 12 punching positions in each column,
where one or more punches in a single column repre-
sents a character.
punched paper tape: A medium for recording data in
V P 2 / 1/2 E 1
12 1 1/2
q: 1. The fraction of total porosity occupied by dispersed the southwestern the third, and the northwestern the
shale. See producibility-index log. 2. Quasi- q.v.. fourth. This is a different notation from that usually
Q: 1. Quality factor, the ratio of 2 times the peak energy employed in mathematics. See Figure Q-1.
to the energy dissipated in a cycle; the ratio of 2 times quadratic equation: The quadratic equation, ax 2 bx
the power stored to the power dissipated. The seismic Q c0, has the solution
of rocks is of the order of 50 to 300. Q is related to
other measures of absorption see below: x 1/za b b 2 4ac 1/2 .
1/Q V/ f / hT/ / 2 f / f r ,
quadratic spline: An interpolating operator whose slope
where V, f, , and T are, respectively, velocity, fre- at (x 1 x) is a linear combination of the slope at
quency, wavelength, and period see Sheriff and Gel- nearby points x 1 and x 2 : 1 ( 2 1 ) x/(x 2
dart, 1995: 60, 177. The absorption coefficient is x 1 ).
the term for the exponential decrease of amplitude with quadrature: 90 out of phase. The quadrature compo-
distance because of absorption; the amplitude of plane nent of a signal is the out-of-phase component; the part
harmonic waves is often written as of an induced signal which is out-of-phase with the
Ae x sin 2 f tx/V , generating signal. See also complex-trace analysis.
quadrature filtering: Polarization filtering q.v..
where x is the distance traveled. The logarithmic dec- quadrature spectrum: See cross-spectrum.
rement is the natural log of the ratio of the ampli- quadrature trace: See complex-trace analysis.
tudes of two successive cycles. The last equation above quadric: A second-degree quadratic expression.
relates Q to the sharpness of a resonance condition; f r is quantile: p-quantileq p value that the population p
the resonance frequency and f is the change in fre- does not exceed.
quency that reduces the amplitude by 1/&. The damp- quantizing: Determining to which of a number of discrete
ing factor h relates to the decrease in amplitude with amplitude levels an analog measurement belongs.
time, quarterboat: A boat or barge used by a geophysical crew
A t A o e ht cos t. as living quarters and/or base of operations.
quarterline: A line parallel to the boundary that bisects a
See also Figure A-2. 2. The ratio of the reactance of a section of land 640 acres or one square mile. The
circuit to the resistance. 3. A term to describe the cross of quarterlines divides the section into quarter
sharpness of a filter; the ratio of the midpoint frequency sections of 160 acres.
to the bandpass width often at 3 dB. 4. A designation quartic: A fourth-degree expression.
for Love waves q.v.. 5. Symbol for the Koenigsberger quartile: The first quartile is 025% of a distribution, the
ratio q.v.. 6. See Q-type section. second is 2550%, etc. Compare decile.
Q-band: Radar frequencies between 36 and 46 GHz; see quasi-: A prefix meaning somewhat, approximately,
Figure R-1. similar to but not exactly the same as.
QC: Quality Control. quasi-polynomials: Whereas polynomials are one-sided
Q-compensation: Q processing q.v.. i.e., involve increasing powers, quasi-polynomials are
Q-factor: Koenigsberger ratio q.v.. two-sided i.e., involve both positive and negative pow-
Q processing: Deconvolution to compensate for the loss ers. Thus (a 0 a 1 xa 2 x 2 ...) is a polynomial and
of high frequencies with distance, to make the wave- (...a 2 x 2 a 1 x 1 a 0 a 1 xa 2 x 2 ...) is
form less time-dependent. Since Q is usually not a quasi-polynomial.
known, it is often estimated as being 1% of the velocity
expressed in ft/s or 3% in m/s.
Q-system: An acquisition system where signals are
recorded from individual sensors rather than from an
array. Signals are summed only after subsequent pro-
cessing. Geco Schlumberger trademark.
Q-type section: A three-layer resistivity model in which
the resistivities of the three layers decrease with depth.
quad: 10 15 BTU, approximately equal to 10 9 ft3 natural
gas or approximately equal to 30010 9 kW.h.
quadrangle: The surface area bounded by latitude and
longitude lines; e.g., a 15-minute quadrangle is 15
minutes on a side.
quadrant: Surveying angles are often measured in
degrees clockwise from north; the northeastern quad- FIG. Q-1. Quadrant-numbering conventions. (a) As
rant is the first quadrant, the south eastern the second, used in surveying; (b) as used in mathematics.
281
quasi-P-, quasi-S-waves 282 Q-wave
quasi-P-, quasi-S-waves: Waves in anisotropic media that the log of a function in the frequency domain. See
involve particle motion in directions simiular to but cepstrum. A permutation of the letters in frequency.
not exactly the same as those of P-, S-waves. quelling: Suppressing.
quasi-section: Pseudosection q.v.. quenching: Blanking of sound reception in water caused
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quasi-static: Varying very slowly, so that a solution that by air bubbles; arises when a ship is undergoing exces-
assumes constant values is an adequate approximation. sive pitch and roll in bad weather.
In quasi-static electromagnetic problems, displacement quenching agent: A vapor such as alcohol, methane, or
currents are neglected. A quasi-static electromagnetic water, to suppress secondary electron emission from a
solution becomes poor where the loss tangent becomes
cathode.
less than 1, such as very resistive situations on glaciers
or deserts in the absence of groundwater where dis- querwellen wave Q wave: kwur vel n Love wave
placement currents dominate over conduction currents. q.v.. From the German for transverse wave.
quasi-transient method: See transient electromagnetic queue: ku A backlog of jobs awaiting action.
method. queuing: A system for handling random arrivals with
quaternary gain: A gain control system in which ampli- minimum interference and delay. Rules for selection of
fication is changed only in discrete steps by factors of 4. items in the queue involve priorities and the demands of
Compared with binary gain, fewer gain jumps are the arrivals on the capabilities of the system.
required. quiet: See magnetically quiet.
quefrency domain: kwe fren se Fourier transform of Q-wave: Love wave q.v..
R
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R: 1. Roentgen q.v.. 2. Earthquake designation of a Ray- power versus wavenumber. Values generally decline
leigh wave q.v.. See also wave notation. steeply for increasing wavenumber representing deep
: Greek letter rho; often used as a symbol for density or and/or broad sources and then decline more gently for
resistivity. larger wavenumbers representing shallow localized
RA: Radiometric Assay log. sources. Source depth is given by the slope of the log
racon: ra con RAdar beaCON. power spectrum divided by 4 if wavenumber is
radar: ra dar A system in which short electromagnetic expressed in cycles/unit distance.
waves are transmitted and the energy scattered back by radial processing: Multichannel processing to remove
reflecting objects is detected. Acronym for radio seafloor multiples; the operator designed on a trace with
detection and ranging. Ships use radar to help see offset x 1 is used to deconvolve the first multiple on the
other ships, buoys, shorelines, etc. Beacons sometimes trace with offset 2x 1 , the second multiple on the trace
provide distinctive targets. Radar is used in aircraft with offset 3x 1 , etc. These all involve the same angle
navigation see Doppler-radar, in positioning, and in of incidence see Figure R-2 and hence the same
remote sensing. The radar spectrum is sometimes sub- reflectivity.
divided: P-band, 225390 MHz; L-band, 3901550 radial refraction: 1. A pattern of surveying somewhat
MHz; S-band, 1550 to 5200 MHz; X-band, 520011 comparable with fan shooting q.v.. 2. Use of a detec-
000 MHz; K-band, 1136 GHz; Q-band, 36 46 GHz; tor deep in a borehole to receive and record seismic
V-band, 46 56 GHz. Other systems of radar designa- waves from sources located near the ground surface at
tion are shown in Figure R-1. different distances and azimuths. Used in determining
radar altimeter: An instrument for measuring elevation salt-dome boundaries. Travel paths that are partly in
above the ground by reflected radar waves. Accuracy salt show a lead that depends on the amount of salt
about 15 cm. See also satellite altimetry. travel. See Figure A-15.
radar imagery: Mapping from an aircraft using short radial survey: 1. Seismic acquisition involving receiver
electromagnetic waves. A narrow radar beam that is lines laid out like the spokes of a wheel, perhaps with
transmitted perpendicular to the aircraft flight line; it sources on circles with different radii. Sometimes used
reflects from the ground to a receiver on the aircraft and to acquire data about a salt dome. 2. See azimuthal
the data display gives the appearance of an aerial photo. survey.
radial array: See azimuthal survey and Figure A-19. radian rad: A unit of angular measure such that the
radial component: The horizontal component of a subtended arc equals the radius. One radian180/
3-component survey in the direction of the source. 57.2958 degrees; one degree0.017 453 radian.
radial power spectrum: An average of power spectra radian frequency: , compared to angular frequency,
amplitude squared calculated in different azimuth 2 f 2 /T.
directions. Usually plotted as the log of the radial radian wavenumber: , angular wavenumber;
2 k2 /.
radiance: The total energy radiated by a unit area per
solid angle of measurement.
radiation field: The far-field term in electromagnetic
radiation, whose amplitude falls off with distance r as
1/r.
radiation pattern: A diagram showing how the energy
spreads out from a source.
radioactive: The spontaneous transformation of a nucleus
283
radioactivity age dating 284 random error
into another species by emitting an electron or helium ing Meinesz. It is related to the flexural rigidity of the
atom, usually accompanied by gamma radiation. crust often of the order of 200 km. See also isostasy.
radioactivity age dating: See Figure A-5 and also fission- radix: Number system base; the number whose power
track dating. indicates the significance of different digit locations
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radioactive-tracer log: A log involving the detection of used to express a number. For example, 2 in the binary
radioactive materials dissolved in water or oil to deter- system, 10 in decimal.
mine the movement of the fluids. A quantity of radio- Radon filtering: Filtering in the tau-p domain; see tau-p
active material a slug might be injected into the fluid mapping and Figure T-1.
and movement of the slug monitored to detect casing radon method: Exploration for uranium by mapping
leaks or points of fluid entry or exit; or points where radon.
fluid enters formations might be shown by residual radon sniffer: ra don An instrument that measures the
radioactivity at those levels. radon content of water, oil, or soil.
radioactivity log: A well log of natural or induced radia- Radon transform: 1. Slant stack q.v.. 2. The line inte-
tion. Usually refers to a gamma-ray log q.v., but gral of some physical property e.g., velocity, attenua-
sometimes also to a density log, neutron log, neutron- tion, density, usually amplitude of an object along a
lifetime log, or other type of logs. given line or energy transit path. Used in tomography.
radioactivity survey: Measurements of variations in natu- ragolith: Fragmented, loose, unconsolidated rock and soil
ral gamma radiation with the objective of mapping the on the surface.
distribution of radioactive elements usually K, U, and RAID: A computer storage-disk system with built-in
Th. Observations are also affected by radionuclides, redundancy.
nuclear fallout, radon in the air, and cosmic radiation. railroading of log: The situation when multiple measure-
See gamma-ray surveying. ments produce generally parallel curves as where they
radio-altimeter: Radar altimeter q.v.. have a constant difference between them because of
radio Earth: A model of the Earth whose radius is 4/3 invasion effects. Common for laterologs.
that of the Earth. The index of refraction for radio raised kernel function: The kernel function q.v. plus
waves in the atmosphere decreases with altitude in a 1/2. Used in electrical exploration. See Koefoed 1968.
nearly linear manner, resulting in bending of radio RAM: Random Access Memory q.v..
waves toward the earth. By assuming that the Earths ramform: A seismic ship design with a very large beam-
radius is 4/3 its actual radius, this refraction is roughly to-length ratio 0.5 and an especially stable rear
compensated and radio raypaths can be drawn as deck, used to tow multiple streamers.
straight lines. rammed: To implant a geophone or charge in soft marsh.
radio frequency RF: A frequency above 3 kHz. Radio ram pole: A pole for pushing detectors or charges into
frequencies are subdivided into bands; see Figures E-11 marsh.
and R-1. ramp: 1. To change in a continuous manner from one set
radiometer: ra d om t r A device that measures of parameters to another, as opposed to an abrupt step.
radiation, such as the infrared radiation used in thermal Usually implies in a linear manner; e.g., the change
imaging. between filter parameters for the early portion of a
radiometric survey: A survey of the amount of electro- seismic record and those for the later portion may be
magnetic radiation emitted, usually involving gamma- ramped or distributed uniformly over an intervening
ray spectrometry. See gamma-ray surveys and compare transition portion. The amplitude of a vibroseis sweep
radioactivity survey. may increase gradually from zero to an amplitude that
radio positioning: Determining position by electromag- is then held constant during most of the sweep. 2. A
netic radio wave measurement involving transmitters method of tapering a data window; see Figure W-12. 3.
at fixed locations. Measurements are sometimes made Tilting the instrument platform between horizontal and
of traveltimes, of the difference in arrival times of two vertical to measure the cross-coupling in testing ship-
radio signals, of the phase or phase difference in a board gravimeters. 4. The running integral of a unit
standing-wave pattern resulting from the interference of step; a triangular function. 5. Ramp time is the time
two CW broadcasts, occasionally of a Doppler fre- required for an electromagnetic transmitter to go from
quency shift. See Figure P-10. one constant-current state to another.
radius of curvature method: A method of computing ramp up: To increase the magnitude from zero to some
borehole deviation from a series of inclination readings other value.
taken at intervals in a well. Radius of curvature is random: A relationship between two or more quantities
related to curvature in Figure C-21. where knowledge of one quantity does not help deter-
radius of investigation: 1. The radius of a circle contain- mine the other; unpredictable. A random process is
ing the source of most measurements often 80%. 2. called stochastic.
The distance from a station beyond which contributions random access: Equal facility of access to any of the
are relatively unimportant. For example, with borehole locations in a computers memory.
gravity measurements at intervals of z, 80% of the random-access memory RAM: A computer memory
contributions come from within a radius of 2.45 z. structured so that the time required to access any data
radius of regionality: A specification of the size of the item stored in the memory is independent of location.
region over which isostatic compensation is distributed Information stored in dynamic RAM is lost when the
based on the concept that some isostatic balance is power is turned off, but that in static RAM is retained.
accommodated laterally by flexure of the surrounding random error: An error that can be predicted only on a
region rather than only vertically, as proposed by Ven- statistical basis.
random geometry 285 Rayleigh wave
random geometry: Acquisition geometry designed to reduce the size of the wellbore and drill ahead.
minimize the characteristic footprints caused by regular ratiometer: An instrument for determining the ratio of
source and receiver geometries. two quantities. Ratiometers or compensators were used
random line: Arbitrary line q.v.. extensively in electromagnetic exploration equipment
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random noise: Energy that does not correlate between for measuring the ratio of two phasor voltages or cur-
distinct receiving channels; energy which is random rents. Bridge circuits are often used in ratiometers.
with respect to the source parameters. By adding ratio modulation: Pulse-width modulation q.v..
together n elements, random noise can be attenuated rational number: A number that can be expressed as a
with respect to coherent signal by the factor n 1/2 . quotient of integers.
Random seismic noise is attenuated by the use of many ravinement surface: A surface that is marked by erosion
geophones per group or by stacking traces. In contrast such as the cutting of a ravine.
to coherent noise such as unwanted modes of wave raw gravity: Gravity measurements before applying lati-
travel like ground roll, air wave, etc. The distinction tude, terrain, and elevation corrections.
between random and coherent is often a matter of scale. ray: See raypath.
random track: Arbitrary line q.v.. ray angle: The angle that a seismic raypath makes with
random variable: A variable created by a random process the surface or an interface.
whose values follow a probability distribution such as a Rayleigh channel wave: Krey wave q.v..
normal distribution. Rayleigh distribution: ra A 2D probability distribu-
le
range: 1. Source-to-detector distance in refraction work; tion that has the same variance in both directions.
offset. 2. The distance to a positioning station, espe-
cially when measured directly. 3. The extreme distance 2x x 2 /
f x e , x0, 0,
at which useful signals can be detected. 4. The row of
townships between successive meridian lines six miles
apart; R2W indicates a township in the second column where is the shape parameter. It is the 2D equivalent
west of a reference meridian. See Figure T-11. 5. One of of a Gaussian distribution. Compare rms positional
two measurements necessary to determine a location by error. See Miller et al. 1958.
radar; see drift. 6. In geostatistics, the distance at which Rayleigh number: A dimensionless value that indicates
a variogram q.v. reaches a sill, beyond which there is when convection commences in a fluid. The Rayleigh
no correlation. See Figure V-1. number depends on density and viscosity of the fluid,
range line: The north-south boundary between townships. its coefficient of thermal expansion, the temperature
range pole: A long pole that is sighted on when making gradient, the thermal diffusivity, and the depth pres-
long shots with a transit. Range poles are temporary sure. See Fowler 1990, 251.
survey markers and often have some distinguishing Rayleigh resolution limit: The minimum distance
arrangement perhaps survey flagging on top of them between successive reflections such that their indi-
to aid in locating and identifying them. vidual entities can be recognized is /4 where
range-range determination: Rho-rho determination wavelength. Usually is taken as that of the domi-
q.v.. nant frequency component.
ranging: Making a distance measurement as by sighting Rayleigh scattering: The wavelength-dependent scatter-
on a survey rod or with an electronic instrument. See ing of radiation by particles that are much smaller than
also positioning. the wavelengths scattered.
rank: See matrix. Rayleigh wave: 1. A type of seismic surface wave propa-
Rankine temperature: rang kin A temperature scale gated along the free surface of a semi-infinite medium.
that has its zero at absolute zero and the same size Particle motion near the surface is elliptical and retro-
degrees as the Fahrenheit scale; Rankine9/5 kelvin. grade i.e., the particle moves opposite to the direction
Water freezes at 491.67 R and boils at 671.67 R. of propagation at the top of its elliptical path in the
rank order: The rules defining a sequence and arranging vertical plane containing the direction of propagation;
the items according to some value. see Figure R-3. Its amplitude decreases exponentially
RAP: Relative Amplitude Preservation; processing and with depth, and the elastic properties to a depth of about
display designed to preserve relative amplitudes of seis- one wavelength determine its velocity. For a Poisson
mic reflections. Western Geophysical trade name. ratio of 1/4, the Rayleigh-wave velocity is 0.9194
rarefaction: Separation of molecules temporarily as a times the S-wave velocity; see Figure R-4. A Rayleigh
result of passage of a P-wave q.v.. wave along a free surface can be thought of as a special
rarefaction wave: P-wave q.v.. case of a Stoneley wave wave travel along an inter-
raster: 1. A method of displaying data by a 2D rectangular face. Symbolized R-wave or LR-wave. See Sheriff and
array of cells. 2. A pattern of scanning an area like the Geldart 1995, 4950. 2. A similar type of wave where
sweep of the beam of a television tube. the medium is not homogeneous; ground roll, such as
rate: One of two radiopositioning range measurements encountered in seismic exploration, may involve modes
necessary to determine a position. The other measure- other than a pure Rayleigh wave and is sometimes
ment is sometimes called drift. The distinction between called a pseudo-Rayleigh wave, although it is usually
rate and drift is often arbitrary. simply called a Rayleigh wave. Because the elastic
rathole: 1. A hole in the rig floor 30 to 35 ft deep into constants change with depth in the real Earth, long
which the kelly and swivel are placed when hoisting wavelengths depend on the elastic properties at greater
operations are in progress. 2. A hole of smaller diameter depths than short wavelengths and hence different
that is drilled in the bottom of the main hole. 3. To wavelengths travel at different velocities. This disper-
Rayleigh wavelet 286 raypath curvature
sion can be used to calculate the thickness of surface where E is the energy in joules, D is the depth in feet,
layers. 3. A surface wave in a borehole is sometimes and D is the depth in meters. See Figure R-5.
called a Rayleigh wave; see tube wave. Named for John ray parameter: Raypath parameter q.v..
William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh 18421919, English raypath: A line everywhere perpendicular to wavefronts
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FIG. R-3. Rayleigh-wave motion. (a) Theoretical Rayleigh wave has retrograde elliptical motion at the surface. (b)
Hodograph of particle velocity involved in ground roll. (From Howell, 1959, 80.) (c) Experimental measurements from a
small explosion measured with buried geophones, showing the change from retrograde to prograde motion with depth.
(After Dobrin, 1951).
raypath parameter 287 real
raypath parameter: 1. For horizontal velocity layering, ray velocity: Velocity in the direction of energy transport.
the quantity pdt/dx(1/V)sin , where dt/dx is In anisotropic media ray velocity group velocity is
the reciprocal of apparent velocity, V is instantaneous usually not in the same direction as wavefront velocity
velocity, and is the angle a raypath makes with the or phase velocity. See Figure A-14a.
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vertical. Used to specify a raypath. See tau-p mapping. RBV: Return-Beam Vidicon q.v..
2. For a spherical velocity layering model as used RDAU, RDU: Remote Data Acquisition Unit q.v..
when considering long earthquake paths, the raypath RDI: Resistivity-Depth Image. See conductivity-depth
parameter is p(r/V)sin , where r is the Earths image.
radius. reach of a well: The horizontal distance that a deviated
ray theory: Use of ray tracing q.v. to track wave energy. or lateral well reaches or can reach.
Appropriate where the wavelength is small compared reactance: The opposition to alternating current flow
with spatial dimensions e.g., reflector radius of curva- offered by inductance or capacitance; the quadrature
ture. Implies that changes of , , or are small over component of impedance.
a wavelength. reaction mass: The heavy mass that is vibrated in a
ray tracing: Determining raypaths through a model where vibroseis source. Its phase is opposite to that of the base
the velocity changes. Usually does not allow for mode plate that creates the seismic wave in the Earth.
conversion. Required according to Newtons third law of motion,
that for every action there is an equal opposite reaction.
read: To input data into a computer.
readability: The least discernible change in a readout
device that can be readily estimated. Compare sensitiv-
ity and resolution.
read-after-write: Monitoring the recording of data by
reading a tape with a second magnetic head immedi-
ately after recording.
read-only memory ROM: Memory that permanently
holds information that is not destroyed when power
failure occurs. One cannot write into ROM.
reagent: re a gnt A substance, chemical, or solution
used to detect, measure, or otherwise examine other
substances.
FIG. R-4. The dependence of Rayleigh-wave velocity real: 1. The component of a complex number vector in
V R on Poissons ratio . The P-wave velocity is and the the direction of the real axis, as opposed to the imagi-
S-wave velocity .
FIG. R-5. Rayleigh-Willis relation for representative energy sources. Source depth9 m. (Courtesy Bendix United
Geophysical.)
realizable 288 reduced traveltime
nary component. 2. A component that is in-phase, as the single block of data. A number of records compose a
component of an electromagnetic field that is in-phase file. 4. To make a record.
with some reference signal such as the input voltage. recording truck: A vehicle that contains the amplifiers
Compare quadrature component; see quadrature. and recording gear for making a record in the field. The
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realizable: See physically realizable. cab where the record is made is often called the dog-
realizable filter: An electronic or digital filter that works house. A doghouse may be mounted on small boats,
in real time. pontoons, etc. for work where a truck cannot go.
realization: A possible outcome. record section: Display of seismic traces side-by-side.
real memory: The main memory of a computer. Compare Originally made by splicing together individual seismic
virtual memory. records but the entity of individual records has been
real time: 1. Processing data at the time of detecting and largely lost.
recording them. 2. Having the same time scale as actual record time: 1. Time after the instant of energy release. 2.
time. 3. Processing of data at the same rate as that at Time after a certain reference.
which they were recorded. recover: To relocate a preestablished survey location, as
receiver: 1. A sensor, the part of an acquisition system for use in tying a new survey to an older survey.
which senses the information signal, such as a geo- recovery: 1. The amount of core recovered compared to
phone or hydrophone q.v.. 2. As used in IP surveys, the amount cut. 2. The amount of fluid in the drillpipe
often a sensitive, filterable ac or dc voltmeter with SP on a drill-stem test that did not produce enough fluid to
buckout controls. Generally a frequency-domain fill the pipe and flow to the surface. 3. To return to the
receiver is ac coupled and a time-domain voltmeter is same relative amplitude level as existed at the time of
dc coupled. original recording, as in gain recovery.
receiver interval: Either the separation between 1 the rectify: 1. To allow current to pass in one direction only.
elements within a receiver array or 2 between the 2. To adjust a borehole log for true vertical depth. Logs
centers of adjacent arrays. in slant holes are usually recorded in distance measured
receiver-line interval: The perpendicular distance along the hole, which makes them difficult to correlate
between lines of receivers. with other logs. Also sometimes used for adjusting a
receiver station: The location of the center of a receiver log to what would be seen without formation dip. 3. To
array. replace an inverted image with an erect one. 4. To
reciprocal method: A refraction interpretation method eliminate time differences caused by weathering, eleva-
such as the generalized reciprocal method q.v.. tion, or normal-moveout differences.
reciprocal sonde: A sonde with the current and measuring rectilinear: Orthogonal; a system of straight lines at right
electrodes interchanged. See lateral. angles to each other, as with ordinary x-y coordinate
reciprocal time: The traveltime between common points paper.
on reversed refraction profiles. Surface-to-surface time recurrence interval: The average time interval between
earthquakes in a seismic region.
from a source point at A to a geophone at B must equal
recursion: ri kur zhn The process of a subprogram
that from a source point at B to a geophone at A.
calling itself. A defined stopping state must exist. See
reciprocity principle: 1. The potential at a point M with
also recursive filter q.v..
respect to a current source at A is the same as if the
recursive filter: A filter for which the output depends on
points of measurement and source were reversed.
previous outputs as well as the input and the filter
Applied in electrical exploration. 2. The seismic trace response. Part of the output is delayed and added to the
from a source at A to a geophone at B is the same as next input. Some types of filtering that require a long
from a source at B to a geophone at A if sources and operator can be accomplished with a short operator in
receivers are similarly coupled to the Earth. For con- this way. Also called feedback filter. See Sheriff and
verted waves, reciprocity requires interchanging the Geldart 1995, 293, 556 and Shanks 1967.
motion senses of the sources/receivers as well as their redox: A coupled pair of REDuction-OXygenation reac-
locations. See Dellinger and Nolte 1997. tions in which one compound becomes reduced and
reconnaissance: 1. A general examination of a region to takes up the electrons released as another compound is
determine its main features, usually preliminary to a oxidized.
more detailed survey. 2. A survey whose objective is a redox potential EH: A voltage scale indicating the abil-
to ascertain regional geological structures, b to deter- ity to cause reduction-oxidation reactions. The same as
mine whether economically prospective features exist, the oxidation potential if under standard conditions.
or c to locate prospective features. As opposed to reduced latitude: See geodetic latitude.
detail surveys that have the objective of mapping indi- reduced ratio: The ratio of electromagnetic field strength
vidual features. at two locations after being corrected for the normal
reconstitute: 1. To convert sampled data to a finer sample ratio or free air correction the electromagnetic-field
interval, e.g., to input 4 ms samples and output 2 ms gradient in the absence of perturbing conductive bod-
samples. Opposite of subsample or decimate. 2. To ies. Used with the Turam method.
convert sampled data to continuous data, as with a reduced traveltime: Displaying refraction traces where
digital-to-analog D/A converter. x/V has been subtracted from the arrival times x
record: 1. A recording of the energy picked up by a offset distances so that arrivals with the apparent
detector. 2. A recording of the seismic data from one velocity V are horizontal. If V is the refractor velocity,
source picked up by a spread of geophones. See Figure then the arrivals show the relief on the refractor.
R-6. 3. A group of data handled by a computer as a Reduced sections facilitate picking weak arrivals espe-
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reduced traveltime
289
FIG. R-6. 24-trace split-spread seismic record in wiggle-trace form. (Courtesy Chevron Oil Co.)
reduced traveltime
reduced vertical profile 290 reflection coefficient
cially secondary arrivals and other refraction arrivals dences of reefs in seismic data. 3. A local objective
even where V is not precisely correct. A velocity of 6 formation, such as a gold reef.
km/s is often assumed as the reduction velocity in reel: An apparatus for winding cable for storage, such as
crustal studies. is used to hold a streamer on a seismic ship.
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reduced vertical profile: A vertical seismic profile sec- reel truck: A vehicle used for transporting cables and
tion display where arrival times are shifted down or up geophones.
by the one-way first-arrival time. The result is to align reference plane: Datum q.v..
horizontally either downward- or upward-traveling reference seismometer: A geophone that records succes-
wavetrains, which facilitates their study/correlation. sive sources to verify that the waveforms are similar.
reduction: 1. Correcting observed values for known Used in checkshot surveys to eliminate the possibility
sources of error. 2. A process in which a substance that source variability may produce error.
accepts electrons. reflectance: Reflectivity q.v. or reflection coefficient.
reduction to the equator: Converting magnetic data reflected refraction: 1. Head-wave energy that has been
recorded at various magnetic field inclinations to what reflected or diffracted back from a discontinuity in a
they would be with zero inducing-field inclination. refractor, such as a fault. See Figures R-7a, b, c. 2. A
Compare reduction to the pole. refraction multiple, involving head-wave energy that
reduction to the pole RTP: Removing the dependence has been multiply reflected between reflectors. The
of magnetic data on the magnetic inclination, i.e., con- extra travel may occur at any time during the travel
verting data that have been recorded in the inclined along the refractor. The effect is to add cycles to the
Earths magnetic field to what they would have looked refraction arrival; see Figure R-7d. 3. Any of a number
like if the magnetic field had been vertical. Reduction of travel paths that involve reflection at an interface as
to the pole removes anomaly asymmetry caused by well as travel through a high-velocity refractor; see
inclination and locates anomalies above the causative Figure R-7e.
bodies, assuming that the remanent magnetism is small reflection: The energy or wave from a seismic source that
compared to the induced magnetism. It is difficult to do has been reflected returned from an acoustic-
at low magnetic inclinations, in which case reduction to impedance contrast reflector or series of contrasts
the equator is preferred. within the earth. The objective of most reflection-
reduction velocity: The head-wave velocity used to plot seismic work is to determine the location and attitude of
reduced traveltimes q.v.. reflectors from measurements of the traveltime of pri-
redundancy: ri dun dn se A repetition of information, mary reflections and to infer the geologic structure and
such as the same measurements made several times stratigraphy. The basic reflection equations are shown
usually in several ways. Redundancy permits the in Figure R-8. See also reflectivity.
attenuation of some distorting effects. Successive mea- reflection character analysis: Examination of waveshape
surements may differ from each other because compo- variations to identify places where changes in stratig-
nents other than the objective components differ; thus raphy or hydrocarbon content may occur and suggest
the objective data will be recorded the same each time the nature of the changes. See Sheriff 1980, Chapts.
and may be distinguished from the varying compo- 7 8.
nents. For example, twelve-fold common-midpoint reflection coefficient: 1. The ratio of the amplitude of the
recording involves measuring the reflected energy from displacement of a reflected wave to that of the incident
a given portion of the subsurface twelve times and wave; reflectivity. The relationship is obtained by solv-
hence has a redundancy or fold of 12. ing boundary condition equations which express the
reef: 1. A local carbonate buildup. 2. Sometimes restricted continuity of displacement and stress at the boundary.
to a buildup produced by organisms such as coral. The normal-incidence reflection coefficient at an
Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 351, 382385 discuss evi- interface that separates media of densities 1 and 2
FIG. R-7. Reflected refractions. (a) Refraction reflected at a fault and (b) by a salt dome. (c) The travel paths involved
are not always coplanar. (d) Multiply reflected refractions. (e) Reflected refractions do not always involve head waves.
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reflection coefficient
291
FIG. R-8. Reflection and refraction equations for constant velocity overburden.
reflection coefficient
reflection configuration 292 refraction survey
and velocities V 1 and V 2 for a plane wave incident reflection time: The traveltime from a source to a receiver
from medium 1 is via a path that involves a reflection, usually a single
reflection.
R 2 V 2 1 V 1 / 2 V 2 1 V 1 NI NI. reflection tomography: A method for finding the velocity
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FIG. R-9. Reflection configurations. (a) Reflection patterns on seismic sections. (b) Three-dimensional shapes of
seismic facies units. (After Sangree and Widmier, 1979.)
refraction test 294 reject region
ing and the delineation of masses by shooting into produced by density variations within or below base-
seismometers located in deep wells see Figures A-15 ment. See residualize.
and T-8. regional-residual separation: See residualize.
refraction test: Depth probe q.v.. register: A temporary storage for data being processed.
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refraction wave: A head wave q.v.. Typically, a register stores a single computer word.
refractive index: The ratio of the velocity of light in a registration: The process of aligning two or more sets of
vacuum to that in a given medium. data.
refractor: A layer of higher velocity than overlying layers regression: 1. Estimating one variable based on other
through which a head wave q.v. can travel. To be variables. 2. Statistically analyzing spatially organized
useful for mapping, refractors must be a sufficiently data; utilizing the spatial continuity of natural phenom-
thick greater than 1/10 of a wavelength for a head ena to predict interpolated values. Among the methods
wave to carry energy over an applicable distance, b are regression techniques, kriging, and cokriging q.v..
sufficiently extensive that the same refractor is map- 3. A seaward movement of the shoreline with time.
pable over an appreciable area, c sufficiently distinc- Opposite of transgression.
tive in velocity that the head wave can be distinguished regression analysis: Finding the statistical dependence of
from the waves carried in other layers, and d not be one quantity on other quantities. Often implies the same
hidden by a shallower refractor of higher velocity. as factor analysis q.v. or multivariate analysis.
regional: The general attitude or configuration disregard- regularize: 1. To interpolate to a regular grid. 2. Trading
ing features smaller than a given size. Regional dip is off minimizing the data residual with finding a smooth
the general dip attitude ignoring local structure. solution; see Phillips and Fehler 1991.
Regional gravity is the gravity field produced by large- regular noise: Coherent noise.
scale variations long wavelength components ignor- reject region: The range over which a filter exercises
ing anomalies of smaller size. Often it is the field considerable attenuation. May refer to those frequen-
FIG. R-10. Residualizing methods. (a) Graphical smoothing of map contours. The difference between smoothed and
actual contours localizes an anomaly. (b) Graphical smoothing of a profile. The profile should be drawn where the
contours are controlled by the data and different profiles must be consistent with the smoothed regional. (c) Reading
values on a regular grid and convolving with a template. Margins are lost in the process so the residual covers a smaller
area than the data. Template and weighting can be varied to yield second derivative and other types of maps. (d)
Template used to make the map shown in (c) above.
relational database 295 relay ramp
cies, dips, or apparent velocities that filters attenuate. used to express the permeability of the rock to each
relational database: A database where data are set out in fluid. Since various phases inhibit the flow of each
tabular form. other, the sum of the relative permeabilities of all
relative amplitude display: A display where amplitudes phases present is less than unity. 2. Relative magnetic
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on successive traces have been treated in the same way permeability q.v..
to preserve trace-to-trace amplitude differences for relative permittivity: Dielectric constant q.v. normal-
individual events. Comparisons of the amplitudes of ized by dividing by the permittivity of free space
events occurring at different times is, however not (8.8510 12 farad per meter so as to give a dimen-
generally meaningful. sionless quantity.
relative apparent resistivity: The ratio of apparent resis- relative positioning: Translocation q.v., improving a
tivity to the true resistivity of a portion of a model; for position fix by use of data from a stationary receiver.
example, apparent resistivity divided by the resistivity relative thickness: The ratio of thickness of a layer to the
of the upper layer in a simple two-layer case. Such electrode interval. A dimensionless ratio used in draw-
dimensionless ratios are used in resistivity type curves ing apparent-resistivity curves.
q.v.. relaxation: The decrease of elastic restoring force under
relative bearing: Azimuth of hole deviation with respect an applied stress in an elastic medium by creep pro-
to the reference on a dipmeter sonde such as the No. 1
cesses, resulting in permanent deformation.
electrode.
relaxation method: A successive approximation method
relative change of sea level: A change in sea level rela-
for solving a set of equations where the errors from a
tive to a datum on or below the sea floor, caused by
previous approximation are regarded as constraints to
subsidence, uplift, or eustasy. Deposition on the sea
be minimized.
floor does not change the datum. See Figure C-4.
relative ellipse area: In telluric surveying, electric-field relaxation rate: T1 is the longitudinal or spin-lattice
vectors are observed at a field station E u and E v and relaxation time, T2 the transverse or spin-spin relax-
also simultaneously at a base E x and E y . The vectors ation time, the rate of nuclei magnetization after being
are related to each other in linear combinations: disturbed by a radio-frequency pulse. See nuclear mag-
netic resonance log.
E u aE x bE y relaxation time: See time constant and nuclear magnetic
resonance log.
E v cE x dE y . relay: A switching device, usually controlled by a separate
The determinant of this transform, Jadbc, called electrical circuit. Mercury relays are sometimes used to
the relative ellipse area, is a measure of the electrical switch current in IP transmitters.
properties at the station relative to that at the base. relay ramp: The sloping portion between en-echelon
relative permeability: 1. The effective permeability faults or other structural features that accommodates
divided by the absolute permeability. When a rock the transfer of throw or other deformation from one to
contains more than one fluid, relative permeability is the other.
FIG. R-11. Typical ranges of resistivities of earth materials. (From Palacky, 1988.)
release time 296 replacement density
release time: See AGC time constant. without direct physical contact. Often implies detect-
reliability: The quality of a position fix, driven largely by ing, imaging, and interpretation by means of reflected
redundancy. or emitted electromagnetic radiation. Data covering all
relief: 1. The difference between the highest and lowest parts of the world are available from a number of
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elevations in an area. 2. The range of values over an remote sensing satellites operated by the US or other
anomaly or within an area. While elevation differences countries. Sensors record different wavelengths and
are usually meant, one also speaks of gravity relief have different spatial resolutions, and some spacecraft
for the magnitude of a gravity anomaly, etc. carry active systems such as radar altimeters. These
reluctance: Magnetic flux per unit magnetomotive force. data form the basis of NASAs Earth Observing System
remanence: See remanent magnetism. EOS. Data can be purchased publicly in either digital
remanent magnetism: Remanence; the magnetization or graphical form. Passive data yield information only
remaining in the absence of an induced magnetic field. about the surface of the Earth and are useful in the
a Normal remanent magnetization NRM is the study of topography and geomorphologic features, in
residual magnetization possessed by rocks and other identifying rock type, in identifying land use and envi-
materials in situ; unless otherwise qualified, this is the ronmental changes, vegetated and agricultural usage,
meaning implied. b Thermoremanent magnetiza- the extent of urbanization, roads and coastal features,
tion TRM remains after a sample has been cooled to etc.
a temperature below the Curie point in a magnetic field.
c Chemical remanent magnetization CRM is The most common data are AVHRR, Landsat, and
acquired when a magnetic substance is chemically SPOT data, each having different orbital characteristics
formed or crystallized in a magnetic field at tempera- and each has several versions of data see Figure L-1.
ture below the Curie point. d Depositional or detri- AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Ratiometer
tal remanent magnetization DRM is acquired in instruments on NOAAs polar orbiting weather satel-
sediments when magnetic mineral particles are prefer- lites cover a hugh swath width, nearly 2700 km, but
entially aligned by the ambient magnetic field during with the poorest spatial resolution. A full Landsat scene
deposition usually by settling through water. e Iso- is 185185 km represented by 3240 pixels east-west
thermal remanent magnetization IRM is remanent and 2340 scans north-south. Landsat bands for multi-
magnetization in the ordinary sense, i.e., the magneti- spectral scanners are band 4: 05 to 0.6 m green;
zation after application and subsequent removal of a band 5: 0.6 to 0.7 m red; band 6: 0.7 to 0.8 m
magnetic field; it is not involved in paleomagnetism, infrared; band 7: 0.8 to 1.1 m infrared. A number
except for the effect of lightning currents in exposed of Landsat instruments have been placed in orbit,
surface rocks. f Pressure or piezo remanent mag- including Landsat 7, launched in April, 1999. The more
netization PRM is remanence acquired as a result of recent Landsat instruments have better resolution,
the application of stress; the effects generally become record more components of the electromagnetic spec-
more pronounced as the strain proceeds from elastic to trum, and are better calibrated. SPOT Satellite Pour
plastic deformation. See also viscous magnetization. lObservation de la Terre, operated by CNES of France
remote data unit RDU: A portable unit that receives gives the greatest resolution of the three data types. In
signals from several often 4 geophone groups, digi- general, as the resolution increases, the size of the scene
tizes them, stores the data temporarily, and transmits decreases, and the price per square kilometer greatly
the data to the recording system upon command. Also increases. Displays sometimes use imaging to produce
RDAU, remote data acquisition unit. a picture of the radiation, as in a photograph, some-
remote electrode: Infinite electrode q.v.. times are nonimaging to produce a profile of the
remote job entry RJE: Input of data-processing jobs variation of radiation along the flight path. May also
from a terminal connected to the computer by a com- include measurements of the magnetic field or other
munication line. nonradiation measurements.
remote reference magnetotelluric method: Magneto- remote triggering: A method of controlling on and
telluric survey conducted with either an electric field or off voltage switching of IP receiving equipment to
magnetic field reference located a few kilometers from record the decay signal. A synchronous-detection
the point of measurement. The reference is used to method that uses the ground signal for a timing chan-
obtain a better estimate of the true impedance tensor Z nel.
by using the average crosspower between the reference repeatability: The deviation from the average of data
fields and the electric and magnetic fields at the sound- from repeated tests.
ing location. In contrast to conventional magnetotellu- repeat formation tester RFT: A method of recovering
rics, the impedance estimate will be unbiased by noise fluid pressures with a wireline. The padded tool seals
power, provided the noise in the reference signal is formations and pumps fluid until resistivity indexes
uncorrelated with noise in the electric and magnetic indicate formation fluids are present; it measures tem-
channels. See magnetotelluric method and Gamble et perature and pressure and recovers a fluid sample.
al. 1979. repeat section: 1. The portion of a section that is recorded
remote sensing: Measurements made from large dis- twice to check the reliability of measurements. 2. Rock
tances, as from high-flying aircraft or Earth satellites. formations that are repeated because of thrust or reverse
Especially refers to measurements of either natural faulting.
radiation passive methods or radiation from a source repetition rate: The number of full cycles per unit of
in the sensor active methods that has been reflected time.
back from the earth. Determination of characteristics replacement density: The difference in density between
replacement velocity 297 reservoir characterization
that assumed for rock and that of sea water, used for to obtain samples interpolated between the values of a
making a Bouguer correction of marine gravity. data set at 2 ms intervals to yield a data set at 1 ms
replacement velocity: The velocity used in static correc- intervals.
tions to compensate for low-velocity near-surface mate- resection: ri sek shn Determining a survey station
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saturation, etc. and changes in their distribution represents certain parts of the geology is calculated and
throughout the reservoir. subtracted from the observed field; e upward continu-
reservoir delineation: Defining the geometry of a reser- ation, which attenuates the effects of shallow sources.
voir, including faults and facies changes that limit pro- These methods can be thought of as 2D convolution
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map or cross-section. See resolvable limit and Sheriff clearly demonstrates the existence of moveable petro-
and Geldart 1995, 172177. 2. The smallest change in leum by recovery of a sample although sometimes
input that will produce a detectable change in output. good log or core data may suffice. A decision as to
See Figure D-8 for the vertical resolution of logging commerciality is up to the country or company con-
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tools. 3. The ability to localize an event seen through a cerned with possible development and generally
window, usually taken as the half width of the major implies that it will be marketable within five years.
lobe. Proved reserves are those that are commercial under
resolution of well logs: The minimum formation interval current economic conditions, while probable reserves
over which a logging tool gives the true response of the and possible reserves are based on future economic
formation, usually 1/2 to 1 meter. All tools involve conditions. The distinction between proved, probable,
some volumetric averaging. See Figure D-8. and possible reflects the range of uncertainty in estimat-
resolvable limit: 1. For discrete seismic reflectors, the ing recoverable volumes, the distinctions often being at
minimum separation so that one can ascertain that more cutoffs of 90%, 50%, and 10% probability. Possible
than one interface is involved. The value depends on reserves have less than a 50% risk that they can be
the criteria for ascertaining. The Rayleigh resolution produced economically. The reliability of estimates
limit is /4, where is the dominant wavelength. The should improve over time. See Figure R-12 and SPE-
Widess limit is /8. Compare detectable limit. 2. Hori- WGC 2000.
zontal resolution on unmigrated seismic sections is response parameter: See induction number.
often taken as the width of the first Fresnel zone q.v.. response time: The time between the initiation of an
resolve: To separate into parts. 1. To determine the com- operation and the receipt of results. Response time
ponent orthogonal vectors that add together to form a includes transmission of data to the computer, process-
given vector. Usually implies finding the components in ing, file access, and transmission of results to the output
the directions of an orthogonal coordinate system. 2. To terminal.
show two features as separate rather than blended restore: 1. A write-after-read computer operation. 2. Rec-
together. reating data from break-up storage copy.
resonance: A buildup of amplitude as a result of a stimu- restored section: Paleosection q.v..
lus that has nearly the natural frequency of the system. retarded potential: A potential function whose argument
resonant frequency: Natural frequency q.v.. is retarded time q.v., from which the seismic response
resource: Concentrations of naturally occurring materials can be determined.
in such form that economic extraction is currently or retarded time: The response to distant causes is delayed
potentially feasible U. S. Bureau of Mines definition. by traveltimes to the point under consideration. These
While Figure R-12 relates to petroleum, similar defini- time delays can be accommodated if the time at distant
tions apply to other materials. SPE/WPC identify causal points precedes that at the observing point, that
reserves as resources that are 1 discovered, 2 recov- is, if observations are made in retarded time. See
erable, 3 commercial, and 4 remaining. Contingent Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 41.
resources as the quantities which as of a certain date retrocorrelation: ret, r kor la shn Correlation of a
are estimated to be potentially recoverable from known function with a reversed version of itself, or the equiva-
accumulations but which are not currently considered lent, convolution of a function with itself; autoconvo-
to be commercially recoverable. They can be further lution. Retrocorrelation of a seismic trace yields a
subdivided according to a those that could be recov- retrocorrelogram that contains multiples that involve
ered using proved techniques but where there is cur- the surface time zero.
rently too much uncertainty to commit to development retrograde: re tr gra d, 1. Rotational motion opposite
or where commerciality has yet to be confirmed, b to the usual direction. Rayleigh waves are sometimes
those which require unproved techniques to be devel- called retrograde waves because motion near the sur-
oped, or c those that require further commercial con- face is in elliptical orbits such that the particle is
siderations. Prospective resources are the quantities traveling opposite to the direction of the wave while at
that are estimated to be potentially recoverable from the top of the ellipse; see Figure R-3. 2. A branch of a
undiscovered accumulations. They can be further time-distance curve resulting from very steep velocity
divided into prospects that are sufficiently well devel- gradients. See Figure D-19b. Also called reverse
oped to represent viable drilling targets, leads that branch q.v..
require more data to be classified as prospects, and retrogradation: Landward movement of the shoreline
plays that require more data to become prospects or when the rate of sediment supply is less than can be
leads. A reservoir is a single subsurface rock formation accommodated by the rate of rise of relative sea level.
capable of containing moveable petroleum. A pool is an As a consequence the distal toes of successively
individual and separate natural accumulation of move- younger parasequences move landward. See Figure
able petroleum that is confined by impermeable rock or D-6.
by water barriers and is characterized by a single pres- retrograde condensation: The formation of liquid drop-
sure system. A field is an area consisting of pools that lets in a gas as a well is produced and the pressure
are grouped on or related to the same individual geo- drops. Some hydrocarbons exist naturally above their
logic structural feature and/or stratigraphic condition. critical temperatures in the reservoir; as a result, when
Different pools in a field may be separated vertically by pressure is decreased, instead of expanding to form a
impermeable rock or laterally by structural or strati- gas, they condense to form a liquid. See Figure H-11.
graphic barriers. To be considered discovered, an accu- return-beam vidicon RBV: vid e kon, A TV camera
mulation must have been penetrated by a well that that is scanned by an electron beam; used on Landsat
reverberation 300 reverse time migration
successive multiples blend together into a more-or-less reverse migration: Determining where the reflection
steady oscillation; occasionally it includes also the situ- event from a given portion of reflector would be
ation where the water is so deep that the successive observed at normal incidence. See Figure R-13.
multiples are discrete. Reverberation sometimes occurs reverse polarity: Having polarity opposite to normal.
on land records also. Removing reverberation effects Seismic sections are sometimes plotted with both nor-
may be an objective of deconvolution. See Sheriff and mal and reverse polarity, amplitude values in the former
Geldart 1995, 165166, 169. 2. The effect of a long being multiplied by 1 to achieve the latter. An attempt
oscillatory source such as sometimes occurs with is usually made to have positive reflectivity show as a
explosive or air-gun or other sources. central peak that is shaded black on a normal polarity
reversal: 1. A local change in the direction of the dip plot but achieving absolute phase significance is often
along a line. Often refers specifically to a dip reversal ellusive. See polarity standard.
that denotes a structural lead. 2. A transient electromag- reverse Polish: 1. The scheme for entering data into
netic signal that crosses the reference dc level. Hewlett-Packard hand computers; the sequence for A
reverse branch: A consequence of a buried focus such as B would be: A, enter, B, add, as opposed to the
can be produced by sharp synclinal curvature or focus- sequence used with Texas Instruments computers,
ing by a velocity lens. For zero offset and constant where the sequence would be: A, add, B. 2. A
velocity, this occurs where the radius of curvature for a method used in parsing computer language statements
concave-upward reflector is less than the reflector into operator and operand stacks last in, first out buff-
depth. See Figure B-11 and buried focus. The reverse ers. Operators and operands are pushed onto their
branch involves a phase shift; see Sheriff and Geldart respective stacks in reverse order of execution so they
1995, 156. Compare backward branch. Also called can be popped off the stacks in correct order.
retrograde branch. reverse SP: Where the drilling mud is more saline than
reverse control: Profiles shot from opposite directions; the formation water, SP voltages are reversed with
two-way control. 1. The portions of a refractor for respect to the usual situation.
which there is overlap of relative delay-time data result- reverse symmetric: A matrix q.v. for which
ing from shooting in opposite directions i.e., the sub-
surface coverage from which arrivals are seen in oppo- Axx t Axx
T
t .
site directions. 2. Sometimes merely the portion of a reverse time migration: Backward propagation of the
refraction profile that has been shot from opposite wavefield in time. Often uses a finite-difference
directions. 3. Reflection surveying where dip can be approximation to the wave equation. Time samples
verified by data shot in opposite directions. from a seismic section are used as the surface boundary
reverse crossover: Opposite of proper crossover q.v.. condition for a wave-equation extrapolator and succes-
reversed: A spread or refraction profile recorded from sive time samples are used until the surface is reached,
FIG. R-13. Reverse migration. (a) Depth section showing migrated seismic events. (b) Time section showing reverse-
migrated dipmeter data. Structural models may be reverse-migrated to find where their seismic evidences should be
sought.
reverse VSP 301 Rieber mixing
when the image is completed. See McMechan 1983. minations, measurement of differences in distances, use
reverse VSP: A vertical seismic profile q.v. made with of azimuthal systems, dead reckoning, etc. Rho-rho-
the source in the borehole and geophones on the sur- rho measurements involve measuring distances from
face. three known points.
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reverse-wound geophone: See humbucking. rho-theta determination: Positioning q.v. in which the
reversible process: A physical or chemical change that distance and direction from a fixed point are used to
can be caused to proceed in either direction by small determine location.
alteration in one of the controlling equilibrium condi- RHS: Right-Hand Side.
tions such as concentration, temperature, or pressure. If rhumb line: A line on the surface of the earth making the
a small change in current shifts the equilibrium posi- same angle with all meridians, thus having constant
tion, a change back to the original value restores the azimuth constant direction with respect to geographic
equilibrium to its original position. See equilibrium north; loxodrome. A straight line on a Mercator pro-
conditions. jection.
review: To reinterpret data or to rework. ribbon: A very thin sheet used as a magnetic model; a
Reynolds number: ren ldz The ratio of inertial force very thin dike model.
to viscous force for viscous fluid flow. In the bubble ribbon map: A color-coded display of data plotted along
effect, R2ua / , where uradial water velocity, lines before the areas between the lines is filled in.
abubble radius, water density, and water Richter scale: rik tr A scale for measuring the magni-
viscosity. Named for Osborne Reynolds 18421912, tude q.v. of an earthquake q.v.. The logarithmic
British physicist/engineer. See Fowler 1990, 251. scale was devised in 1935 by Charles Francis Richter
RF: Radio Frequency q.v.. 19001985, American seismologist.
RFC: 1. Request For Comments. 2. ReFlection Coeffi- Ricker wavelet: rik r A zero-phase wavelet, the second
cient. derivative of the Gaussian function or the third deriva-
RFP: Request For Proposal; an invitation to submit a tive of the normal-probability density function. A
request for funding, usually for the funding of research. Ricker wavelet is often used as a zero-phase embedded
RFT: Repeat Formation Tester: The primary method of wavelet in modeling and synthetic seismogram manu-
recovering fluid pressures with a wireline. The padded facture. See Figure R-14. Named for Norman H. Ricker
tool seals formations and pumps fluid until resistivity 1896 1980, American geophysicist.
indexes indicate formation fluids are present; then mea- Rieber mixing: re br To time-shift adjacent traces and
sures temperature and pressure. sum, thus emphasizing energy that comes from a par-
Rg-wave: A short-period Rayleigh wave that travels as a ticular direction relative to energy from other direc-
guided wave in the crust. The subscript g refers to tions. By varying the amount of time shift, various
the granitic layer. directions can be searched to find a maximum for a
rho-rho determination: ro ro Positioning q.v. in particular arrival, thus ascertaining the raypath direc-
which the distance from two known points is used to tion associated with it. Interfering events from different
determine the location. Also called range-range. Other directions can be sorted in this way. The display as a
ways of determining location include rho-theta deter- function of arrival time for various directions is called a
FIG. R-14. Ricker wavelet. (a) Time-domain and (b) frequency-domain representations. Expressions for the Ricker
wavelet are:
2 2 2
f t12 2f 2Mt 2e f Mt
2 f2
f 3M 2 2
ef /f M F f
Also,
TD6/ f M and TRTD /3.
The mean frequency f mean(2/ 1/2 )f M and the median frequency f median1.08 f M .
Riedel shear 302 rms velocity
of shearing, often found en e chelon. Subsidiary sets of also called the standard deviation. For a normal dis-
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faults inclined to a through-going fault. tribution, 0.683 of the population has less than the rms
Riemann surface: re man A surface in the complex error. See statistical measures.
plane having more than one sheet such that multi- rms positional error: The circle whose radius is the
valued functions are single-valued on each Riemann square root of the mean of the sum of the squares of the
surface. Named for G. F. B. Riemann 1826 1866, distances of measured positions from a point. If the
German mathematician. uncertainties in x and y directions are equal and normal
rift: 1. A region where the crust has split apart, usually that is, a Rayleigh distribution, the probability of a
associated with a long graben such as the mid-Atlantic measurement lying within the rms positional-error
rift, the Rhine graben, or the rift valleys of East Africa. circle is 41 percent. Called one-sigma circle because
2. A region associated with a pull-apart zone. 3. A fault; this radius is equal to the standard deviation when taken
especially a long strike-slip fault such as the San about the mean of the observations. Compare CEP.
Andreas fault. rms velocity: Root-mean-square velocity. For a series of
riftdrift unconformity: An unconformity in the evolu- parallel layers of velocity V i , where the traveltime for
seismic energy perpendicularly through each is t i , the
tion of a continental rift when rift faulting ceases and
rms velocity for travel perpendicular to the layers is
sea-floor spreading begins. The stretched lithosphere of
the newly formed continental margin then undergoes V rms V 2i t i / t i 1/2 .
thermal subsidence. See Moores and Twist 1995, 102.
rig: Drill q.v.. , on the other
The average velocity for this path, V
right ascension: 1. The angular distance to a celestial hand, is
body, measured east of the vernal equinox line first V t / t .
line of Aries on the celestial sphere. 2. The angle V i i i
between the vernal equinox line and the intersection of The stacking velocity, the velocity determined from
the plane of the orbit of a satellite with the plane of the velocity analysis based on normal-moveout measure-
celestial equator. See Figure K-1. ments, is often used to approximate rms velocity; this is
right-hand rule: A rule that gives the direction of torques valid only in the limit as the offset approaches zero
and the force on a current in a magnetic field. See where interfaces and velocities are horizontal and iso-
Figure I-3. tropic.
right lateral fault: A strike-slip fault where the far side
moves to the right clockwise. See Figure F-3.
rigidity modulus: See elastic constants.
rim syncline: A syncline partially surrounding a salt
dome. It results from withdrawal of salt that has moved
into the dome.
ringing: 1. Reverberation q.v.. 2. The oscillatory effect
produced by a narrow-band filter.
ringy: Oscillatory.
rippable: Material that can be excavated with relative
ease using a ripping device mounted on a tractor. Can
be roughly related to P-wave velocity as shown in
Figure R-15.
RISC: Reduced Instruction Set Computer, a type of com-
puter chip which responds to simplified instructions.
RISC chips operate much faster than predecessor chips.
rise-time error: A delay in measuring the onset of an
event because of the time required to reach detectable
amplitude level.
risk: The probability of undesirable consequences arising
from possible events. Risk management is the system-
atic estimation of risk and implementation of risk con-
trols. Risk differs from uncertainty q.v., which is the
precision with which a measurement or value is known;
while risk can be managed, uncertainty requires more
or better data.
risk map: See uncertainty map.
RJE: Remote Job Entry q.v..
rms: Root Mean Square q.v..
rms error : The square root of the average of the
squares of the differences between a series of n mea- FIG. R-15. Rippability with a D-8 tractor. (Courtesy
surements m i , and their mean m . The rms error Caterpillar Tractor Co.)
Robinson projection 303 ROV
Robinson projection: This projection is often used to of a seismic line where the stack multiplicity gradually
display the entire Earth. It is a compromise that permits builds up or drops off to that nominal for the line.
some distortion in size at high latitudes to maintain roll one station: To record one station interval farther
shapes at middle and low latitudes. Named for A. H. down the line as the source moves ahead by one inter-
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ing seafloor conditions, or working on deepwater well rule of superposition: If A results in B and C results in D,
heads. then AC results in BD.
row binary: A method of recording binary information on rule of thumb: A pragmatic generalization, such as Side-
cards. Each punched hole is a binary 1 and lack of a lobe to main lobe1/bandwidth in octaves.
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punch indicates zero. One 36-bit word can be punched run: Term to indicate how often tool has been run in the
in any half row, so 24 words may be put on a card. hole.
row matrix: See matrix. Runge-Kutta method: runj kud A numerical
row vector: See matrix. method of solving differential equations. See Sheriff
royalty: A payment to one holding rights because of own- and Geldart 1995, 529530. Named for Carl David
ership of mineral rights or creation of a literary work or Tolmew Runge 1856 1927, German mathematician.
invention. See also override. running tool: Operating a tool e.g., well sonde, perforat-
RPG: Reflection-Point Gathers q.v.. ing gun in a borehole.
RVSP: Reverse Vertical Seismic Profile. running window: An aperture whose position moves a
RTD: Recommendation To Drill. sample value at a time. Also called a sliding window.
RTP: Reduction To the Pole q.v.. runup height: The elevation of the highest water level
RTU: Remote Telemetry Unit, a remote data unit q.v.
above the tide level because of a tsunami q.v..
used with the Opseis system that radios information
run time: 1. The time required to complete a single,
back to the recording truck.
continuous execution of an object program. Usually
RU: Remote unit.
rubber bands: Straight-line interpolation between points. measured in CPU time rather than elapsed time. 2.
At an interactive work station a rubber band is Occuring during a run, e.g., a run-time error.
attached to one point and the other point is moved Rutherford-Williams AVO classification: A classifica-
about by the cursor until the band is correctly located. tion of reservoir sands according to their normal-
Used to assist in picking seismic events, measuring incidence impedance contrast with surrounding rocks
map areas, etc.. and their AVO responses. See amplitude variation with
rubidium-vapor magnetometer: A type of optically angle/offset (AVA/AVO), Figure A-12, and Rutherford
pumped magnetometer q.v.. and Williams, 1989.
rubidium vapor clock: An atomic clock based on a 87Rb Rwa-analysis log: Formation analysis log q.v..
frequency standard q.v.. R-wave: Rayleigh wave q.v..
rugosity: Roughness, especially the irregularity of a bore- Rx: Receiver for electromagnetic waves.
hole wall. The readings of logging tools which have to RZ: Return to Zero; a method of digital recording on
be held in contact with the hole wall such as density magnetic tape in which a one is indicated by magneti-
and microresistivity logs are affected by rugosity. zation in one direction whereas a zero is indicated by
rule of scaling: If A results in B, then kA results in kB, k magnetization in the opposite direction. Compare NRZ
being any constant. and NRZI.
S
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s: Seconds, the SI unit of time. involve recording offset and azimuthal VSP surveys in
S: 1. Siemans q.v., the SI unit of conductance. An a borehole into the salt or near the salt flank from
ampere/volt1/ohm. 2. Admittance; see S-rule. various surface locations. May also involve borehole
S1 , S2 : The faster, slower S-wave travel in a given direc- gravimeter, long-spaced electrical log measurements, or
tion in shear-wave splitting q.v.. other types of measurements.
sabkha: sab k A supratidal to semiarid environment, salt residual: A gravity map from which the calculated
often characterized by evaporite-salt, tidal-flood, and effects of a salt-dome model have been subtracted, thus
eolian deposits. showing the gravity effects for which the model does
sack: 94 pounds of cement. not account.
saddle point: Where the curvatures of a surface in the two salt tectonics: Deformation involving salt or other evapor-
principal directions have opposite polarity. ites; halotectonics. Halokinesis involves salt flow pow-
sag: 1. A narrow depression along a fault, often marking ered entirely by gravity buoyancy. Salt piercement
strike-slip faults. 2. An apparent time low caused by a may be active upbuilding, possibly actively piercing
shallower low-velocity body; a push-down. through overlying sediments, or it may be passive
SAGE: Summer of Applied Geophysical Experience, a downbuilding where the salt remains more-or-less at
summer program to give university geophysics students the same depth while sediments around it subside.
field experience and opportunity to acquire research salt weld: Zone joining strata that originally were sepa-
data. See Jiracek et al. 2000. rated by salt. A feature resulting from the nearly com-
sagittal plane: saj i tl 1. The median longitudinal plane plete removal of intervening salt.
of a body. 2. A plane containing the raypath of specified salt window: A place where salt is either absent or suffi-
rays. The plane through source and receiver that also ciently smooth so that deep subsalt reflections can be
contains the reflection point. mapped relatively easily.
sail line: The line traversed by a ship acquiring geophys- salvo: A sequence of source points usually vibroseis all
ical data; the line of acquisition of marine data, espe- recorded into the same active spread of receivers.
cially of a ship towing several seismic streamers. sample-and-hold circuit: A circuit that connects with an
Saile: Seismic Acoustic Impedance Log Estimation; see input for a very short time to assume the amplitude of
synthetic acoustic-impedance log. Conoco trade name. the input at that time, and which then holds that value
Sometimes spelled Sail. until it can be digitized.
salinity: Total salts in solution sodium, potassium, chlo- sample interval: The interval between readings, such as
ride, sulfate, etc.. Normal seawater has around 35 000 the time between successive samples of a digital seis-
ppm parts per million salinity. Less than 2000 ppm mic trace or the distance between gridded gravity val-
often is regarded as fresh. ues. Also called sample period.
salinization: Environmental damage by salt, a conse- sample log: A log depicting the sequence of lithologies
quence of minimum-water irrigation. penetrated in drilling a well, usually compiled by a
salt: Halite NaCl and other saline minerals deposited as geologist from low-power 12 to 20 binocular micro-
a result of evaporation. Salt has low density 2.12.6 scopic examination of drill cuttings and cores recovered
g/cm3, average 2.22, susceptibility 0.01 henries/ at the well site. Also called strip log.
meter, and high plasticity that results in the creation of sample rate: The inverse of the sample interval q.v..
salt pillows, domes, walls, and allochthonous features sampling function: A comb q.v.; an infinite sequence of
and deformation of sediments. impulses occurring at equal time intervals. Multiplying
salt dome: Salt that has moved by viscous flow. It may or a waveform by the sampling function produces the set
may not penetrate overlying sediments. Sometimes of sample values that represent the digitized waveform.
assumes a mushroom shape. The salt movement is See Figure C-8.
caused by buoyancy because the salt is lighter than sampling skew: A small systematic channel-to-channel
surrounding sediments. time delay in seismic digital recording, produced
salt flood: A stage in seismic depth migration q.v. because the multiplexer samples adjacent channels suc-
wherein the model velocity of salt is used below the top cessively to present them to a single channel A/D
of salt to define the base of the salt. See flood. digitizer.
salt glacier: Extrusion of salt from an exposed diapir that sampling theorem: Band-limited functions can be recon-
spreads beneath the air or water. structed from equispaced data if there are two or more
salt lead: An earlier-than-normal arrival time for a head samples per cycle for the highest frequency present.
wave, attributed to a salt dome intervening between Also called cardinal theorem and Nyquist theorem.
source and detector. See alias and Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 177, 282,
salt masking: Poor illumination because of raypath bend- 547-8.
ing in an overlying irregular high-velocity salt layer. sand count: 1. The total effective thickness of a perme-
salt proximity survey: A survey to determine the location able section excluding shale streaks or other imperme-
of the salt-sediment interface at a salt-dome flank. May able zones. Often determined from well logs. 2. The
305
sand dune 306 scan
number of separate permeable sands separated by age of the pore space filled with a particular fluid e.g.,
impermeable zones. water saturation, oil saturation, gas saturation. 7. The
sand dune: A mound of windblown sand. The windward nature of the fluid predominately filling pore spaces,
face of sand dunes is apt to be 1520, the lee slopes at oil, gas, or water brine.
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the angle of repose, 30. Acoustic velocity increases saturation exponent: See Archies formula.
downward within the dune because of compaction. saturation prospecting: The use of several exploration
sand line: 1. A line that can be drawn through the maxi- methods over an area.
mum deflections for thick, clean sands on an SP log in sausage powder: A long plastic tube containing low-
a section where the formation water is of constant velocity explosive, used to provide a directional charge.
salinity. Compare shale baseline. See Figure S-17. 2. A S-AVO: Variation of amplitude with offset q.v. for
wire line on a drilling rig often used to run or recover S-waves.
tools inside the drillpipe. sawtooth pattern: A method of moving thumper or vibra-
saphe: saf The cepstrum-domain equivalent of phase tor trucks in a zig-zagging pattern.
in the frequency domain. A permutation of the letters in sawtooth SP: A jagged SP curve. When a very permeable
phase. salt-water sand containing a shaly streak is invaded by
saprolite: sap r lt A soft decomposed rock, the result fresh-mud filtrate, the filtrate tends to accumulate just
of chemical weathering, especially common in humid below the shaly streak, setting up an electrochemical
tropical and subtropical regions. Often clay-rich and cell which causes the SP to develop a sawtooth appear-
electrically conductive. ance.
SAR: Synthetic Aperture Radar. See synthetic aperture. S-band: Radar frequencies between 1550 and 5200 MHz;
AeroService trade name. see Figure R-1.
SASW: Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves q.v.. scale: 1. To change the dimensions of a graphical repre-
satellite altimetry: Measuring surface relief by radar from sentation. 2. A bar-graph showing the dimensional
a satellite, where the elevation of the satellite is nearly units, the preferred way of showing scale where figures
constant. Measurements of the sea surface reveal undu- are apt to be enlarged or reduced. 3. To adjust param-
lations of the geoid, which permit mapping marine eters to achieve proportionality when changing cell
gravity anomalies. Capable of measuring the sea sur- size.
face to an accuracy of less than 10 cm depending on the scalar: 1. A number which is not associated with a direc-
sea-surface roughness. tion, as opposed to a vector q.v.. Compare scaler. 2. A
satellite gravity: Determining the gravity field at the sea single data element as opposed to a set; compare vector.
surface from satellite altimetry q.v. with an accuracy scalar magnetotelluric method: A method in which one
of 37 mGal and 2030 km resolution. See Green et al. electric component and one orthogonal magnetic com-
1998. ponent are used to define the apparent resistivity sound-
Satellite Laser Ranging SLR: See laser ranging. ing curve. Applicable only to isotropic horizontal lay-
satellite magnetics: Measuring the Earths magnetic field ering, such as in some basin environments. In areas of
with satellites at about 400 km to a resolution of 12 more complex geology, the tensor magnetotelluric
nT. method q.v. is used.
satellite navigation satnav: 1. Location determination scalar wave equation: See wave equation.
by the Global Positioning System q.v.. Permits con- scale modeling: Physical modeling q.v..
tinuous determination of location based on observations scaler: A constant expressing a proportionality; a scale
of a navigation satellite. 2. The Transit system which factor. Compare scalar.
has been phased out by the Global Positioning System scaling: 1. Changing the amplitude by multiplying by a
consisted of satellites in polar orbits that transmitted constant. See linear system. 2. Determining appropriate
ultra-stable carrier frequencies of 150 and 400 MHz. It parameter values when upscaling sparse core and rock-
provided timing and range information that gave a fix physics measurements that may not be representative,
once for each satellite transit. See Figure K-1. or when downscaling values where resolution is inad-
satellite pass: The transit of a navigation satellite which equate.
can be used for a determination of position. scaling law: A rule associated with marine air-gun array
satnav: SATellite NAVigation q.v.. design, which states that, for two sources with different
saturable system: A system which can be used by only equivalent cavities, the far-field wavelets are related by
one or a few users at a time. the cube root of the ratio of the source energies. Let S 1
saturation: 1. The limiting value of a nonlinear quantity. and S 2 be the two wavelets and E 1 and E 2 the respec-
2. The maximum magnetization as the magnetic field is tive energies:
increased. 3. Apparent nonlinear resistivity or IP behav- S 1 t aS 2 t/a ,
ior due to large contrasts in electrical properties and
extreme values of resistivity contrast. These conditions where a[E 1 /E 2 ] 1/3 .
make it difficult to evaluate the true resistivity and IP scan: 1. One complete sequence of events, such as sam-
effects of a body but easier to find its depth. 4. In pling all record channels or beam-steering for all appar-
induced-polarization measurements, the IP response ent dips. 2. A display of data calculated with different
sometimes varies nonlinearly with charging current, parameter values, used to select the optimum parameter
probably due to exceeding the current-density limit of value. A velocity scan or velocity panel is shown in
the polarizable body. 5. The extent to which hue q.v. Figure V-7. 3. To examine in a systematic way, as to
is dominant in a color. The deviation of a color from the look through a data set to see the effects of a parameter
grey axis on a color chart; see Figure C-7a. 6. Percent- or parameter change. 4. To traverse systematically as is
scanning electron microscope 307 Schuler period
done by an electron beam in a television tube. density and index-of-refraction differences in a turbu-
scanning electron microscope: An instrument which lent fluid permit photographic detection of density
builds up an image by displaying the reflected and variations. 2. A seismic experimental method with
emitted electron intensity as a highly focused electron physical models using spark sources and a high-speed
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FIG. S-1. Modified Schmidt diagram used for plotting dipmeter data.
Schumann resonance 308 secondary field
radius and g is the acceleration of gravity. The Schuler the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
period is a natural precession rate for gyrocompasses. NOAA.
Schumann resonance: shoo man An electromagnetic seal: A seal or cap rock through which fluid flow is so
waveguide phenomenon between the Earth and the small that even during long geologic time only a small
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ionosphere; the space between acts as a cavity resona- amount of fluids will have passed through. Cap rocks
tor. Frequencies of the lowest-order modes are about 7, have permeabilities of the order of 10 6 to 10 8
14, 20, and 26 Hz; the 7 Hz peak is often seen in darcies and very high capillary entry pressures. The
electromagnetic measurements. most common seal rocks are shale or salt.
scintillometer: sin, tl om t r A device for detecting sea level: Mean sea level is the average height of the sea
and measuring scintillations caused by radiation. A surface averaged for all stages of the tides over a
gamma-ray spectrometer measures the abundance of 19-year period.
gamma rays with different energy values. seamount: Steep-sided peak rising from the ocean floor,
scissors fault: A fault where the throw and possibly the with its top below sea level; guyot. Usually of volcanic
throw direction vary considerably with location. See origin.
Figure F-3. seam wave: A seismic channel wave in a low-velocity
scout: 1. To go to the field and look over an area, perhaps member, such as a coal seam. See channel wave.
in the course of planning a geophysical survey. 2. To search: To examine data systematically for predefined
watch competitive activity. items.
scratch-pad memory: Any memory space used for the Seasat: An unmanned, polar orbiting, oceanographic sat-
temporary storage of data. Typically, scratch-pad ellite.
memories are high-speed integrated circuits which are sea-slug model: A progradational or clinoform model
addressed as internal registers. used in sequence stratigraphy. See Figure S-32.
screen: A device to retain solids entering a borehole dur- sea state: A scale of the height of sea waves. The Douglas
ing production of the formation fluids. sea state scale is shown in Figure B-2.
screw wave: A type of guided wave in a borehole. secant projection: See map projection.
script file: The program for a survey, especially a 3-D sech criterion: sek An optimization criterion involving
survey. minimizing
scroll: To change the portion of a large data file that is
observable within a window.
scroll bar: The icon that causes the visible portion of data
ln cosh d i d i / 2 ,
FIG. S-2. Scintilometer. An incident gamma ray on a scintillation crystal of NaI causes the crystal to emit a photon,
which then causes the photo electrode to emit electrons. The number of electrons is multiplied as each strikes a series
of electrodes, finally being collected by an anode where the consequent current is proportional to the energy of the
incident gamma ray. (From Sheriff, 1989, 154.)
secondary lobe 309 Seislog
tion of the earth is used, the secondary field is that section gauge: Caliper log q.v..
resulting from the difference between the actual current secular equilibrium: The condition of a radioactive iso-
system in the earth and the system which would exist if tope being created at the same rate as that at which it is
the earth were homogeneous. disintegrating.
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secondary lobe: A pass region other than the principal. secular variation: A change that does not repeat within a
Applies especially to the directivity graph q.v. of long period of time. From the Latin for long period of
arrays, the mixing of traces in velocity filtering, etc. time. The secular variation of the Earths magnetic
secondary patterns: The use of the sum and difference field often means periods greater than 30 to 300 years.
frequencies redgreen and redgreen to yield Geomagnetic poles precess about the geographic poles
coarse networks which can be used to remove lane with a period of about 7000 years.
ambiguities in medium-frequency radio-positioning sedimentary rock: A rock formed from sediment that has
systems. accumulated in layers, or a chemical rock formed by
secondary porosity: Porosity q.v. resulting from the precipitation from solution, or an organic rock consist-
alteration of formations such as by fractures, vugs, ing of the remains of the secretions of plants or animals.
solution channels, dolomitization, etc. Clastic rocks were transported from their source area as
secondary-porosity index SPI: A measure of the sec- solid particles whereas chemical rocks were transported
ondary porosity, usually attributed to fractures or vugs, as ions in solution and then precipitated. Clastics are
calculated from sonic-log values in conjunction with often rich in quartz and/or feldspar and the most promi-
either density-log or neutron-log values. If density is the nent chemical rocks are carbonates, salts, and sulphates.
porosity calculated from a density or neutron log and See Figure L-7.
sonic the porosity calculated from a sonic log, SPI is sediment bypassing: The situation which results in areas
sometimes defined as ( density sonic), usually as (1 not receiving significant amounts of sediments because
sonic/ density). rivers are not bringing significant volumes to the area.
secondary recovery: Recovering hydrocarbons by inject-
Especially occurs as a result of a fall of sea level.
ing water usually or gas into the reservoir to sustain
sediment flood: A stage in seismic depth migration q.v..
reservoir energy.
See flood.
secondary reflection: Multiple q.v..
seed: 1. To select the voxel or pixel to be followed by an
secondary voltage: 1. In IP surveying, the polarization
automatic picker. Usually the picked point is a maxi-
voltage observed at a time-domain receiver immedi-
ately after the primary current is turned off. Sometimes mum, minimum, or zero-crossing, preferably deter-
called initial transient or initial decay voltage. 2. In mined by fitting a curve to several often 3 successive
electromagnetics, the voltage induced in the receiver by data points spanning the maximum or minimum. 2. To
a secondary induced magnetic field. initialize an iterative calculation.
secondary wave: S-wave q.v.. seek latency: See latency.
second critical angle: For an incident P-wave, the angle seep: Natural leakage of hydrocarbons.
SEG: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
sin1 V P1 /V S2 , SEG A, SEG B, SEG C, SEG D, SEGDEF, SEG Y: SEG
standard magnetic tape formats. See SEG (Standards).
where V P1 is the P-wave velocity in the incident
SEG X is no longer supported as a standard. SEGDEF
medium and V S2 is the S-wave velocity in the second
and SEG Y are exchange formats. See also SEG PI.
medium.
second-derivative map: A map of the second vertical SEG1: An SEG standard format for PC DOS recording.
derivative of a potential field, such as gravity. Such SEGEAGE 3-D models: Structure or other models
maps tend to emphasize local anomalies and isolate developed in cooperation with National Laboratories.
them from a regional background. Often made using See Figure S-3.
Laplaces equation relating the second vertical deriva- segmented sweep: A vibroseis sweep where the frequency
tive to second horizontal derivatives, which can be band is divided into segments with different character-
approximated from differences in the values near the istics.
point. See also grid residual. SEG Pl: SEG standard magnetic tape format for exchange
second-order correction: 1. A correction which is signifi- of positional information. See Morgan et al. 1983 and
cantly smaller than first-order corrections. 2. Frequently UKOOA.
refers to refinements to correct for slightly incorrect SEG standards: SEG standards for digital tape formats,
normal moveout or static corrections. SI metric system of units, data interchange, seismic
second-order triangulation: See triangulation. subroutines, digital seismic recorder specifications,
second vertical derivative: See second-derivative map. exchange formats for positional data, marine seismic
section: 1. What might be seen by slicing through a solid hydrophones and streamer cables, polarity standards
object, such as a slice through the earth. 2. A profile q.v., and specifying marine seismic energy sources are
showing the geologic formations that would be exposed discussed in separate SEG Technical Standards Com-
in a vertical cut, or some physical property of what mittee publications, available from the SEG.
would be so exposed. 3. A plot of seismic events, as a seiche: sash Free oscillation of an enclosed body of
record section. 4. Geologic formation, as the section water, especially as a consequence of an earthquake.
in this area is Mesozoic. 5. A square mile640 acres. seis: sis Seismometer or geophone q.v..
Section numbering is shown in Figure T-11. Seiscrop: GSI trade name for a time slice q.v..
sectional correlogram: The autocorrelation of successive Seislog: Teknika trade name for a synthetic acoustic-
traces, displayed like a record section. impedance log q.v..
Seislog 310 Seislog
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FIG. S-3. SEG-EAEG seismic models. Two 3D models were numerically modeled as the the Advanced Computational
Technology Initiative (ACTI) project by U.S. Department of Energy laboratories and a somewhat simplified version of
their salt model was physically modeled by the Allied Geophysical Laboratory (AGL) at the University of Houston. (a) The
3D salt dome model. (b) One cross-section showing the plunging salt stock and a secondary reactivation crest; there are
sub-salt hydrocarbon accumulations. (c) One unmigrated and migrated sections across the salt model. (d) The 3D
overthrust model structure. (e) Two vertical sections through the overtrust model. (From Aminzadeh et al., 1994 and
1995)
Seisloop 311 seismic event
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Seisloop: GSI trade name for a three-dimensional survey seismic cap: See cap.
arrangement. seismic constant: In building codes dealing with earth-
seismic: siz mik 1. Having to do with elastic waves. quake hazards, an arbitrary amount of horizontal accel-
Energy may be transmitted through the body of an eration that a building must be able to withstand.
elastic solid by body waves of two kinds: P-waves seismic datum: See datum.
compressional waves or S-waves shear waves see seismic discontinuity: 1. Any discontinuity in elastic
P-waves, S-waves, or along boundaries between media properties and/or density where seismic velocity and/or
of different elastic properties by head waves and sur- acoustic impedance changes abruptly. 2. Specifically,
face waves q.v.. Equated with elastic, often with the Moho discontinuity between the Earths crust and
acoustic and sonic. 2. Having to do with natural mantle, the Gutenberg discontinuity between the
earthquakes. Derived from the Greek seismos mean- mantle and the core, and the gradational change
ing shock. While seismic is an adjective, it is fre- between the outer and inner core.
quently used as a noun. seismic-electric effect: A voltage between two electrodes
seismic anisotropy: See anisotropy (seismic). in the ground caused by passage of a seismic wave.
seismic array: A grouping of geophones or seismographs seismic event: Arrival of a new seismic wave, usually
in a spatial pattern to enable seismic signals to be ascertained by a phase change and an increase in ampli-
enhanced with respect to noise or because of their tude on a seismic record. It may be a reflection, refrac-
arrival direction. tion, diffraction, surface wave, random signal, etc.
seismic exploration 312 seismic survey
seismic exploration: The use of seismic techniques to data, including time slice, horizon slice, attribute dis-
map subsurface geologic structure and stratigraphic plays, etc.
features with the aim of locating deposits of oil, gas, or seismic method: See seismic survey.
minerals. Synonyms: prospecting seismology, explo- seismic moment: A measure of earthquake magnitude
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ration seismology, applied seismology. Includes use q.v. in ergs of energy released. Differs from Richter
of both reflection and refraction surveys, although often magnitude. See moment of earthquake.
only the former is meant. seismic profile: See profile.
seismic facies: The character of a group of reflections seismic pulse: The signal generated by an impulsive seis-
involving amplitudes, abundance, continuity, and con- mic energy source explosive, thumper, air gun,
figuration of reflections. See Figure R-8 and Sheriff sparker, etc.. Sometimes wavelet is used as a syn-
1980: chap.5. onym. A correlated vibroseis sweep signal is sometimes
seismic facies analysis: Examining seismic character to included.
identify seismic facies q.v. and predict the stratigra- seismic record: A plot of the seismic traces from a single
phy and depositional environment. source point; a seismogram.
seismic gap: 1. A portion of an active fault on which there seismic refraction method: See refraction survey.
has been no recent slippage and which may be ready for seismic reflection tomography: See reflection tomogra-
an earthquake. 2. A region where earthquake waves are phy.
not observed with the amplitudes and arrival times seismic section: A plot or display of seismic data along a
expected by interpolating observations. May indicate a line. The vertical scale is usually arrival time but some-
low-velocity layer. times depth. The normal convention is that the left of
Seismic Immunity Group: A group of companies who the section is the westernmost end of the line in a
agreed to cross-License each others patents. Aban- generalized sense ignoring minor deviations from a
doned in 1950s. straight line.
seismic impedance: Acoustic impedance q.v.. seismic sequence analysis: The procedure of picking
seismicity: 1. The likelihood of an area being subject to unconformities and correlative conformities on seismic
natural earthquakes. 2. The relative frequency, intensity, sections to separate the sediment packages involved
magnitude, and kind of natural earthquakes. with different time-depositional units. See Sheriff
seismic lithologic modeling SLIM: An iterative tech- 1980, chap. 3 and 4.
nique whereby a seismic velocity and density model is seismic stratigraphy: Methods to determine the nature
changed until synthetic seismic data calculated from it and geologic history of sedimentary rocks and their
matches observed data within some specified tolerance. depositional environment from seismic evidence. See
seismic log: See synthetic acoustic impedance log. Sheriff 1980.
seismic map: 1. A contour map constructed from seismic seismic survey: A program for mapping geologic struc-
data. Values may be in either time or depth, unmigrated ture by observation of seismic waves, especially by
or migrated, with respect to a datum or with respect to creating seismic waves with artificial sources and
another reflector in which case it is usually called an observing the arrival time of the waves reflected from
isopach map. 2. Any sort of map based on seismic acoustic-impedance contrasts or refracted through high-
FIG. S-4. Seismoscope. This Chinese seismoscope dates from about 100 A.D. An earthquake would upset an inverted
pendulum (fastened to the base of the vase) and knock a ball from the dragons mouth into the toads mouth to indicate
the direction from which the temblor came.
seismic trace 313 sequence
velocity members. See passive seismic survey, reflec- coherence. If f i j is the j th sample of the i th trace, then
tion survey, refraction survey. the semblance coefficient S c is
seismic trace: A regular set of measurements from one
kN/2 M 2
seismic channel or stacked channels; a digital one-
f
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highstand system tracts see individual entries and Fig- reflections are unobservable because raypaths do not
ure S-32. The subunits of a sequence are parase- reach the geophones on the surface. The overlying beds
quences. Sequences form in response to the interaction may have such dips and velocity contrasts that raypaths
between the rates of eustatic changes, subsidence, and to or from reflectors within the shadow zone become
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shallow-water survey
315
FIG. S-5. Sequence stratigraphy (Haq) chart that relates magnetochronostratigraphy (polarity reversals), the standard geologic age nomenclature,
biochronostratigraphy (fossils), relative change in coastal onlap (seismic stratigraphy), and eustasy. Only part of the chart is shown. (Courtesy AAPG.)
shallow-water survey
shape anisotropy 316 shootback method
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shape anisotropy: Anisotropy resulting from preferred FIG. S-7. Shingling resulting from shift of energy in a
orientation of nonspherical particles which are them- wavetrain. Compare Figure D-13.
selves isotropic.
shaped charges: Explosives so designed that the explo-
sive effect is concentrated in one direction. Their effect downlaping in the seaward direction. A transgressive
on seismic waves is usually minimal. tract usually overlies the shelf-margin tract. See Figure
shapefile: A file format used for geographic imaging- S-32.
system data. Shepherds cane: An earth-resistivity meter used to mea-
shaping deconvolution: Wiener deconvolution q.v. sure the resistance of soil to the passage of electrical
wherein the desired wavelet shape is specified. A zero- current.
phase waveshape is often specified see phase charac- shield: A large mass of continental crust that has remained
teristics. stable for long periods of time.
Sharpes equation: Relation for the wave generated by a shielding: 1. Enclosing electrical wires or components in
spherically symmetrical source. See Sharp 1942. electrical or magnetic conductors in order to reduce the
shear modulus: See elastic constants. effects of noise and electrostatic, magnetic, or electro-
shear wave: An S-wave q.v.. magnetic coupling. 2. The encircling conductors which
shear-wave splitting: Splitting of an incident S-wave into shield the interior wires or components.
two or more waves with different polarizations, also shift: A time or depth shift of a seismic trace.
called birefringence, S-wave splitting, mode split- shingling: Forming an echelon pattern; see Figure E-4. 1.
ting, double refraction Crampin, 1981. In a polar On refraction recordings, loss of visibility of early
anisotropic transversely isotropic medium, for each cycles with increase in range; see Figure S-7. 2. Incor-
travel direction only two orthogonal polarizations of rect migration of segments of a continuous reflection
plane shear waves are allowed although they are not event so that the migrated segments do not join to form
necessarily orthogonal to the propagation direction. An a continuous event. 3. A seismic facies pattern indicat-
S-wave of arbitrary polarization entering such a region ing prograding.
in a direction other than along the symmetry axis splits shipborne gravimeter: An instrument or system for mea-
into two S-waves one of which is quasi-shear that suring the acceleration of gravity from a ship in motion.
propagate at different velocities S1 for the faster, S2 for Complex arrangements are used to insulate the meter
the slower often written S1, S2 ). For horizontal thin- from the many accelerations to which the ship is subject
layer anisotropy, the two waves are the SH- and qSV- and to correct the data for the effects of measuring
waves, the qSV not necessarily being polarized perpen- while moving see Eo tvo s effect.
dicular to the propagation direction. For parallel shock wave: A high-amplitude wave that propagates at
fracturing the S1 mode that is polarized parallel to the greater than seismic sonic velocity. In contrast to an
fractures travels faster than the S2 mode that is polar- elastic wave.
ized perpendicular to the fracture direction see Figure shoe: A protective plate at the bottom of casing; casing
B-4, See also polar anisotropy, Thomsen anisotropic shoe.
parameters, and anisotropy (seismic). shoestring sand: A long, narrow sand deposit, usually a
sheet: A thin layer model. buried sandbar or filled channel.
shelf break: The physiographic feature defined by a shoot: 1. To fire an explosive. 2. To generate seismic
change in dip from less than 1:1000 landward to the energy by means other than the detonation of explo-
slope seaward of the break often 1:40. sives. 3. To carry out a seismic survey, as to shoot a
shelf-margin systems tract: The lowermost systems tract prospect.
above a type-2 sequence boundary see sequence shootback method: An electromagnetic-surveying
boundary. Characterized by weak progradation to method which employs two tilted coils, each of which
aggradation as one goes upward, onlaping of an under- serves both as a transmitter and a receiver. At every
lying highstand tract in the landward direction, and station, readings are taken with each coil serving as
shooter 317 side lobe
transmitter for one and as receiver for the other. By shot-hole fatigue: See hole fatigue.
averaging the readings, errors due to misalignment or shot-hole log: The drillers record of the depth and litho-
topographic differences are essentially eliminated. Also logic characteristics of the formations encountered in a
called Crone shootback. shot hole.
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shooter: The person on a seismic party in charge of deto- shot instant: Time break, the time at which a shot is
nating the explosive. detonated and/or a seismic wave initiated.
shooting a well: The procedure of measuring directly the shot-moment line: A wire wrapped around an explosive
traveltime from a source on the surface to a geophone charge which is ruptured when the charge is detonated,
positioned in a well. Compare vertical seismic profiling. a primitive way to record the time break.
shooting through the patch: The use of extra source shot noise: 1. Hole noise q.v.. 2. Noise in a semiconduc-
locations at or between geophone groups to maintain tor because of the discreteness of current carriers. Such
better multiplicity at the ends of a seismic line. rms current noise is proportional to the square root of
shooting under: See undershooting. the product of current and bandwidth.
shoot on paper: Thinking through a field program before shotpoint SP: 1. The location where a source is located,
starting it; calculating the results which may be such as where an explosive charge is detonated. 2. The
expected, trying to anticipate problems which may location of any seismic source, such as weight drops,
occur and ambiguities that are likely to arise, and air-gun pops, vibroseis excitations, etc. See source
deciding whether the desired objectives are likely to be point. 3. The area immediately surrounding the shot-
achieved. holes.
shoran: Short-range navigation; a positioning system shotpoint gap: See source-point gap.
where the distances from reference transponders are shotpoint interval: The distance between source points
determined by measuring the traveltime of pulsed radio shotpoints or between the centers of source-point pat-
waves to and from the station. See Figure S-8. Range is terns.
generally line-of-sight limited. See also extended-range shotpoint seis: Uphole geophone q.v..
shoran. shoulder-bed effect: Effect of adjacent beds on a log
short Doppler count: See satellite-navigation. reading. Also called the adjacent-bed effect. For
short lateral: See lateral. example, high-resistivity beds adjacent to a low-
short normal: A normal resistivity log made with the A resistivity bed may result in more current flowing in the
and M electrodes in the sonde see Figure E-10a about low-resistivity bed than if the high-resistivity beds were
16 inches apart. See normal. not present, thus changing the apparent resistivity of the
short-path multiple: A multiple reflection in which low-resistivity bed.
energy is reflected back and forth over only a small Shover: A method for generating S-waves with two
portion of the section so that the resulting wave blends P-wave vibrators operating simultaneously but 180
with the primary pulse, changing its waveshape and out-of-phase. Prakla-Seismos trade name.
adding a tail. See Figure M-18. Often called a peg-leg show of oil or gas: A small amount of oil or gas in a
multiple. well or a rock sample. Show usually signifies that the
short shot: 1. Weathering shot q.v.. 2. A refraction pro- hydrocarbons are not in commercial quantity.
file where the source is at the end of the active line of shrink-wrap: To finalize something completely and have
geophones. The near geophone is often displaced a half it ready for shipment.
interval away. SH surface wave: Love wave q.v..
short-trace section: A near-offset section, a record sec- shut in: Not producing but capable of producing.
tion composed of the traces for the same short source- shut-in pressure: The formation pressure when fluids are
geophone distance from each successive record. not flowing, often measured by a downhole tool in
shot: 1. The detonation of an explosive. 2. Any impulsive contact with the formation.
source of seismic energy. 3. Any source of seismic shuttle air gun: The moving part of an airgun; com-
energy. 4. A measurement through an alidade or transit pressed air is confined in the chamber when the shuttle
sighting on a stadia rod. is closed but released into the water when the gun is
shot bounce: Noise on a seismic record caused by fired by opening the shuttle. See Figure A-6.
mechanical motion of the recording truck. SH-wave: 1. An S-wave which involves only horizontal
shotbox: Blaster q.v.. motion. 2. The horizontal component of any S-wave. 3.
shot break: Time break q.v.. 1. The instant of an explo- A surface Love wave q.v. sometimes mistaken for an
sion. 2. Initiation of a seismic wave by a nonexplosive SH-bodywave.
source. SI: International System of units, very similar to the MKS
shot depth: The distance down the hole from the surface or MKSA system. See Appendix A and Figures E-8 and
to the top usually of the explosive charge, often M-1.
measured with 10 ft loading poles. With long charges sial: si al Granitic, generally acidic continental crust,
the distance to both top and bottom of the column of plus the overlying sediments. Composition is domi-
explosives is often given. nantly silica-alumina and specific gravity is about 2.7.
shot elevation: Elevation of the top of the explosive The name comes from silicon-aluminum. Compare
charge in the shot hole. Compare shot-hole elevation. sima. The concept that the crust is made up of a sial
shot hole: The borehole in which an explosive is placed layer overlying sima is overly simplistic.
for blasting. side lobe: A subsidiary passband outside of the main
shot-hole elevation: The elevation of the ground at the passband. Can refer to filter curves, array directivity
top of the shot hole. patterns, multichannel mixing arrangements, velocity
sidereal hour angle 318 sigmoid configuration
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figuration q.v. signifying quiet-water deposition; see Figure D-29 and dynamic range.
Figure R-8. significance level: The complement of probability; e.g.,
signal: That which is sought, which carries desired infor- 10 percent significance90 percent probability.
mation. As opposed to noise. See signal-to-noise ratio. sill: 1. A tabular igneous interlayer which is longer in
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Sometimes message is used for the desired informa- horizontal dimension than vertical. See plate. 2. The
tion and signal is used to include both message and level of variance where a variogram q.v. reaches its
noise. correlation range.
signal averager: An electronic device used to stack a sima: si m Basaltic, peridotitic, basic oceanic crust, of
repetitive signal many times to improve the ratio of specific gravity 3.0 to 3.3. Name derives from Sllica-
signal to random noise. MAgnesium composition. Compare sial.
signal compression: A process whose objective is to similar fold: See folding and Figure F-17e.
shorten the effective length of the embedded wavelet similarity analysis: Checking the phase of several vibra-
q.v., usually by wavelet processing deconvolution. tors that operate together.
signal correction: A correction for differences in timing Simplan: A method to simulate the response of the earth
or waveshape resulting from changes in the outgoing to plane or cylindrical waves by summing of observa-
signal at various source locations. tions with spherical waves. Acronym for SIMulated
signal deconvolution: A deterministic deconvolution PLANe waves. See Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 322-4
based on a recorded wavelet. and see plane-wave simulation.
signal enhancement: Vertical stacking, that is, adding Simplan stack: Stack of a common-source gather without
successive waveforms from the same source point and applying normal-moveout corrections. See Simplan.
thereby discriminating against random noise. Espe- simple multiple: A long-path multiple that has undergone
cially used with seismic recorders for engineering only three reflections that is, twice reflected from the
work. same deep interface and once from a shallow interface,
signalnoise ratio: See signal-to-noise ratio. the shallow reflections usually being at the base of the
signal theory: The concept that a relatively pure signal is weathering or at the surface. Most multiples are more
transmitted from a source through some medium, is complex than this.
received at a receiving station together with superfluous simple pole: See pole.
information called noise, and that the problem is to simplex: sim plks A one-way circuit; half duplex q.v..
separate the signal from the noise so that the final result simplex method: A method of solving a linear-
approximates as closely as possible the original signal. programming problem involving inequalities by follow-
signal-to-noise ratio (S N) : The energy or sometimes ing gradient vectors along the inequality limits. See
amplitude of the signal divided by all remaining Figure L-5.
energy noise at the time. Sometimes the denominator Simpsons rule: Numerical integration that involves a
is the total energy, that is, S/(S N ). Signal-to-noise higher-order polynomial fit than linear interpolation.
ratio is difficult to determine in practice because of the simulated annealing: Algorithms based on an analogy
difficulty in separating out the signal the desired por- between optimization and the growth of long-range
tion. Sometimes S 2 is measured by a cross-correlation order, such as the growth of large crystals in a slowly
and ( S N )2 by an autocorrelation. cooling melt. It is usually implemented by a Monte
signature: 1. The aspect of a waveshape pattern which Carlo drunkards walk through model space where
makes it distinctive; character. 2. A waveshape which steps begin in random fashion but progressively
distinguishes a particular source, transmission path, or become more biased toward stepping in the uphill
reflecting sequence. direction. Simulated annealing has three components:
signature deconvolution: A wavelet-processing or decon- an energy function which defines the problem in
volution operation in which one attempts either to terms of a parameter set including interactions
determine the embedded wavelet q.v., to remove between parameters, an order function which mea-
trace-to-trace variations in it, or to replace it with some sures coherence, and a temperature which regulates
other wavelet shape. the systems energy and order high temperature
signature log: See full-waveform log. implies high energy and low order. See Vasudevan et
sign bit: The bit which indicates the algebraic sign plus al. 1991 and Sen and Stoffa 1991, 1624 1638.
or minus of the number, usually 0 for positive, 1 for simulation: 1. A method of predicting the likely behavior
negative. of a system by constructing a model of the system and
sign-bit recording: 1. Recording, for a series of measure- processing the model. 2. Estimating the distribution of a
ments, only the information as to which samples were physical property based on an interpolation scheme that
positive and which negative. 2. Recording of zero- involves a random approach. A point selected at ran-
crossings only, that is, when values changed from posi- dom is first calculated based on the known data, then
tive to negative or vice-versa. another point based also on the points already deter-
signed offsets: To indicate the direction from source to mined, and so on until values are determined for all
geophone by plus or minus signs. points. The calculation of many simulations allows a
sign filter: A signal detection filter that designates a seg- measure of the probability of the statistical result. Two
ment as signal or noise based on a sign-test statistic. types of data often well and seismic data are used in
See Hansen et al. 1988. co-simulation. 3. Specifically, a computer model of a
significance: The ratio of the smallest change which can hydrocarbon-field production that allows one to predict
be detected to the magnitude of a quantity at that time, what will happen given various scenarios.
such as the number of significant bits in a quantity. See simulator: A device or a computer program that simulates
simultaneous acoustic and resistivity imager 320 sines, law of
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FIG. S-9. Side-scan sonar. (a) Schematic diagram; (b) record showing reflections from seafloor relief. There is a blind
zone under the ships track. (Courtesy CGG.)
FIG. S-11. Slip-sweep technique. (a) The start-time of different vibrators sweeps is delayed but their sweeps overlap.
(b, c) Conventional correlation results in a mother record, that then (d) separates into the individual records. (Wams and
Rozemond, 1998, 1058.)
skewbox 322 skirt
dimensionality. It is zero for one- and two-dimensional skin depth 2/ 1/2 m 503 f 1/2 m,
models with noise-free data. 3. See skewness. 4. To
distort.
skewbox: A hardwired device for correcting for skew where conductivity in mhos/meter, permeability
in henries/meter, angular frequency in radians/
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FIG. S-12. Snells law relations when a wave crosses a boundary between two isotropic solid media; the wave changes
direction such that for either incident P-wave or S-wave, sin i/V1sin p1 /V p1 sin s1 /V s1 sin p2 /V p2 sin s2 /V s2
p, where i is the angle of the incident wave with a velocity V i V P1 if a P-wave or V i V S1 if an S-wave; P1 and S1
are the angles of reflection of the P- or S-waves in medium 1, which have velocities V P1 and V S1 , respectively; P2 and
S2 are the angles of refraction of the P- and S-waves in medium 2 which have velocities V P2 and V S2 , respectively; p
is the raypath parameter (which will be a constant along a raypath through parallel layering). If sin P2 or sin S2
exceeds 1 as given by this equation, a head wave will be generated.
Skylab 323 slug flow
Skylab: A NASA Earth satellite which made three mis- slick line: A wireline that does not include electrical con-
sions between May 1973 and February 1984. Many ductors.
photographs taken from Skylab are used for geologic sliding window: An aperture whose position moves a
and other studies. sample at a time. Also called a running window.
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sky wave: Electromagnetic radio waves reflected from SLIM: Seismic LIthologic Modeling q.v.. Western Atlas
ionized layers in the ionosphere. Involved in sky-wave trade name.
interference and in making radio waves receivable S-line: See S-rule.
beyond the line-of-sight horizon. Compare tropospheric slingram: slin gram Swedish for horizontal-loop
scatter. method (HLEM) q.v. Also called Ronka EM. See
sky-wave interference: Interference between the direct Figure E-7.
or ground radio wave and waves reflected from ion- slip: The relative motion of one side of a fault with respect
ized layers in the ionosphere. The ionization results to the other side.
from sunlight and the ionized layers vary around sun- slips: Devices for catching and supporting the drill pipe
rise and sunset, so sky-wave interference is especially during adding or removing sections.
variable at these times. Sky-wave interference degrades slip sweep method: A method whereby vibrators sweep at
the accuracy and range of radio-positioning systems. different locations with their sweeps overlapping but
slab correction: See Bouguer correction. offset in time by at least the duration of the final
slalom: Crooked line q.v.. CGG trade name. records. The early part of the correlated record yields
slanted arrays: Use of vertically inclined hydrophone the record for the sweep that started earlier and the next
arrays in marine recording to reduce the filtering action portion the record for the sweep that started later. See
associated with ghosting from the water surface. Also Wams and Rozemond 1998 and Figure S-11.
called Flair, a trade name of Seatex Services. slip time: The time between the start of successive
sweeps.
slant path correction: A correction to side-scan sonar
slip-vector analysis: Examining the first motion involved
data to yield a display linear in distance.
in an earthquake, whether it appears as a push or pull,
slant range: A distance measurement which involves both
with the objective of determining the fault motion
horizontal and vertical components, such as the dis-
involved. See nodal plane, Fowler 1990, 101, and
tance from an observing station to a navigation satellite.
Figure F-10.
slant recording: See slanted arrays. slope-distance rule: See depth rule.
slant stack: Time-shifting traces proportional to their dis- slope fans: Fans deposited on a significant slope and made
tance from some reference point and then stacking; the of turbidite leveed-channel and overbank deposits.
effect is to emphasize events with certain dips, that is, Slotnick method: A graphical refraction interpretation
to beam-steer. Also used with - p mapping q.v.. method applicable for plane multilayer refractors. See
Essentially the same as Rieber mixing or beam steer- Slotnick 1950.
ing. slots: Space on an offshore platform or underwater tem-
SLAR: Side-Looking Airborne Radar; see SLR. Aeroser- plate for drilling a well. As many wells can be drilled
vices trade name. from the platform as the number of slots provided.
slave drum: A recording drum which is kept synchronous slowness: The reciprocal of the phase velocity q.v..
with another drum. Slowness p is related to wave number by
slave station: A transmitting station used to retransmit
signals from another station so that the two transmitters p,
are synchronous and so that the two will set up standing where is angular frequency.
wave patterns. Used in phase-measurement positioning slowness surface: A constant-velocity surface calibrated
systems. The slave station may or may not be under the in reciprocals of the phase velocity. The components of
control of the master station. slowness parallel to an interface are identical for inci-
sled: 1. The tail buoy towed at the end of a streamer. 2. A dent, reflected, and refracted waves Snells law. In
skid device dragged along the seafloor to improve the anisotropic media, SH and SV slowness surfaces may
coupling of an ocean-bottom seismometer. separate, have dimples, and touch or cross each other.
sledge hammer: An impulsive seismic energy source in slow P-wave: A Biot slow wave q.v..
which a small weight 8 16 lb impacts against a steel slow-shear formation: A formation whose S-velocity is
plate laid on the ground. less than the P-velocity in the borehole fluid.
sleeper: An explosive charge loaded into the hole for an SLR: 1. Satellite Laser Ranging; see laser ranging. 2.
appreciable time up to several days before it is to be Side-Looking Radar, a remote-sensing method which
used. involves sweeping the earth to either side of an aircraft
sleeve gun: An air gun with a cylindrical sleeve which with a radar beam and recording the reflected signals,
covers the exhaust ports. When activated, the sleeve which are displayed to give the appearance of an aerial
moves along the axis of the gun, exposing the ports and photograph. An aircraft at 20 000 feet can map a strip
allowing the compressed air to escape. See Figure about 12 miles wide. Also SLAR.
A-6b, c. Halliburton trade name. slue: sloo To turn about its own axis. The slueing char-
slew rate: 1. The highest speed at which a digitizer input acteristics of a gyrocompass enable it to follow faith-
device can be moved without affecting the accuracy. 2. fully variations of the ships heading. Also called slew.
Reciprocal of the time delay between the sampling of slug: See radioactive-tracer log.
successive channels in a multiplexing operation. Com- slug flow: A relatively small amount of a fluid that will
pare slue. help sweep hydrocarbons followed by injection of
slurry explosive 324 solar wind
water to push the slug through a reservoir. An enhanced law holds for the angles measured between an interface
oil recovery q.v. method. and the wavefronts, using phase velocities. Named for
slurry explosive: A bulk-type explosive which can be Willebrord Snell 15911626, Dutch mathematician.
poured into boreholes. Not cap sensitive and requires a Snell path: A path on a source gather that connects points
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primer charge to detonate. having constant apparent velocity i.e., where the ray-
slush pit: The pit used in rotary shothole drilling for path parameter p is constant. Implies that reflecting
storage of water or mud for circulation through the interfaces and velocity layering are parallel often hori-
hole. Muds can be mixed in the pit. Sometimes a pit is zontal.
dug in the ground but more often a portable sheet-iron sniffer: 1. A device that collects samples of seawater and
pit is used. analyzes them for hydrocarbon content by determining
small circle: A circle on the surface of a sphere; the plane rate-of-flow through a diffusion column colorometric
of the circle may be parallel to the equatorial plane, but q.v. technique. 2. A device that collects gas samples
the center of the circle is not the center of the sphere. and analyzes them for radioactivity.
Lines of latitude excepting the equator are small snorkel: A tube to the surface from an underwater energy
circles. source through which waste gases escape.
smart stacking: Selective stacking q.v.. SNP: Sidewall Neutron Porosity log q.v..
smash down: To reduce the number of seismic traces by SNR: Signal-to-Noise Ratio q.v..
stacking adjacent traces. soak: 1. To allow a system to come to equilibrium with its
smear: 1. To mix stack together data that are not in surroundings. For example, a borehole gravimeter may
complete register. 2. To average seismic data originat- have to rest at the bottom of a deep well bore for a
ing from sources at different locations, or recorded by period of time to allow it to adjust to the temperature
geophones at different locations, or both; a conse- and pressure regimen before meaningful readings can
quence of ground mixing. The data from several shots be obtained from it. 2. Time between injecting heat into
or other source impulses often are combined without a formation and producing fluids from it, to allow the
any time adjustment by vertical stacking, especially heat to change the viscosity so that the fluids flow more
with surface sources. The amount of smear is the dis- readily.
tance over which the sources are located plus the dis- SOFAR: A low velocity layer in the oceans which carries
tance over which the geophones feeding one channel channel waves q.v. to long distances. There is no
are planted. 3. The effect of stacking common-midpoint channel north of 55 N. Named for the SOund Fixing
traces for a dipping reflector, because the reflecting And Ranging system used for locating aviators downed
point is not common. Remedied by DMO processing. at sea. See Figure C-2.
See Figure C-9b. soft copy: A screen rendering of data. Cf. hard copy.
smile: A wavefront-shaped event on a migrated seismic soft data: 1. Data whose reliability is less than that of hard
section, the result of the migration of a noise burst. Also data. 2. Non-quantitative data.
produced by data truncation and in other ways. soft error: A read error from which one can recover by
Smith rule: See Bott-Smith method. rereading.
smoothing: 1. Averaging adjacent values according to soft formation: A poorly consolidated sand-shale
some scheme. Involves filtering out higher frequencies. sequence lacking significant compressive and shear
Often accomplished by use of a running window q.v.. strength.
2. Straightening a good, shallow reflection and using it soft magnetism: That component or portion of remanent
as a reference to remove undesirable lateral velocity magnetization which has relatively low coercive force.
and topography variations. Also called datuming. 3. In paleomagnetism studies, this softer magnetization is
Smoothing often flattening a reflection in order to removed by alternating-field demagnetization in order
emphasize irregularities in nearby reflections such as to isolate harder remanent magnetism.
might be caused by reefs or other features. soft mantle: Upper mantle which has lower-than-normal
SN: Signal-to-Noise ratio q.v.. velocity; occurs under plate boundaries.
snapping: Moving picked points to the local maximum or soft rock: Sedimentary rock. Used to distinguish between
minimum values. metal mining hard rock and petroleum soft rock
snapshots: Displays showing the locations of wavefronts objectives.
wavefield intensity at various instants of time, a fea- soft spring: An elastic spring with very low natural fre-
ture of some wave-equation modeling programs. quency used to insulate from high-frequency mechani-
Snells law: snelz When a wave crosses a boundary cal noise.
between two isotropic media, the wave changes direc- software: Computer programs for data processing, includ-
tion such that ing those that control the internal operation of the
sin i/V 1 sin r/V 2 , processing system itself.
soil: The natural unconsolidated mineral and organic mat-
where i is the angle of the incident wave, V i is the ter occurring above bedrock. Engineering classifies any
velocity of the incident medium, r is the angle of loose, soft, deformable material as soil.
refraction, and V 2 is the velocity of the second medium. Sokolov rule: See depth rule and Figure D-10.
See Figure S-12. If sin r exceeds 1 as given by this solar wind: Ionized particles flowing radially outward
equation, a head wave will be generated. See also from the sun. Transient magnetic disturbances see
Zoeppritzs equations. Snells law is also called Des- K-index are correlated with solar wind variations. The
cartes law. In anisotropic media where wavefronts effect is to produce a time-variable external magnetic
are not necessarily perpendicular to raypaths, Snells field.
sole 325 sonobuoy
sole: The lowest movement surface of a fault, especially way traveltime. For the compensated sonic log, two
where a gravity listric fault or a thrust fault becomes a transmitters are pulsed alternately and measurements
bedding-plane fault. Also called the fault baseplate. are averaged to cancel errors due to sonde tilt or
solid-state circuitry: The use of semiconductor elements changes in hole size. See Figure S-13 and also cycle
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such as transistors, integrated circuits, etc., which do skip, dipole sonic log, array log, cement bond log, and
not require much space or power. fracture log.
solid streamer: A neutrally buoyant streamer that con- sonic wave: Acoustic wave q.v..
tains no liquid. Generally of smaller diameter and qui- sonic waveform log: A three-D log q.v., also called a
eter than fluid-filled streamers. full-waveform log.
solidus: sol i ds The line on a state diagram indicating sonification: Use of sound in virtual-reality studies, usu-
where the solid solution is in equilibrium with liquid or ally in conjunction with information conveyed by other
vapor phases; the melting-point line. senses. May involve pitch, amplitude, duration, stereo
solution gas: Lighter hydrocarbons natural gas that are effects, timbre, etc.
in solution or that exist as liquids under reservoir pres- sonify: To have acoustic or seismic energy reach a par-
sure conditions but that become gases when the pres- ticular point.
sure is lowered as the reservoir is produced. See also sonobuoy: 1. A free-floating device consisting of a hydro-
reservoir drive. phone and radio-transmitting antenna. Used in marine
sonar: SOund Navigation And Ranging, a method used refraction surveys and extended profile work for detect-
for navigation, positioning, and communication. Gen- ing energy from a distant shot and radioing the infor-
erally sonic acoustic waves in water. See Doppler mation to the recording ship; see Figure S-14. A
sonar, acoustic positioning, and side-scan sonar. sonobuoy is a free-floating buoy which is usually sim-
sonar reference intensity: For a plane wave, an rms pres- ply thrown off a recording ship. Once in the water,
sure of 1 Pa. seawater activates the buoys batteries, one or more
sonde: sond A logging tool such as is lowered into a hydrophones drop are suspended below the buoy, and
borehole to record resistivity, sonic, radioactivity, or a radio antenna is extended upward into the air. As the
other types of well logs. ship travels away from the buoy, firing charges or other
S1, S2 wave: See shear-wave splitting. energy source as it goes, the seismic arrivals are
sonic: Pertaining to acoustic or P-waves in fluids. Some- received by the hydrophones and transmitted to the
times includes other wave modes and hence becomes ship, where they are recorded and timed. The distance
synonomous with seismic and elastic. from the energy source to the sonobuoy can be deter-
sonic log: A well log of the traveltime transit time for mined by the arrival time of the wave which travels
seismic waves per unit distance, usually measured in directly through the water. The buoy is expendable and
microseconds per foot, which is the reciprocal of the sinks itself after a certain time, the cost of the buoy
P-wave velocity. Also called acoustic-velocity log and usually being smaller than the cost of retrieving it. 2. A
continuous-velocity log. Usually measured with fre- buoy which automatically transmits a radio signal when
quencies 1 to 50 kHz. Used for porosity determination triggered by a water-borne sonic signal; used in posi-
by the time-average equation q.v.. The interval transit tioning. 3. Military passive-receiver/transmitter for
time is integrated down the borehole to give total one- detecting underwater movement.
FIG. S-13. Sonic log. (a) Schematic compensated sonic logging sonde. (b) Sonic log. (Courtesy Schlumberger.)
sonogram 326 source point SP
sonogram: A display of seismic information as a function Also used with electromagnetic, magnetotelluric, and
of the apparent dip or apparent velocity of events. See other types of geophysical surveying. See also geomet-
Figure S-15. Sonogramming is also called beam steer- ric sounding and parametric sounding. As opposed to
ing and Rieberizing. profiling, where the objective is to ascertain lateral
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sonograph: An acoustic picture obtained under water by rather than vertical variations.
side-scan or sector-scanning sonar. sound wave: Acoustic wave q.v..
sophisticated: Complex or intricate. Often refers to meth- source: 1. A device that releases energy, such as an explo-
ods which were not feasible before the use of high- sion or an air gun release. Some seismic source wave-
speed digital computers. forms are shown in Figure S-16. 2. The point from
sorption: The binding of one substance to another by which lines of force in a vector field originate; a mass
mechanisms such as adsorption holding on the surface for the gravitational field. Opposite of sink.
or absorption taking in completely. source code: See source program.
Sosie: so se A seismic method which employs a pseudo- source level: The total power output of an active trans-
random series of seismic impulses to generate seismic ducer in dB/Pa at 1 yard from the transducer.
waves. The recorded data can be correlated with the source parameter imaging method SPI: Source
pseudo-random series to produce an interpretable parameter imaging that assumes either a dipping con-
result. Societe Nationale Elf-Aquitaine trade name. tact or a dipping thin sheet. iSPI, standing for
sound: 1. To measure the depth of water. 2. To determine Improved SPI, relates local wavenumbers to a struc-
how some quantity varies with depth. 3. P-waves in tural index to discriminate between depths determined
fluids such as air or liquids. by basic models. CGG-Geoterrex trademarks. See
sound channel: See SOFAR. Thurston and Smith 1997.
sounding: Measuring a property as a function of depth; a source pattern: See array (seismic).
depth probe or expander. Especially a series of elec- source point SP: 1. The location where seismic energy
trical resistivity readings made with successively is released, such as by an explosive shot, an air gun
greater electrode spacing while maintaining one point release, a weight drop, a vibroseis excitation, etc.
in the array fixed, thus giving resistivity-versus-depth Where patterns of sources are used, usually refers to the
information assuming horizontal layering; electric center of the pattern. 2. The area surrounding the source
drilling, probing, VES vertical electric sounding. point.
source-point gap: The distance between the nearest geo- seismic energy, or two separate weights are dropped to
phone groups on opposite sides of the source point, generate S-wave energy. Tradename of Ge ome canique.
which is often greater than the otherwise uniform geo- southing: See latitude.
phone group spacing. Used so that the geophone groups south-seeking pole: See magnetic pole.
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that are nearest the source are far enough away that sovel: Velocity of sound in water; see Figure W-1.
source-associated noise has little effect. Also used SP: 1. Source Point or ShotPoint. 2. Spontaneous poten-
because the range of amplitudes to be recorded near the tial or self-potential, a well log of the difference
source point is much larger than that for offset geo- between the potential of a movable electrode in the
phones, thus lessening recording problems because of borehole and a fixed reference electrode at the surface.
excessive range of amplitudes. The SP results from electrochemical SP and electroki-
source program: A computer program prior to machine netic potentials q.v. which are present at the interface
decoding; e.g., a program in some symbolic language
such as Fortran, C, C.
source-receiver offset: See offset.
source-receiver product: The number of traces with
separate raypaths mixed together to produce the final
display; also called effort. The product of the number
of impulses per record or holes per shot, the number
of geophones per group, the number of records stacked,
and for Vibroseis the duration of the sweep.
source rock: The strata that serve as the source of hydro-
carbons.
source signature: See signature and Figure S-1b.
sour gas: Gas containing appreciable amounts of sulfur
compounds, especially H2 S.
Soursile: An impulsive energy source in which a 200-kg
weight is simply dropped over 1 m to generate P-wave
sparse 3D: The use of lines more widely spaced than energy contribution to the lower-level channel. Used in
desirable to decrease the cost of 3D acquisition, also gamma-ray spectrometers.
called exploration 3D. Usually results in an inferior spectral warping: Changing the relative amplitudes of
survey and is false economy. portions of the frequency spectrum filtering in an
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lution and response even with high formation-to-mud spill point: The lowest closing contour on a hydrocarbon
resistivity contrast. Acts to prevent current travel in the trap capable of holding hydrocarbons under gravita-
borehole. SFL is a Schlumberger trade name. tional equilibrium if the formation is permeable.
spherical triangle: The triangle formed on the surface of spinel: A mineral with the general formula AB2 O3 . Some
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a sphere by the intersections of three arcs of great iron minerals are spinels and this crystal structure is
circles. important in magnetic and electrical properties.
spherical wave: A wave generated by a point source. In spinner magnetometer: A device which spins a sample
the case of constant velocity V, a spherical wave is any and measures the induced ac voltage to determine the
function strength and direction of the samples magnetic field.
Used for paleomagnetic studies of small samples.
1/r f rVt , spinner survey: A log of the rate of flow of fluid in the
wellbore, casing, or tubing. See flowmeter.
where r is distance from the source.
S-P interval: In earthquake seismology, the time interval
spherical wavefront: The surface which a given phase of
between the first arrivals of P- and S-waves, a measure
a seismic impulse generated by a point source occupies
of the distance from the earthquake hypocenter.
at any particular time. The surface is not necessarily
spherical if the velocity varies with location. spirit leveling: Determining relative elevation by sighting
spheroid: The oblate ellipsoid of revolution used to on the rod when the sighting level is horizontal. If the
approximate the Earths shape. The Earths shape can elevation difference exceeds 1 to 2 meters, the process
now be determined by radar ranging from satellites. See has to be carried out in steps.
Figures G-2 and G-3 and Geodetic Reference System. spit-out: To print out detailed data. Sometimes, to dump
SPI: Secondary-Porisity Index q.v.. q.v..
spider plot: 1. A map showing the projection onto the spitter: A mechanical devise to pick up geophone cable
horizontal of directional wells indicating their azimuth while driving; squirter.
distribution. 2. A diagram showing the azimuth distri- S-plane: The Laplace transform domain versus ,
bution for data in a bin. Lengths are associated with where s i . See Laplace transform.
offset and direction with source-receiver azimuth. See spline: splin 1. A spline interpolator of order m satisfies
Figure T-3. all specified points and their derivatives up to the order
spike: 1. To work away from the crews normal area; to (m1). Thus a quadratic spline has a continuous first
hot shot. 2. An impulse q.v.. derivative and a cubic spline has both first and second
spike filtering: Removing noise from data by assuming derivatives continuous. Splines are used for digital-to-
that any value which differs from the average of sur- analog conversion that employs curve or surface fit-
rounding values by more than a threshold amount is ting, to assure a desired degree of smoothness. Splines
noise. Usually replaced by the average value. are implicit features of many modeling and inversion
spiking deconvolution: Deconvolution in which the programs, used to provide an analytic form to the
desired wavelet is a spike or impulse containing all properties of the model over the entire data domain. 2.
frequencies. Also called whitening deconvolution. A long flexible strip used in drawing a smooth curve. 3.
FIG. S-18. Spread arrangements for 24 inline geophone groups. Split spread or split dip if the source is at A, offset
split dip if the source is at B, end-on if the source is at C, inline offset if the source is at D, broadside T if the source
is at E, broadside L if the source is at F, and cross if some geophones are at right angles (G to H).
split 331 squelch circuit
Both the long flexible strip and analytic splines are SP recording: The recording of P-waves generated by an
sometimes used in residualizing, the smooth curve rep- S-wave source.
resenting the regional and the difference between the SP reduction factor: The ratio of actual SP to SSP q.v..
smooth curve and the gravity profile representing the See pseudostatic SP.
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residual. By extension, a smooth surface used to repre- SPS: 1. Source-Point Seismometer or uphole geophone
sent a regional gravity field. q.v.. 2. Shell Processing Support, SEG standard for-
split: Split spread q.v.. mat for information relating to survey and navigation
split-dip shooting: See split spread. data.
split migration: Achieving 3D migration of seismic data spudder: A drill used for making holes in hard rock. The
by dual 2D migration, first performing 2D migration in bit is raised and dropped and the resulting cuttings are
the inline direction and then 2D migrating in the removed by a bail, a pipe with a flap valve at the
crossline direction after sorting the result of the first bottom. Also used to pound casing into gravel or for-
migration. mations containing boulders such as glacial drift.
split spread: A method of reflection surveying in which spudding: To begin a drill hole.
the source point is at or perpendicularly offset from spur: See trace.
the center of the geophone spread. Also called split-dip square-wave: A full square-wave is a waveform consist-
and a straddle spread. See Figure S-18. A split-spread ing of alternating equal magnitude positive on and
record is shown in Figure R-5. negative on portions. A half square-wave is
sponge boundary: An absorbing boundary so that there is switched on and off. A pulsed square-wave has por-
no reflection from the boundary. tions which are positive on, off, negative on, and off.
spool: Acronym for Store Printer Output OnLine, a See Figure S-19.
technique for printing a document without tying up the squash plot: See compressed section.
resources of the computer. squeeze camera: A camera or printer that changes scale in
spoon fault: A listric fault q.v.. one direction usually horizontally without altering the
spontaneous potential SP: Self-potential or SP q.v.. scale in the orthogonal direction.
sporadic noise: Electromagnetic noise caused by pumps, squeeze cementing: Forcing cement into perforations,
machinery, ac grid surges, etc. cracks, etc. under pressure.
SPOT: Satellite Pour lObservation de la Terre; see squeeze section: A section with a highly reduced horizon-
remote sensing. tal scale; see compressed section.
spot correlation: Correlation of reflections on nonadja- squelch circuit: A control that permits the uphole geo-
cent seismic records based on reflection character or phone signal to be recorded on one of the ordinary
intervals between events. geophone channels prior to the first breaks. It then
spread: 1. Arrangement of geophone groups in relation to blocks or disconnects the uphole geophone signal so
the source point. Various arrangements are used; see that after the uphole break the uphole geophone will not
Figure S-18. See also Figure F-1 for fan shooting and interfere with the subsequent record.
Figure T-4 for 3D spreads. Spreads are interlocking if
the geophone group location and the source for one
profile are located at the source and geophone group
location respectively for another profile for example,
source at A into geophone 24 and source at C into
geophone at 13 in Figure S-18. Spreads are reversed if
the same array of geophones is shot into from sources
in opposite directions inline for example, spread from
1 to 24 from both sources at C and J in Figure S-18. A
microspread has very small geophone group intervals
2 to 15 ft. 2. The layout of electrodes or antennas in
resistivity or electro-magnetic surveying. See array
(electrical).
spread correction: 1. NMO or normal moveout correc-
tion q.v.. 2. Correction applied to refraction data to
produce reduced traveltimes q.v..
spreading: Divergence; loss of amplitude because of geo-
metrical spreading; spherical divergence q.v. for body
waves or cylindrical divergence q.v. for surface
waves.
spreading rate: The speed of motion between adjacent
plates based on the assumption that the motion is
equally divided between the plates that are separating,
sometimes expressed as half spreading rates. Subduc-
tion can be oblique, and transform faults can involve
spreading or converging components.
spread spectrum: Signal transmission modulation that FIG. S-19. Square wave. a Full-square wave; b half-
employs bandwidths much wider than the information square wave; c pulsed-square wave such as sometimes
being conveyed. used with electrical surveying.
SQUID magnetometer 332 stack array
SQUID magnetometer: skwid A sensitive magnetome- stability of a filter: A filter is stable if the energy of its
ter which detects magnetic field changes by means of a impulse response is finite. Stable minimum-phase filters
superconducting loop containing one or two Josephson have stable inverses. Maximum-phase wavelets do not
junctions. Acronym for Superconducting Quantum have stable inverse memory functions, but inverse fil-
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Interference Device. A SQUID carries supercurrent up tering can be accomplished by stable anticipation func-
to a certain critical value, beyond which a finite resis- tions. The inverse of a mixed-delay wavelet requires
tance appears in the loop. The value of this critical both a stable memory function and a stable anticipation
current depends upon the external flux as well as the function.
geometry. In the rf-SQUID magnetometer, a loop stabilized downward continuation: Downward continu-
with one Josephson junction is driven inductively by a ation q.v. of potential field measurements after
high-frequency typically 30 MHz alternating current removing high spatial frequencies, which otherwise
which periodically exceeds the critical current. The would lead to instabilities.
resulting voltage depends on the value of the critical stabilized platform: A platform on which instruments
current which in turn depends on the external flux. In such as gravimeters can be mounted where they will
the dc-SQUID magnetometer a dc current slightly remain nearly level despite tilt of the platform support.
greater than the critical current is fed into a loop con- The platform, mounted on gimbals, is controlled by a
taining two Josephson junctions. This produces high- gyroscope coupled to an accelerometer-controlled servo
frequency oscillations in the loop due to the system on each gimbal axis. Used in measuring gravity
ac-Josephson effect. Thus the current periodically on a ship in motion and for mounting inertial navigation
exceeds the critical current and a voltage appears which sensors.
depends upon the external flux. Both the rf- and stable: A method is stable if, when applied to a well-
dc-SQUIDS are usually incorporated in negative feed- conditioned problem, a small change in the data result
back circuits which detect and null the flux, and the in only a small change in the solution. A series is stable
output of the negative feedback circuit is proportional if it is convergent.
to the output of the SQUID. SQUID magnetometers are stack: 1. A composite record made by combining traces
capable of detecting fields on the order of 10 5 nan- from different records. See common-midpoint stack,
otesla, and are used in magnetotelluric and controlled- diversity stack, uphole stack, and vertical stack. Stack-
source electromagnetic field techniques. See Clarke ing also involves filtering because of timing errors or
1974 and Weinstock and Overton 1981. waveshape differences among the elements being
squiggle: skwig l A wiggle trace or trace of galvanom- stacked; see Figure S-20. 2. Combining a number of
eter deflection versus time. See Figure D-17. time-domain transient electromagnetic signals. 3. A
squirter: A device to assist in deploying or retrieving a computer buffer operated on a last-in first-out basis.
cable or streamer. stack array: An arrangement that, when combined with
S-reflectivity: The reflection coefficient for S-waves at adjacent spreads, provides an even, continuous succes-
normal incidence: sion of geophone offsets in a common-midpoint gather.
Used to attenuate source-generated noise by effectively
2 V S2 1 V S1 creating a very long continuous array in the stacking
R S , operation. The group length should equal or be a
2 V S2 1 V S1
multiple of the group interval. With a symmetrical
where R S is the normalized amplitude of an S-wave split-spread, sources should be midway between all
reflected from the interface between layers 1,2, 1 , 2 group centers, or, with an end-on spread, sources
is the density of layers 1,2, and V S1 , V S2 is the S-wave
velocity in layers 1,2.
S-rule: An application of the equivalence principle used
in resistivity sounding. Sounding graphs over a series
of strata with resistivities i and thicknesses h i above a
highly resistive substratum possess the same asymptote
if the sum of longitudinal conductance (h i / i ) is con-
stant, i.e., if
S h i / i constant;
S is the admittance.
SS: 1. SubSea. 2. Sequence Stratigraphy q.v..
S/(SN) : Signal-to-noise ratio q.v.. A Wiener filter
q.v. is often called an S/(SN) filter.
SSP: Static Self Potential q.v..
SST: Sea-Surface Temperature.
stability: 1. The property that a bounded input elicits a
bounded output. 2. The property that a system will not
undergo a change without the application of an external FIG. S-20. Filter effect of timing errors in stacking. The
agency. 3. The property that a departure from equilib- numbers on the curves are standard deviations of the
rium creates forces that tend to restore equilibrium. 4. timing differences among the traces stacked. (From
Resistance to overturning. 5. See stability of a filter. Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 185)
stacked profiles 333 standard deviation
should be located midway between geophone group portion of the rod subtended between the stadia
centers. See Anstey 1986. crosshairs. Often a value of 100.
stacked profiles: Display of magnetic or other profiles stadia tables: Tables giving values of the quantities
from a number of lines, to facilitate interpretation. (sin 2)/2 and cos2 and/or sin2 as functions of .
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Usually in a map form, sometimes in an isometric view. Used in calculating horizontal H and vertical (V)
stacking chart: A diagram showing the interrelationships distances from a transit station to a stadia rod. If is the
among the traces from common-midpoint surveying; a angle which the line of sight makes with the horizontal,
graph of source-point location s versus geophone- F is the stadia interval factor often 100, and X is the
group location g for a surface stacking chart, of s distance on the rod between the cross hairs, then H
versus (sg)/2 for a subsurface stacking chart. FX cos2FXFX sin2, and VFX(sin 2)/2.
Used to determine the proper traces for stacking and for stagarray: A multiair-gun array. Petty Ray trade name.
determining parameters for shifting traces as in mak- stake: 1. A marker used by field parties to locate gravity
ing static corrections. Components along various stations, source points, geophone locations, survey
alignments represent common midpoint, common locations, etc. Usually indicates a temporary location as
source, common geophone, or common offset. See Fig- opposed to a monument that is a permanent location. 2.
ure S-21. To locate the site for a well. 3. An electrode, such as
stacking velocity: Velocity calculated from normal- might be used in electrical exploration or to ground a
moveout measurements and a constant-velocity model. seismic truck. 4. To mark the boundaries of a mineral
Used to maximize events in common-midpoint stack- claim.
ing. Sometimes erroneously called rms velocity. stake resistance: The electrical resistance between a cur-
Usually calculated for the best-fit hyperbola to gather rent electrode and the ground.
data, the value thus depending somewhat on the range stand alone: Complete in itself rather than as a part of a
of offsets involved. Fitting an NMO equation to CMP larger system.
data is equivalent to assuming an ellipsoidal wavefront, standard curve: Type curve q.v..
yielding the stacking velocity of the horizontal compo- standard deviation : The standard deviation of n
nent. Nonelliptical wavefronts yield offset-variable measurements of a quantity X i with respect to the mean
stacking velocities. See velocity analysis. is
X
stacking velocity inversion: Constructing a velocity-
depth model from picked unmigrated horizons. Gener- 2 1/2 .
1/n X i X
ally normal-incidence rays are traced through overlying
With a normal or Gaussian distribution of data, 68.3%
layers, traveltimes are computed, and the velocity of the
of the data fall within a standard deviation about the
overlying layer is adjusted to minimize errors.
mean. The square of the standard deviation is the vari-
stadia: 1. An instrument for measuring distances, consist-
ance. See statistical measures. For two degrees of
ing of a telescope through which a vertical graduated
freedom, measurements (X i ,Y i ) with respect to the
rod can be seen, overlain by horizontal parallel ,Y
), is
crosshairs stadia hairs, located in the focal plane of means (X
the telescope eyepiece; the amount of rod seen 2 Y Y
1/h X i X 2 1/2 .
i
between the crosshairs allows one to determine the
distance to the rod. 2. The rod alone. For a Rayleigh distribution of data, 40.5% fall within a
stadia factor: The ratio of the distance from a rod to the circle of radius called one sigma.
FIG. S-21. Surface stacking chart. Each horizontal line shows the location of geophone groups and source point for
a single record. The triangle to the right shows the directions for finding traces with various elements in common. a
source coordinate, ggeophone coordinate.
standard Earth 334 static corrections, statics
standard Earth: An Earth model with spherical shells of example, the voltage drop around an electrical circuit
seismic velocity which contain the same volume as the which includes capacitance, inductance, and resistance
corresponding layers of equal velocity in the actual may be expressed by the differential equation: E(t)
Earth. RlL dl/dtC ldt. Using state variables of l,
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standard error: Standard deviation q.v.. Q ldt, and Pdl/dt permits this to be written as a
standard format: For seismic formats, see SEG 1980. set of three simultaneous equations:
standard lines: See map projection.
standard meridan: See map projection. E t RlL PCQ, dQ/dtl, and dl/dt P.
standard parallel: See map projection.
standard polarity: See polarity standard and Figure P-6.
standard pressure: The pressure exerted by a column of See also parameter.
mercury 760 mm high 14.7 psia. static capacity: Specific capacity q.v..
standard section: A diagram showing all the stratigraphic static corrections, statics: Corrections applied to seismic
units in an area in their sequence of deposition; used as data to compensate for the effects of variations in
a standard for correlation. Often shows the maximum elevation, near-surface low-velocity-layer weathering
thickness of units. thickness, weathering velocity, and/or reference to a
standards, SEG: Standards adopted by the Society of datum. The objective is to determine the reflection
Exploration Geophysicists SEG for digital tape for- arrival times which would have been observed if all
mats, SI metric system of units, data interchange, seis- measurements had been made on a usually flat plane
mic subroutines, digital seismic recorder specifications, with no weathering or low-velocity material present.
exchange formats for positional data, marine seismic These corrections are based on uphole data, refraction
hydrophones and streamer cables, polarity standards first-breaks see Figure S-22, event smoothing, and
q.v., and specifying marine seismic energy sources are sometimes other geophysical methods. The most com-
discussed in separate SEG Technical Standards Com- mon convention is that a negative static correction
mittee q.v. publications, available from the SEG. reduces the reflection time. a Uphole-based statics
standard temperature: A predetermined temperature involve the direct measurement of vertical traveltimes
used as a basic measurement, often 0 C. The petroleum from a buried source; see uphole shooting. This is
industry uses 60 F 15.5 C as its standard tempera- usually the best static-correction method where fea-
ture for measurement of oil volumes. sible. b First-break statics are the most common
standby time: Time spent during acquisition when no method of making field or first-estimate static correc-
recording is taking place even though the crew is ready tions, especially when using surface sources. The ABC
to record. Standby time is generally accounted for sepa- method q.v. and variations for more complex assump-
rately according to the reason for the standby. tions are used for this determination; see refraction
standoff: 1. The distance a sonde is from the wall of the statics. c Data-smoothing statics methods assume
borehole. 2. A device for keeping the sonde from lying that patterns of irregularity which events have in com-
against the borehole wall. mon result from near-surface variations and hence
standout: The amount by which the amplitude of an event static-correction trace shifts should minimize such
exceeds the mean amplitude. irregularities. Most automatic statics-determination
standing wave: A phenomenon produced by the interfer- programs employ statistical methods to achieve the
ence of two continuous wavetrains having the same minimization. Data-smoothing methods are generally
frequency traveling in opposite directions. A standing applied to remove small residual errors after first apply-
wave may result from the interference of a continuous ing methods a or b. Second-order statics corrections
wavetrain from a source and one resulting from reflec- are often called trim statics. See Sheriff and Geldart
tion, or from two reflected wavetrains. Standing-wave 1995, 261268, 303307, 474 and Cox 1999.
patterns show amplitude nodes and antinodes alternat- Underlying the concept of conventional static correc-
ing at 1/4 wavelength intervals. Continuous-wave tions is the assumption that a simple time shift of an
radio-navigation systems set up standing-wave patterns. entire seismic trace will yield the seismic record that
star: A configuration with a center and points in various would have been observed 1 if the geophones had
directions from the center. See array (seismic) and been displaced vertically downward or upward to the
triad. reference datum, an assumption not strictly true, espe-
STAR: SimulTaneous Acoustic and Resistivity imager cially if the surface-to-datum distance is large, and 2
q.v.. Baker Atlas trademark. that the subdatum velocity does not change horizon-
star diagram: A way of displaying the relative abundance tally. Conventional static correction methods are most
of different quantities by radii in different directions. apt to fail where there are 1 large rapid changes in the
starvation: The condition when the rate of basin subsid- topography or base of weathering, 2 horizontal veloc-
ence exceeds the rate of sedimentation. ity changes below the weathering, thus violating the
starved: Having low availability of sediments for deposi- assumption that the subdatum velocity does not vary
tion. In a starved basin the subsidence rate exceeds the significantly, 3 large elevation differences between the
sedimentation rate. datum and the base of the weathering, or 4 inadequate
state variable: One of the sets of variables which com- controls on long-wavelength statics q.v.. Large sea-
pletely describe a system at any time. A state variable floor relief is apt to be associated with horizontal veloc-
may represent a derivative of a quantity which is itself ity changes that cannot be compensated with static
a state variable, allowing differential equations to be corrections. S-waves statics are often appreciably dif-
expressed as a set of linear simultaneous equations. For ferent and much larger than P-wave statics.
static field 335 station
static field: The field of an electric dipole that falls off where a w is the activity of the formation water and a m f
with distance r as 1/r 3 . that of the mud filtrate. Because of the inverse relation-
static shift: A frequency-independent scaling of the appar- ship between activity and equivalent resistivity, this
ent resistivity curve in electromagnetic sounding q.v., equation can be written:
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stationarity: Having statistical properties that do not length often being proportional to the magnitude of the
change with time and/or position. The statistics are the gradient. Provision can be made to speed up conver-
same if the time origin is changed. Stationary data do gence onto the minimum and prevent oscillation about
not exhibit a trend, i.e., the mean and variance over a the minimum. It is assumed that the function is con-
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moving window remain the same. tinuous and that the initial estimate is close enough to
stationary field: A physical field that does not vary with the correct minimum, in the event that the function has
time. more than one minimum. Sometimes called steepest
stationary filter: A filter which is not time variant. ascent when used to approach a maximum. See Lines
stationary mass: A weight that tends to remain quiescent and Treitel 1984. 2. A method to compute the
during the passage of seismic waves. asymptotic behavior of an integral, also called the
stationary wave: A standing wave q.v.. saddle-point method; see Morse and Feshbach
statistical measures: The most common measures of a 1967: 437.
distribution of data for a set of n values X i are shown in steer: To introduce time shifts into an ensemble of traces
Figure S-23. so that energy approaching from a given direction
statistical stacking: Selective stacking q.v.. appears at the same time on all traces. Used in beam
steady mass: Stationary mass q.v.. steering, in studying earthquakes with large arrays, etc.
steady state: Equilibrium conditions observed when there Variations include weighting the components and/or
are no short time variations. filtering before summing.
steam flooding: High-pressure steam injected into a for- Stefan-Boltzmanns law: shte fan bo ltz monz The
mation to reduce the viscosity of heavy crudes so that amount of energy radiated by a blackbody per unit time
they can flow to production wells. per unit area is proportional to the fourth power of the
steam gun: Vaporchoc q.v.. temperature in kelvin.
steam quality: 1. In geothermal development, the quality Stefanesco function: Kernel function q.v..
of steam produced from underground is measured in stepback: The correction applied to a location such as the
terms of the weight of steam required to generate one location of a seismic ship determined by radio methods
kilowatt-hour of electrical energy. 2. The mass fraction to yield the midpoint for seismic data, allowing for the
of steam divided by the total mass. positions of the streamer and source with respect to the
steam stimulation: High-pressure steam is injected into a navigation antenna. See Figure O-1.
formation for several days or weeks, following which step function: An abrupt increase or decrease from one
the formation soaks up the heat, allowing viscous oil constant value to another often from zero to one, or
to flow more freely when the same well is put on vice versa. The first derivative of a step function is an
production. The entire process is then repeated. Also impulse. Also called Heaviside function.
called steam soaking and huff and puff. step-function response: Output of a system when the
Steenland-Vacquier rule: ste n land vak a See input consists of a step function. For a linear system it
straight slope measurement. Named for Nelson C. is the integral of the impulse response.
Steenland 19192000 and Victor Vacquier 1907, step length: The magnitude of a change made during one
American geophysicists. step of an iterative procedure.
steepest descent: 1. An iterative method of approaching a stepout: 1. Trace to trace differences in arrival time
minimum by taking an increment along the steepest because of dip; moveout. Normal moveout is used for
gradient to arrive at the next approximation, the step differences because of offset source-to-geophone dis-
tance. 2. Step-out well q.v..
step-out well: A well drilled following a discovery to
determine the extent of the reservoir.
stepped-gain amplifier: An amplifier whose gain is vari-
able in discrete steps. Gain changes may be pro-
grammed, i.e., predetermined by the user, or they may
be controlled by the magnitude of the signal being
amplified.
stepping method: A surveying method for determining
the elevation of the stadia rod with respect to the
transit. A point that is level with the transit is sighted
through the telescope, which is then tilted so that the
bottom cross-hair is aligned with the point. Another
point in the line of the top cross-hair is sighted and the
procedure is repeated until the stadia rod comes into the
view of the telescope. The number of steps or times of
retilting the telescope is counted and converted to Bea-
mans, the full intercept between the stadia wires being
one Beaman.
steradian: st ra n A unit of measure of solid angle.
de
A sphere4 steradians.
stereographic projection: ster e graf, ik 1. A repre-
FIG. S-23. Statistical measures. Common measures sentation of directional information used in three-
of a distribution of data. dimensional structural problems. A stereonet or Wulff
stick 337 straight slope measurement
net is used if angular relations are to be preserved and Stiff diagram: Diagrams illustrating changes in ionic con-
a Schmidt or Lambert net if areas are to be preserved. centrations.
Lines are represented as points indicating their direc- stiffness: The ratio of stress acting in a specified direction
tion, planes as either great circles cyclographic pro- to the strain in a specified direction, not necessarily the
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jection or points for axial lines perpendicular to the same as that of the stress. Stiffness constitutes a tensor
plane polar projection. See Figure S-24. 2. A projec- of rank four. When expressed as a 66 matrix, the
tion used to map the Earth; see Figure M-4. stiffness tensor is the inverse of the compliance tensor.
stick: A time-domain representation of amplitude at a See Figure E-5.
particular time. A scaled impulse. See stickogram and still readings: Stationary marine gravity readings at fixed
compare stick plot. base locations.
stickogram: 1. Graph of reflection coefficients as a func- stillstand: A period of time during which there is not
tion of depth, often made from sonic-log data as an much variation in the level of the land with respect to
intermediate step in synthetic-seismogram q.v. prepa- sea level.
ration; see model in Figure S-30a. Stickograms may stinger: See tail stinger.
or may not include sticks which represent multiples. 2. stochastic: Random; a value determined from a specified
A time-domain diagram of a sampled waveform or filter distribution by chance. Opposite of deterministic.
showing the successive quantized values of the wave- Compare Markovian variable.
form or of the impulse response of the filter. stochastic modeling: 1. Random variation of model
stick plot: A presentation of a dipmeter result where the parameters. 2. Generally used interchangably with con-
well bore is represented by a line according to the ditional simulation q.v..
projection of the well onto a vertical plane, and the stock tank: Oil storage tank.
components of dip in this plane are indicated by short STOIIP: Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place in the reser-
line segments. voir.
Stokes theorem: stokz The vector relation relating a
line integral around a closed loop to the surface integral
of the curl:
Ad A ds,
by an index value. Indices are 1.9 for a vertical or strain energy: The work involved in straining a body; for
horizontal thin sheet, 1.7 for a thick sheet, 1.4 for a a conservative system, the potential energy stored in a
pluglike body, 1.3 for a wide body, 1.2 for a contact, strain. If the body is elastic, the work is
and 1.5 as a default value. Also called maximum slope
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history. Rocks may be classified in various ways; see stringer: A thin layer whose presence may be erratic
stratigraphic classification. Principles of stratigraphy that has high velocity and is within the near-surface
include 1 principle of superposition lower layers are low-velocity layer. A stringer is too thin or not continu-
older than upper layers, 2 principle of original hori- ous enough to carry refracted energy very far.
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zontality stratified rocks are originally deposited string galvanometer: A wire in a magnetic field that gets
nearly horizontally, and 3 principle of lateral conti- deflected proportional to the current flowing through it.
nuity a stratified rock body originally extended later- The shadow of the wire projected onto photographic
ally until it terminated at the edge of a basin, thinned to film gives a record of the current variations. Used in
zero thickness, or changed character into another seismic cameras up to the 1950s.
deposit. strip log: A sample log q.v..
strat test: A well that is drilled primarily to obtain geo- striping: Clustering q.v. in a more-or-less linear way.
logical information rather than to discover hydrocar- strip migration: Migration of a swath of 3-D data.
bons. stripper well: A well producing less than 10 barrels of oil
streamer: A marine cable incorporating pressure hydro- per day.
phones, designed for continuous towing through the stripping: A procedure that successively removes the
water. A marine streamer Figure S-26 is typically effects of upper layers. 1. Making corrections which
made up of 96 or more active or live sections which effectively place seismic source and receivers at the
contain hydrophone arrays separated by spacer or dead base of the stripped layers. 2. Removing the calculated
sections. Usually a streamer is nearly neutrally buoyant effects of layers successively. Stripping is sometimes
and depressors or depth controllers q.v. are attached used in gravity interpretation. Synonym: layer strip-
to depress the streamer to maintain the proper towing ping.
depth. The entire streamer may be 3 8 km in length. strips of convergence: See Laplace transform.
streamer feathering: Drift of a marine streamer to one strobe: To read or measure at discrete time intervals.
side because of a cross-current. See Figure T-4a. strong-motion accelerograph: A self-actuating, triaxial
streaming potential: See electrokinetic potential. earthquake recorder designed to provide acceleration
stream tracking: A mode of tracking picking used at data on strong, local earthquakes. Used in engineering
seismic work stations. studies for dams, power plants, etc.
strength: The limiting stress before failure. strontium isotope dating: Age dating of marine sedi-
stress: The intensity of force acting on a body, in terms of ments less than 200 ka old based on their 87Sr/ 86 Sr
force per unit area. Stressstiffness tensor strain. ratio. This ratio has been changing with time because
The largest principal stress is usually designated 1 and water from river systems has a higher ratio than sea
the least stress 3 , 2 being intermediate. water. Measurement of the ratio in marine sediments
stretch: 1. The change in wavelet shape produced by thus can be related to the ratio value at the time the
applying a normal-moveout correction. 2. To change sediments were deposited.
the scale to make comparisons easier, e.g, to display S- structure: 1. The general disposition, attitude, arrange-
and P-wave sections at approximately double time scale ment, or relative position of the rock masses of an area;
to roughly accommodate the differences between S- the sum total of the structural features of an area,
and P-wave velocities. 3. To change the assignment of consequent upon such deformational processes as fault-
display color to successive frequency windows to ing, folding, and igneous intrusion. 2. Any physical
obtain similar populations in each window; a way of arrangement of rocks such as an anticline, fault, or
assigning false colors q.v.. dome that may involve the accumulation of oil or gas.
stretch and squeeze: To arbitrarily shorten or lengthen 3. A subsurface area characterized by folding and/or
short intervals of well logs to better match a seismic faulting. 4. Seismic anomaly, usually a closed high.
trace. structural model: A model showing the spatial distribu-
stretch modulus: Youngs modulus; see elastic constant. tion of density, magnetic susceptibility, velocity, resis-
stretch section: A portion of a marine seismic streamer tivity, or other parameters.
designed to isolate the sensitive portion of the streamer structural section: A display of seismic reflections which
from shocks because of motions of the towing ship or attempts to portray the attitude of bedding.
tail buoy. structural style: The structural features that result from a
strike: 1. The direction of the intersection of a surface and certain stress history. Structural style considerations can
a horizontal plane; the horizontal direction at right assist in seismic interpretation. See Sheriff and Geldart
angles to the dip. As in the strike of a bed or the 1995, 364-70.
strike of a fault. 2. The projection on the horizontal structured program: A program organized around sepa-
of the major axis of the ellipse of polarization. rate semi-independent modules linked together by a
strike filter: A band-pass filter designed to pass or attenu- single sequence of simple commands.
ate Fourier components along a specified azimuth. structure-sensitive conductivity: See extrinsic conduc-
strike shooting: Attempting to acquire data such that azi- tion.
muths between source and receiver are perpendicular to strum: See cable strum.
the dominant geologic dip. stub line: Short lines to fill in space otherwise inad-
strike-slip fault: A fault across which motion has been equately covered.
predominantly horizontal. See Figure F-3. stunt box: A device which controls the nonprinting func-
string: 1. Several geophones which are permanently con- tions of an output device upon receiving orders.
nected together; a flyer. 2. A computer string is a su: 1. Sigma Unit or capture unit q.v., a unit for measur-
sequence of elements such as bits or characters. ing capture cross section. 2. Seismic Unix, open soft-
sub 340 superposition
ware available from Colorado School of Mines. nal geophones plus a hydrophone.
sub: A subassembly, a portion of a larger assembly or subsource: A seismic energy release impulsive or of
system. another kind; the records from a set of subsources are
subbin: A bin smaller than the nominal bin, used in bin then stacked vertically to make one profile for input to
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the components of the input. If , , and are opera- surface source: A seismic energy source which is used on
tions to be performed on a(t) and b(t), then superpo- the surface of the ground as opposed to one in a
sition dictates that borehole.
surface stacking chart: See stacking chart.
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tile values and 40% of the median value. SWC, sidewall core: A sample of a formation obtained by
swarm: 1. A series of minor earthquakes, none of which firing a bullet into the formation or by mechanical
may be identified as the main shock, occurring in a coring.
limited area and time. Often of volcanic origin. 2. A sweep: 1. The frequency of a vibroseis source is varied
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group of roughly parallel igneous intrusives usually continuously during a sweep period, commonly 7 s
dikes. or longer. See sweep frequency and Figure V-12. 2. To
swath: 1. A strip of terrain recorded by sensors at one time explore the effect of varying a parameter. Velocity
or during one sweep. 2. 3D land acquisition where lines sweeping consists of trying various normal moveouts
of geophones are orthogonal to source lines. on a set of common-midpoint data to see which stack-
swath method: A type of three-dimensional (3D) survey- ing velocity emphasizes desired events. Dip sweeping
ing q.v.; see Figure T-4. is done in the sonograph process; see sonogram. 3. The
S-wave: A body wave in which the particle motion is steady movement of the electron beam across a
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Also cathode-ray screen. 4. A cycle of operations such as a
called secondary wave undae secundae, shear wave, radar antenna making one rotation or a side-scan sonar
transverse wave, rotational wave, distortional wave, cycle.
equivolumnar wave, tangential wave. S-waves are
sweep frequency: Changing the frequency of a vibroseis
generated by the incidence of P-waves on interfaces at
source during a sweep period. In an upsweep fre-
other than normal incidence, whereupon they are called
quencies are generally increased linearly during the
converted waves SV-waves. In an isotropic medium
the velocity of shear waves V s is given by sweep, in a downsweep they are decreased linearly.
Other patterns of changing the frequency during a
V s / 1/2 E/ 2 1 1/2 , sweep are sometimes used.
sweep rate: The vibroseis signal bandwidth divided by
where is the shear modulus, is the density, E is the sweep length.
Youngs modulus, and is Poissons ratio. S-waves sweet gas: Natural gas containing few sulfur compounds.
have two degrees of freedom and can be polarized in sweet spot: A favorable location to drill a well.
various ways. See SH-wave and SV-wave. S-wave swell noise: Marine noise due to long-period changes in
reflection data are often displayed at half the vertical the ocean surface, which changes the hydrostatic pres-
scale of the comparable P-wave data to compensate sure at the streamer.
roughly for the differences between S-wave and P-wave swivel: See drill rig.
velocities; see Figure S-28. See Danbom and Domenico Sykes diagram: Beach balls see Figure F-10 that
1987, Tatham and McCormack 1991, and Garotta indicate the type of faulting involved in earthquakes.
2000. Syledis: si le
ds A medium-range UHF pulsed-time
S-wave splitting: See shear-wave splitting. radio positioning system operating in the 420 450-MHz
FIG. S-28. S-wave and P-wave sections compared. a P-wave section; b S-wave section plotted at half the vertical
scale used for the P-wave section. (Courtesy CGG.)
symbolic language 343 synthetic seismogram
range. Signal processing using pseudorandom noise receipt of the action potential at the axon terminal, a
coding allows very accurate time measurements and neurotransmitter signal is released into synaptic cleft
hence high accuracy. Sercel trade name. axon. Fibers conduct the action potential signal to other
symbolic language: A collection of symbols used in pro- neurons. Represented by a node in neural nets.
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gramming to represent operation codes, functions, synchronous data link control: An IBM communications
addresses, etc., with rules of usage. protocol that supports transmission of binary data, mul-
symmetry system: There are eight groups of symmetry tidrop devices, and multiplexing of multiple logical
properties possessed by homogeneous solids which can links on one physical line.
be distinguished from one another by the forms of their synchronous detection: A method of enhancing signal
elastic tensors. Rotational symmetry means that a and suppressing noise by synchronizing the detection
body is the same after rotation other than rotation of period of the voltmeter receiver with the on cycle of
2 about a symmetry axis. Mirror symmetry exists at the current transmitter or reference signal.
a plane in a body if and where the body on one side of synchronous protocol: 1. A communications protocol in
the plane is identical to the reflection of the body on the which the two stations synchronize to the carrier signal
other side. The symmetry systems ranked according to before any data are transmitted. 2. A protocol in which
the number of independent elastic constants are shown receipt of data is acknowledged before additional data
in Figure S-29. The various systems can be thought of are transmitted.
as caused by parallel sets of cracks, though this may not syncline: A fold in stratified rocks in which the rocks dip
be how they are created. See also anisotropic (seismic). toward a central depression, that is, the attitude of the
synapse: The physical signal contact between neurons. On rocks is concave upward; opposite of anticline.
syndepositional: Contemporaneous wiith deposition, such
as a growth fault.
synergetic: sin, r jet ik A combination of data elements
such that more information is apparent from the com-
bination than from the elements treated independently.
Also spelled synergistic. Synergetic Log is a Schlum-
berger trade name.
syntax: sin taks 1. Rules for recording objects in sets. 2.
The rules that govern creating valid program code in a
computer language.
synthetic acoustic impedance log: A graph of acoustic
impedance, velocity, or slowness transit time derived
by inversion of seismic data and additional constraints;
for synthetic velocity or slowness logs, additional den-
sity data are required. The vertical scale may be either
time or depth and the data may or may not have been
migrated before inversion. Also called seismic log,
synthetic sonic log, G-log, saile log, Seislog. See Fig-
ures A-3 and Lindseth 1979.
synthetic aperture: The effect of a much larger antenna
achieved by summing readings as the antenna is
moved. Usually refers to radar SAR where the dipole
antenna is transported normal to its axis to achieve
greater directivity effectively a larger aperture. See
also beam-forming.
synthetic fault: A minor fault whose throw is in the same
sense as that of the major fault with which it is associ-
ated. Opposite of antithetic fault.
synthetic seismogram: An artificial seismic reflection
record manufactured by assuming that a particular
waveform travels through an assumed model. See Fig-
ures S-30 and D-18a. a A 1D synthetic seismogram
is formed by simply convolving an embedded wave-
form with a reflectivity function also called a sticko-
gram because it is usually plotted as a series of spikes
indicating the sign and magnitude of the reflectivity at
successive interfaces, the variable usually being two-
way traveltime. The embedded waveform is some-
times an assumed waveform such as a Ricker wavelet
and sometimes a waveform resulting from analysis of
actual seismic data the embedded wavelet, also called
the equivalent wavelet. The reflectivity function some-
times involves primary reflections only, sometimes
FIG. S-29. Symmetry systems. selected multiples are added, sometimes all multiples
synthetic seismogram 344 synthetic seismogram
are added. Sometimes earth-filtering effects divergence unknown or else some relationship between density
and other attenuation effects, including frequency- and velocity is assumed. b While a 1D synthetic
dependent absorption are also simulated. The reflectiv- seismogram is a single-channel convolution in effect
ity is usually that calculated for normal incidence from involving vertical travel in the assumed model only and
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velocity and density data, but often only velocity horizontally continuous layering, often the model is
changes are considered because density changes are varied and successive 1D traces are displayed side by
FIG. S-30. Synthetic seismogram. a Schematic of manufacture process. (From Stommel and Graul, 1978.) b
Portion of synthetic seismogram (right half) compared to actual seismic section (left half). (Courtesy Grant-Norpac.)
synthetic seismogram 345 synthetic seismogram
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FIG. S-31. Syslap method. a Explosion in center hole generates mainly P-waves. b Because of the asymmetry
produced by the explosion in the center hole, the explosion in the right hole generates S-waves as well as P-waves.
c The left hole produces P-waves plus S-waves of polarity opposite to those from the right hole. Subtracting records
from the right and left holes doubles the S-wave contributions and considerably reduces the P-wave contributions.
(Courtesy CGG.)
FIG. S-32. System tracts and the seismic patterns that indicate sea-level changes. Coastal onlap is evidence of a rise
of sea level, a seaward and downward shift in onlap is evidence of a fall of sea level, and a landward movement of
sediment packages is evidence of transgression. a Types of reflection terminations. b System tracts; a stratigraphic
sequence begins with a sea-level fall at the end of a highstand tract (HST) and ends with the next highstand tract. A
lowstand tract (LST) is the first unit after a large sea-level fall, lying on top of a type 1 sequence boundary (SB1). It is
subdivided into basin-floor fan (bf), slope fan (sf), and lowstand wedge (lsw). A rapid rise of sea level produces a
transgressive tract (TST), at the top of which there lies the maximum flooding surface (mfs) and a thin, fossil-rich
condensed section. The first unit after a sea-level fall that does not fall below the shelf edge (type-2 sequence boundary,
SB2) is a shelf-margin tract (SMST). (From Vail, 1987, 2, 4.)
synthetic sonic log 346 system tract
side to simulate a seismic section. It is used to compare 2. A chronostratigraphic subdivision; see stratigraphic
with an actual seismogram to aid in identifying events classification.
or to predict how variations in the model might appear systematic error: Error not attributable to chance alone.
on a seismic section. c A two-dimensional synthetic Systematic errors generally do not average out merely
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seismogram allows for wave effects including reflec- by including more measurements. They may be caused
tions from dipping reflectors, diffractions, etc. Usually by bias produced by the instruments for example,
only 2D effects are included but occasionally true 3D incorrect scale factor or incorrect zero, by the observer
effects are included. Often only coincident source and or measuring procedures for example, not selecting
receiver are modeled, but sometimes offset-dependent representative samples or altering samples before the
effects are included, occasionally including head measurements, or by the action of factors or physical
waves, surface waves, and other wave modes. It some- laws that are not properly allowed for or understood.
times involves stratigraphic modeling. d A 1.5D syn- Most geophysical noise is systematic.
thetic seismogram includes AVO effects. The making system deconvolution: See deconvolution.
of a synthetic seismogram is an example of direct system response: The response of an electromagnetic sys-
modeling. tem to an ideal spike input signal.
synthetic sonic log: 1. A sonic log manufactured from system tract: A subdivision within a sequence: lowstand,
seismic data. See synthetic acoustic impedance log. 2. transgressive, highstand system tracts see individual
A sonic log manufactured from other logs. entries and Figure S-32; see also shelf-margin tract.
Syslap method: sislap A method of generating an System tracts result from a linkage of contemporaneous
S-wave record. See Figure S-31. Trade name of CGG. depositional systems. Each is associated with a specific
system: 1. An assemblage united by interactions. For segment of a eustatic curve and is characterized by
example, the seismic system includes the earth, geo- geometry and facies associations. They result from the
phones, amplifiers, seismic wave transmission through interaction of eustasy, sediment supply, and isostatic
the earth, recording, processing, and final presentation. subsidence. Often spelled systems tract.
T
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T: 1. Tera, the SI prefix for 10 12 . 2. Tesla, the SI unit of composed of vertical prisms. Differences between the
magnetic field strength; equals 1 weber/m2 or 1 N/A.m. gravity calculated from the model and observed gravity
3. Period; the time between adjacent corresponding is used to change the depths to the prisms iteratively.
points on a periodic wave; the reciprocal of frequency. Talwani modeling: tal wa ne 1. The gravity field of a
See Figure W-2. body is represented by horizontal polygonic thin layers
T1,T2: See nuclear magnetic resonance log and the field of each is calculated. It can accommodate
: Tau q.v.. density variation with depth. See Talwani et al. 1959.
tab: 1. An indicator of where data begin or end. 2. A 2. Potential-field models of polygonal cross-section and
special character which indicates that the next character very great infinite strike length. Named for Manik
should be placed at some predetermined position. 3. To Talwani 1933, American geophysicist.
indent. tamp: To pack material about an explosive in a shothole.
TABS: 1. Three-component geophone q.v.. 2. TriAxial The objectives of tamping are better coupling of the
Borehole Seismometer. explosive energy with the earth and retarding the expul-
tabular body: A body of finite thickness with one edge sion of the gaseous and other products of the explosion,
horizontal but other edges infinitely remote; an infinite thereby improving the conversion of explosive energy
dike. Implies that a bodys width is more than 50 times to seismic energy and delaying hole-blow effects. Water
its thickness. Used as a model in potential field calcu- or mud is usually used, sometimes sand and earth.
lations. See Figure M-15. tamper: An earth compactor used as an energy source
tactical characteristics: Characteristics which determine with Sosie q.v.; whacker.
maneuverability under various conditions. tandem survey: Electromagnetic survey method in which
tadpole plot: A type of plot of dipmeter or drift results; an both transmitting and receiving coils are moved simul-
arrow plot. The position of a dot gives the dip angle taneously, maintaining a constant separation between
versus depth and a line segment pointing from the dot them. Equivalent to moving-source method.
gives the direction of dip, using the usual map conven- tangential stress: Shearing stress; see stress.
tion of north being up. See Figure D-14. tangential wave: S-wave q.v..
Tafels law: An empirical relationship between overvolt- tangent projection: See map projection.
age and current density J at an anode or cathode: tape: 1. A magnetic tape q.v.. 2. A survey chain q.v..
tape-guide pins: Pins of nonmagnetic material which help
ab log10 J, position magnetic tape and prevent tape skew q.v..
taper: To become smaller gradually, such as values at the
where a and b are experimentally determined constants.
edge of a survey gradually decreasing to prevent a
This law applies over a greater current-density range
discontinuity at the edge of the survey or as the multi-
than is used in IP field measurements.
plicity at the end of a seismic line decreases regularly.
Tagg method: A method of interpreting resistivity-
See also tapered array.
sounding data obtained with the Wenner array over a
tapered array: A source or geophone array in which
two-layered earth.
elements contribute unequally. Tapered source arrays
tail buoy: A floating marker, usually with a reflector to aid
may be achieved by loading different amounts of explo-
in its location by radar, attached to the end of a seismic
sives in different shotholes of a pattern, by varying the
streamer. An active tail buoy has its own power source
number of source impulses pops, weight drops, etc. or
and GPS unit for determination of position.
their spacing, or by varying the weighting while vertical
tail end: The portion of a seismic line behind the source,
stacking. Tapered geophone or hydrophone arrays may
that is, in the direction from which the source has been
be achieved by varying the output of the different
moving.
elements, the spacing of the elements, or most com-
tailing: Lengthening of a waveform, as by adding extra
monly the number of elements at each location. Array
cycles.
tapering is used to change the directivity pattern. Gen-
tail mute: Deleting data that arrive after some boundary
erally the attenuation in the reject region is made
drawn in offset-time space. Used to eliminate ground
greater and more nearly constant but at the price of
roll, air waves, or similar slow wavetrains. Also called
widening the major lobe for the same number of ele-
inside mute.
ments and overall array size. See Figure D-15c.
tail stinger: A mounting for an instrument often a mag-
tapered sweep: Vibroseis sweep where source varies as
netometer that protrudes from the tail of a survey
aircraft.
takeout: A connection point to a multiconductor cable A t cos o b t t ,
where geophones or geophone flyers can be connected.
Takeouts are usually polarized to reduce the likelihood A(t) being the time-dependent factor that produces the
of making the connection backwards. tapering. Most vibroseis sweeps are tapered for 100
Talwani inversion: Gravity interpretation that assumes 200 ms at the start and end of the sweep to make it
only one contrast at the top of a homogeneous layer easier on the equipment and to avoid the undesirable
347
tapered window 348 TCA
effects of a sharp start or stop discontinuity. Compare common-midpoint gather can be described in terms of
nonlinear sweep. slope dt/dx p and intercept time , the arrival time
tapered window: Window or gate with gradual edges. obtained by projecting the slope back to xO, where
Compared to an abrupt boxcar window, a tapered win- xsource-geophone distance; see Figure T-1. The
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dow lessens the dependence on high frequencies transform process is also called slant stack, the Radon
required to represent it adequately, simplifying many transform, and plane-wave decomposition. Filtering
types of processing. Some tapers in common use are can be done on the - p map and the filtered result
shown in Figure W-12. See also Gibbs phenomena. transformed back into a record. Negative offsets can be
taper mix: See mixing. padded with zeroes to avoid wrap-wound problems. See
taphrogenic: A term referring to regional block-faulting Diebold and Stoffa 1981. Similar to tau-gamma
tectonics. See tectonic types. mapping, where gamma is angle of emergence,
tap test: A recording made as a geophone is tapped gamma sin1(pV0).
lightly, showing which channel that geophone feeds. Taylor series: A function f (x) can be expressed in terms
Used to check that the spread is properly connected and of the value of the function and its derivatives at any
oriented and also that the geophone is live. point xb. In one variable this is
TAR: True-Amplitude Recovery; a process for removing
the effects of variable gain in the field recording and d f b d2 f b
f x f b xb xb 2
adjusting the amplitude to compensate for spherical 1!dx 2!dx 2
divergence and other time-dependent attenuation.
tare: See tear. d3 f b
xb 3 . . . ,
target: 1. The object at which a survey sighting is aimed. 3!dx 3
2. A sliding marker on a stadia rod on which one sights
while leveling. where ! denotes factorial e.g., 3!3216 . This
Tarrant method: A graphical refraction interpretation series converges if
method applicable where refractor shape varies; see
Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 440-441 or Tarrant 1956. d f b /dx
limit xb 1.
task: A piece of a computation. n n f nb b
task force: A team of people usually of different disci-
plines assigned to solve a specific problem. Named for Brook Taylor 16851731, English math-
tau : 1. Time to reach a background: see pulsed neutron ematician. The Maclaurin series is the special case
capture log. 2. Intercept time; see tau-p mapping. where b0.
tau-gamma - mapping: See tau-p mapping. TB: Time Break q.v..
tau-p -p domain: See tau-p mapping and Figure T-1. TBRT: Thin Bed Resistivity Tool q.v..
tau-p mapping -p: An unstacked seismic record or a TCA: Time of Closest Approach q.v..
FIG. T-1. Tau-p (-p mapping. a An end-on seismic record is f(x,t) where xsource-geophone distance (offset) and
tarrival time. b Its tau-p transform is F( ,p) where pdt/dx1/V a and intercept time at x0. The reciprocal of
the apparent velocity, p, is called slowness. Hyperbolic reflections transform into ellipses, straight events into points (the
direct wave into P 1 , the head wave into P 2 ).
Tchebyscheff array 349 template
Tchebyscheff array: Chebyshev array q.v.. energy are measured simultaneously at two or more
TCP: Thickness-Conductivity Product. stations. The measurements from one station, which
TCR: Through-Casing Resistivity. serves as a base, are used to normalize the measure-
TD: Total Depth, the maximum depth reached by a well. ments from other stations to compensate for variation
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T-D curve: 1 Time-Distance curve q.v.. 2. Plot of Time- of the source with time. The normalized measurements,
Depth chart q.v. data. plotted as vectors at each station, may outline an ellipse
T2-D2: X 2 -T 2 ; see X 2 -T 2 analysis. if signals from several different azimuths are recorded
T-T analysis: Normal moveout (t) as a function of as the source changes. The relative area of the ellipse at
offset x and arrival time t that can be used to yield each station is ideally inversely proportional to the
stacking velocity (V s ): conductance of the sedimentary section above the base-
ment. The orientation of the ellipse yields information
V s x/ 2tt 1/2 . about the direction of current flow.
See velocity. telluric magnetotelluric method: A reconnaisance mag-
TDEMTEM: Time-Domain ElectroMagnetic method, netotelluric method where the magnetic field at one site
a controlled-source method. See transient electromag- is used with the telluric fields measured at neighboring
netic method. sites. Also called EMAP.
TE: 1. Transverse Electric q.v.. 2. Interecho spacing in telluric profiling: A rarely used reconnaissance resistivity
nuclear-magnetic-resonance logging. method in which an array of three inline electrodes
tear: A discontinuity in data usually indicating an error in emplaced along the traverse line forms two consecutive
measurement or computation rather than an actual jump grounded electric dipoles, with the central electrode in
in the quantity being measured. Sometimes spelled common. Signals from the two dipoles are filtered
tare. about a band of high geomagnetic activity e.g., periods
tear fault: A type of strike-slip fault; see Figure F-4. of the order of 20 s to yield amplitude ratio and phase
tectogene: tek t je n A downbuckling of the Earths difference. The array is leap-frogged along the survey
crust. line to obtain continuous relative electric-field intensity
tectonics: Major structural features produced by uplift, ratios. When successively multiplied together, the ratios
downwarp, compression, or faulting, with the more yield a relative amplitude profile of the component of
significant lineations associated with such features. the electric field in the traverse line direction. Explora-
Tectonic map is usually applied to maps covering tion depth varies inversely with frequency and usually
large areas while maps of smaller areas showing the two or more frequencies are recorded and analyzed.
same features are called structural maps. Also known as inline tellurics or E-field-ratio tellu-
tectonic types: Four types of broad structural deforma- rics. See Beyer 1977.
tions are a orogenic or mountain-building involving tellurometer: An electronic survey instrument for mea-
lateral forces, folding, and thrusting; b epirogenic or suring distances with great accuracy. A high-frequency
relatively gentle warping, c taphrogenic involving (310 9 Hz) radio pulse is transmitted to the rod
mainly vertical forces and block faulting, and d lin- transponder, where it is retransmitted back to the master
eagenic involving strike-slip faulting. transmitter that measures the time that has elapsed since
tectonophysics: See geophysics. the original transmission. Accuracy of a few inches in
tectonosphere: tek ton o sphe r The portion of the Earth several miles can be achieved with proper corrections
above the point of isostatic balance, that is involved in mainly for moisture content of the air. Line-of-sight
tectonic activity. limited. Trade name of Tellurometer, Ltd.
telemetering: The transmission of data over a distance, TEM: 1. Transient ElectroMagnetic method q.v.. 2.
such as from a point of observation to a recording point. Transmission Electron Microscopy.
Used to transmit to the recording unit data which are temperature log: A well log of temperature, often made
digitized near the geophones, either over a wire or by with a resistance thermometer thermistor. Used for
radio. Telemetered time signals can be used for syn- locating a cement behind the casing because the
chronous detection of resistivity and IP signals. setting of cement is exothermic and hence raises tem-
teleprocessing: A data-processing and communications perature, b intervals which are producing gas
system which permits input/output devices to be remote because the expansion of gas as it enters the borehole
from the processing devices. lowers the temperature, and c fluid flows particu-
teleseism: An earthquake whose epicenter is over 1000 larly behind the casing. The differential-temperature
km away. Earthquakes originating nearer are local log records the difference between two thermometers
earthquakes. which are usually about 6 ft apart; this log is especially
televiewer: See borehole televiewer. sensitive to very small changes in temperature gradient.
telluric: Of the earth. Often refers specifically to telluric temperature surveying: Measurements of temperature to
currents q.v.. locate thermal-energy sources or to investigate ground-
telluric current: te loor ik A natural electrical earth water problems, thermal springs, karst cavities, sulfide
current of low frequency which extends over a large deposits, dikes, structure faults affecting groundwater
region. Telluric currents originate in variations of the flow, etc. See geothermal prospecting.
Earths magnetic field that are induced by ionospheric template: 1. A pattern. 2. A sheet of transparent plastic
changes. marked with statics or normal-moveout patterns; used
telluric-current method: A method in which orthogonal as a guide in picking seismic events. 3. A transparent
components of the horizontal electric field associated overlay for calculating gravity or magnetic effects such
with currents induced in the earth by natural sources of as a dot chart q.v.. Templates are used for terrain
template scan 350 thermal imaging
correction, isostatic correction, or residualizing. See vicinity of the station may require special surveying
also graticule, patch, and zone chart. 4. The nominal terrain surveying, whereas corrections for more
geometry active receivers for a single source emis- remote relief often are made from a topographic map
sion. 5. A subsea assembly to space boreholes under a using a terrain-correction template or zone chart. 2. A
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see transit and Figure T-12.
F xx F xy F xz theoretical gravity: Values given by the International
Gravity Formula q.v..
F yx Fyy F yz . thermal capacity: The ability of a material to store heat.
F zx F zy F zz thermal conductivity: The heat flow across a surface per
unit area per unit time divided by the negative of the
For the field F, the rate of change in the j direction of rate of change of temperature perpendicular to the
the gradient in the i direction is Fij. surface. Also called heat conductivity.
tensor impedance: The impedance obtained from total- thermal-decay-time log TDT: See neutron-lifetime log.
vector measurements of the electric and magnetic TDT is a Schlumberger trade name.
fields. The vector electric field E and the vector current- thermal diffusivity: A quantity which relates to how long
density field J are related by the resistivity tensor in it takes for a remote thermal event to have perceptible
which E J; in an isotropic material is a scalar. effect on temperature. The value k/ c p , where k
tensor magnetotelluric method: A magnetotelluric thermal conductivity, density, and c p specific
method q.v. in which orthogonal measurements of heat at constant pressure. For most rocks it is of the
both horizontal magnetic and electric fields are made order of 15 60 km2/Ma.
(H x ,H y ,E x ,E y ) so that the impedance can be described thermal enhanced-recovery methods: Methods that
as a complex tensor to account for anisotropy or two- involve heating a reservoir to improve the production of
dimensional structure. heavy viscous crudes. Methods include steam stimula-
terminal: An input and/or output device for a computer. tion huff and puff, steam flooding, and in-situ com-
Terra: The first of NASAs EOS spacecraft was launched bustion see individual entries. Other enhanced oil
early in the year 2000. It carries five remote sensing recovery EOR methods include miscible and chemi-
instruments especially to cover land areas. The MODIS cal flooding.
and ASTER instruments on this spacecraft will prob- thermal gradient: The rate of temperature increase within
ably be most used by the geophysical community. Two the Earth as a function of depth.
other EOS spacecraft with instruments of superior char- thermal gradient hole: A hole logged by a temperature
acteristics for studying the hydrosphere and the atmo- probe to determine the thermal gradient. Usually
sphere were to be launched in 2000 and 2001. involves a hole less than 500 ft deep drilled specifically
terrain correction: 1. A correction to gravity data for this purpose.
required because the surroundings are not all at the thermal imaging: Mapping with infrared radiation. See
same elevation as the meter. Relief in the immediate thermal-infrared.
thermal inertia 351 thin-bed resistivity tool TBRT
thermal inertia: A composite thermal property, k/K 1/2 , thermocouple: Two dissimilar conductors welded
where k is thermal conductivity and K is thermal diffu- together at one end. When the junction is heated, a
sivity, that is, it is a measure of the response of a voltage develops across it which is proportional to the
material to temperature changes induced from outside temperature difference between the junction and the
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FIG. T-3. 3D control plots show the distribution of multiplicity, offsets, azimuths, etc. in various bins; they permit
visualizing the uniformity that has been achieved. The black squares and green circles show source and geophone
locations. The distribution of offsets a and azimuths b is not completely uniform even in a land survey where the
acquisition is regular. Minor deviations in streamer location produce multiplicity irregularities in a marine survey c that
are partially alleviated by flexible binning. (From Yilmaz, 2000, 1023, 1032, 1033.)
thin-layer anisotropy 353 Thomsen anisotropic parameters
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FIG. T-3c.
focusing. Has a bed resolution of about 2 inches and The five independent constants, c11 , c13 , c33 , c44 , c66 ,
return of about 20 feet. Baker-Atlas trademark. for weak anisotropy have been combined into the
thin-layer anisotropy: See transverse isotropy. Thomsen parameters that relate more directly to seis-
thin, thick layers: A layer is regarded as thin when its mic data:
thickness is less than 1/4 of the dominant wavelength.
(c 33 / ) 1/2 P-wave velocity parallel to the sym-
The thickness of individual thin layers cannot be deter-
metry axis;
mined by time measurements but sometimes can be
determined by amplitude measurements see tuning (c 44 / ) 1/2 S-wave velocity parallel to the sym-
effect, whereas the thickness of a thick layer is deter- metry axis;
mined mainly from time difference measurements. (epsilon)(c 11 c 33 )/(2c 33 )( )/2
thinthick dike: A thick dike is a vertical body whose 21 fractional change in the P-wave velocity;
width is about the same as, or greater than, the depth to (gamma)(c 66 c 44 )/(2c 44 ).( )/2
its top. The width of a thin dike is much less than the 21 fractional change in the S-wave velocity;
depth of its top; also called thin sheet. (c c ) 2 (c c ) 2
third-order sequence: A sequence q.v. deposited in 13 (delta) 21 13 c 44(c c33 ) 44 ,
33 33 44
million years Van Wagoner, 1995.
where c i j indicate elements in the stiffness matrix. Note
thixotropic: thik so tr pik A property of gels which
that , and are dimensionless and have values
allows them to become liquid when agitated. Drilling
smaller than 0.5, frequently much smaller. For longer
muds are often thixotropic.
offsets another parameter, eta, captures the devia-
Thomsen anisotropic parameters tom sn: The rela-
tion of the long-offset P-wave moveout from what it
tionship between the stress and strain vectors for
would have been for an isotropic medium:
polar anisotropic transversely isotropic media can be
expressed as C, where C is the stiffness tenaor as
shown in Figure H-7. With the z-axes as the symmetry / 1 2 .
axis, we have
For weak polar anisotropy, the velocities of P- and
S-waves at the angle with the symmetry axis are:
2 0 1 0 / 0 2 sin2 cos2 ],
2 0 1 sin2 .
Thomson scattering 354 Thornburghs method
See polar anisotropy transverse isotropy, Thomsen Thomson-Haskell method: A frequency-domain method
1986, Alkhalifah and Tsvankin 1995, and Thomsen for plane waves propagating in a multilayered half-
2002. space. A layer-by-layer solution, used for body-wave
Thomson scattering: tom sn Scattering of electromag- propagation and surface-wave dispersion problems. See
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FIG. T-4. 3D surveying. a Use of a cross-current to pull streamer off to the side; streamer positions are shown at 15
minute intervals. b Use of paravanes to pull marine source arrays to the side. Paravanes are also used to pull
streamers to each side; sometimes as many as 12 streamers are used with two source arrays firing alternately, giving
as many as 24 parallel seismic lines on one pass with the seismic ship. c Wide-line layout. d Block layout; usually
several parallel geophone lines are recorded from several parallel source lines, producing multiple coverage over a
rectangle having half the dimensions of the source and geophone lines. Most land surveys employ several parallel lines
of geophones and several orthogonal lines of sources to build up the multiplicity. See also Figure B-7. e Loop pattern
of geophones and sources produces midpoints within the loop without the need to enter inside the loop. (From Sheriff
and Geldart, 1995, 454, 455, 456.)
Thornburghs method 355 Thornburghs method
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FIG. T-5. 3D data cube obtained from a set of closely spaced north-south lines. a Isometric diagram of the volume
these traces occupy. The easternmost north-south section is shown along with the southernmost east-west section
made from the southernmost traces on each north-south line. b The data set with the topmost portion removed; the top
now constitutes a time slice. c The data sliced along one reflection constitutes a horizon slice. d An arbitrary line
cuts through the data volume, perhaps to connect well locations. e A fault slice runs parallel to a fault but displaced
a small distance from it. (From Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 459.)
Thornburghs method 356 Thornburghs method
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FIG. T-6. 3D data displays. (a) Isometric chair display (Brown, 1999, 204), b several lines and a horizon slice
(Courtesy Prakla-Seismos AG.).
three-array 357 timbre
known for the construction. See wavefront method and tortion of the Earth so produced. Tidal corrections to
Thornburgh 1930 or Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 442. gravity observations are made by means of tables or are
three-array: A special case of the pole-dipole array in included with drift corrections.
which the three electrodes are equally spaced. See tidal statics: Small time-dependent statics corrections
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FIG. T-8. a Refraction time-distance curves R A ,R B reflections from A,B. H A ,H B head waves at A,B. W A , W B
wide-angle reflections from A,B. b Wavefront diagram showing first arrivals. c Wavefront diagram showing first
arrivals from an idealized salt dome. d Composite time-distance curves (dashed lines) constructed from arrival
curves from sources 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (solid lines). Refraction portions from sources 2, 3, and 4 have been displaced
upward to show the equivalent arrival times as if the profiles from these sources had been longer. Such displaced
curves should overlap for confidence and show the same reciprocal time t r . Actual time-distance curves from these
sources might have been different if another refractor had been reached (e.g., dotted lines).
time 359 time signal
time: 1. Record time q.v.. 2. Geologic age; see Appendix as the variable is done in the time domain. For
I. example, convolving involves taking values at succes-
time anomaly: Arrival time which is different from that sive time intervals, multiplying by appropriate con-
expected. stants, and recombining; this is equivalent to filtering
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time-average equation: 1. An empirical equation stating through frequency-selective circuitry. It is also equiva-
that the transit time t1/V through a rock with lent to Fourier transforming, multiplying the amplitude
matrix velocity V m and porosity that is filled with spectra and adding the phase spectra in the frequency
fluid of velocity V f is approximately domain, and then inverse-Fourier transforming. 2.
Time-domain induced polarization is called the pulse
t1/V 1 /V ma /V f .
method q.v.. 3. For time-domain electromagnetic
This relation works well in clean consolidated forma- methods, see transient electromagnetic method.
tions with uniformly distributed pores. In formations time-domain sounding: See electric sounding and
containing vugs, the sonic log may not reflect the induced polarization.
secondary porosity, and in unconsolidated formations, time invariant: Not changing with time. A time-invariant
this relationship may overestimate porosity. The for- filter has the same action regardless of record time.
mula may be empirically modified to give better values. time lag: The amount by which arrival times are larger
Also called Wyllie relationship Wyllie et al., 1956. 2. than expected. Indicates that some of the paths from
A generalization of the foregoing equation for other source to detector include a low-speed portion. Delays
constituents, weighting the velocity of each according may also be due to phase shifts in filtering, shot-hole
to its volume fraction. fatigue, etc.
time branch: One of several reflection events produced time-lapse: Repeating measurements to determine the
by the same curved or discontinuous reflector observed changes that have occurred in the intervening time.
at the same point. Coherent reflections may be seen time-lapse logging: Repeating well logs to determine the
from different portions of the same reflector where changes that have occurred in the interval.
synclinal curvature produces buried-focus effects q.v.; time-lapse seismology: Repeating a seismic survey to
see Figure B-11. Time branches due to curvature in the determine the changes that have occurred in the inter-
plane of the seismic line migrate into a syncline if the vening time, such as may be caused by production.
proper velocities are used, but not if there is curvature Results are often displayed as difference sections or
perpendicular to the line. maps. When using multiple 3D surveys run at different
time break TB: The mark on a seismic record which times, this is sometimes called a 4D survey, the fourth
indicates the source instant, the time at which the dimension being the intervening time Jack, 1998.
seismic wave was generated. See Figure R-6. time lead: le d The amount by which arrival time is
time constant: 1. The time taken for the current in a smaller than expected, indicating that the path from
circuit having a steady emf to reach a definite fraction
source to detector includes a high-speed segment. See
of its final value after the circuit is closed. The fraction
also lead.
is (11/e)0.632. 2. The time taken for the current
time line, time surface: A line or surface indicating sedi-
to decay to 1/e0.368 of its value after the emf is
ments deposited at the same time on a geologic cross-
removed. Also called decay constant or relaxation
section or correlation diagram. At that time a time
time. 3. AGC time constant q.v.. 4. A time over which
readings are averaged to remove statistical fluctuations, surface was the surface of the solid earth. Reflections
as with nuclear-log readings. tend to follow time lines. Also called stratal surface.
time delay: See delay time, filter correction, and Elcord. time migration: Migration which assumes no lateral
time-depth chart T-D chart: A graph or table of reflec- velocity variations. It does allow for vertical velocity
tion time or sometimes one-way time against reflector variations. The result is usually plotted in 2-way verti-
depth for vertically traveling energy. It is specific for a cal time but sometimes in depth. Compare depth migra-
particular velocity distribution. Used in converting tion, which allows for horizontal velocity variation.
times to corresponding depths. Compare time-distance time of closest approach TCA: The time when a navi-
curve. gation satellite is closest during a pass.
time-depth for a refractor: Time for travel to the refrac- time sag: A push-down of seismic reflections because of
tor at the critical angle minus the time for travel along local overlying low-velocity volumes
a projection of that path at right angles onto the refrac- time section: A seismic section where the vertical scale is
tor at the refractor velocity. Same as delay time q.v.. linear in arrival time, i.e., an ordinary seismic section.
time-distance curve T-X curve: A plot of arrival time time-sequential format: Multiplexed format q.v..
against the source-to-geophone distance. Used in veloc- time series: The series of values of a function sampled at
ity analysis and in interpreting refracted events head regular time intervals. Sometimes represented as a set
waves. The slopes of segments of the curve give the of values, as a stickogram, in z-transform form, etc. A
reciprocals of the apparent velocities for various refrac- digitized seismic trace is such a series.
tor beds. See also normal-traveltime curve, reduced time sharing: 1. Multiaccess to a computer system in
traveltime, and Figure T-8. Time-distance curves are which each user is allocated a time slice of the systems
sometimes composited from measurements made at resources, while appearing to have continuous use of
shorter offsets see Figure T-8d. the system. 2. The practice of two or more marine
time domain: 1. Expression of a variable as a function of crews in the same area taking turns to avoid interfering
time, as opposed to its expression as a function of with each other.
frequency frequency domain. Processing using time time signal: A signal indicating an exact instant of time.
time slice 360 time variable TV
Such a signal is used to indicate the time of energy raypaths. 2. To relate data obtained in opposite direc-
release in seismic work. tions or along intersecting seismic lines. 3. To relate
time slice: A display of the seismic measurements usu- reflection events to contacts seen in wells. Used as both
ally amplitude corresponding to a single arrival time verb and noun.
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or single depth for a grid of data points; a horizontal time-to-depth conversion: For vertically traveling
slice or section through a volume of 3D data. Also reflected energy:
called a Seiscrop section or horizontal section. Com- depth(average velocity)(two-way time/2),
pare horizon slice. See Figures T-5, T-9, and A-16.
time structure map: A structure map where values are in where the two-way time is the time for the signal to go
two-way seismic traveltime, not having been converted down and come back. Average velocity may be
to depth. obtained from well data, calculated from velocity
time surface: See time line. analysis, or simply assumed.
time tie: 1. To verify that arrival times are the same for time variable TV: Describing an operation in which the
events on different records which possess common parameters vary with record time, as in time-variant
FIG. T-9. Time slices. The area is 3.68.0 km; a through g: time slices for t1.580 to 1.604 s at 4 ms intervals;
h time-contour map made by tracing one contour from each of the preceding time slices, starting with the outside of
the central area on map a. (Courtesy Haliburton Geosciences.)
time-variable filtering 361 topographic correction
filtering. Usually, time-variable processes are imple- gravitational force; the terminal portion of a landslide.
mented by determining parameters over several fairly toggle: 1. To switch on or off. 2. To switch back and forth,
long portions of a trace at different times in a time- as between images on a display screen.
invariant manner, processing the data twice using the tolerance: How much uncertainty is permitted.
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two sets of parameters, and then blending the two tool: Sonde q.v..
results together over some time interval merge zone Tomex: A process for producing vertical seismic profiles
by varying the mix of the two results; ramping. using the seismic waves generated by the drill bit as a
time-variable filtering: Varying the frequency band-pass source. The source waveform is detected by a sensor at
with record time. Time-variable deconvolution is some- the wellhead after traveling up the drillstem. Correla-
times used to compensate for the shift of reflection tion of the source waveform with the output of a
energy to lower frequencies at late record times. geophone on the surface produces a VSP trace. Devel-
time-variable gain: See gain control. oped by Societe Nationale Elf Aquitaine; tradename of
time vs depth migration: The difference between these Western Geophysical.
two terms is not time versus depth, but rather whether tomographic inversion: Determining the subsurface
the migration considers velocity changes in the hori- velocity distribution using tomographic methods.
zontal direction depth migration. Both allow for tomographic statics: A surface-consistent statics varia-
velocity changes in the vertical direction and both can tion, not necessarily confined to the low-velocity layer,
yield a section plotted in either time or depth. using tomographic methods.
timing lines: Marks or lines at precise intervals of time tomography: t mog r fe A method for finding the
such as used on seismic records usually 0.01 s inter- velocity and reflectivity distribution from a multitude of
vals to help measure the arrival times of seismic observations using combinations of source and receiver
events. See Figure R-6. locations, or of determining the resistivity distribution
timing word: A word at the head of a block of data which from conductivity measurements using a transmitter in
gives the elapsed time since the source instant. one well and a receiver in another well see Figure
tin hat: 1. A hard hat worn as protection to the head. 2. A T-10. Tomography is derived from the Greek for sec-
shot-hole plug shaped somewhat like a hat. tion drawing. Generally space is divided into cells and
tipper: tip r A complex function of frequency whose the data are expressed as line integrals along raypaths
amplitude is the ratio between the vertical and horizon- through the cells. Transmission tomography involves
tal magnetic fields perpendicular to apparent strike. borehole-to-borehole, surface-to-borehole, or surface-
Devised by Vozoff from general tensor relations for to-surface observations. Reflection tomography q.v.
magnetotelluric fields over a 2D earth. involves surface-to-surface observations as in conven-
tite: See tight hole. tional reflection or refraction work. In seismic tomog-
TIV: Polar anisotropy q.v. Transverse Isotropy with raphy, slowness or velocity, and sometimes an attenu-
Vertical axis of symmetry; layering anisotropy. ation factor, is assigned to each cell and traveltimes
TLU: Threshold Logic Unit. and amplitudes are calculated by tracing rays through
TM: Transverse Magnetic q.v.. the model. The results are compared with observed
TMIV: Tuned Vibration Isolation Module; see VIM: times and amplitudes; the model is then perturbed and
TOC: Total Organic Carbon, a measure of the possibility the process repeated iteratively to minimize errors.
a source rock can produce hydrocarbons. Raypaths have to be recalculated after each change of
Toeplitz property: tep litz Property when all the ele- assumed velocity. Diffraction tomography involves
ments on a given diagonal of a matrix are identical. A calculations assuming least-time travelpaths according
Toeplitz matrix can be solved by the Levinson algo- to Fermats principle rather than Snells law bending at
rithm q.v.. Named for Otto Toeplitz 18811940, cell boundaries. Layer-based tomography divides the
German mathematician. earth into layers, allowing for lateral variation of veloc-
toe structure: The rumpling or overthrusting at the for- ity within the layers, instead of subdivision into cells.
ward end of a block of material sliding down under Tomographic methods include the algebraic recon-
struction technique ART, the simultaneous recon-
struction technique SIRT, and Gauss Seidel methods
q.v.. See Ivansson 1986 and Lo and Inderwiesen
1994.
tomostatics: Using tomographic methods to determine
static corrections.
T1, T2: See nuclear magnetic resonance log.
tone: A distinguishable shade of grey from black to white.
tool: A downhole sonde q.v..
tool bar: A set of icons on a computer screen that allow
accessing particular functions.
tool pusher: The drilling rig superintendent who is in
FIG. T-10. Conductivity crosshole tomography uses direct charge of drilling operations. He often lives on
measurements from a transmitter in one borehole to a site and is continuously available during operations.
receiver at many locations in another borehole, and then toplap: An offlap reflection configuration at the top of a
repeats for a number of transmitter locations to determine depositional sequence; see Figure R-9 and S-32a.
the conductivity in a grid of cells in the intervening space. Sometimes called offlap.
(Courtesy Kurt Strack.) topographic correction: Terrain correction q.v..
topographic-loading effect 362 total intensity
topographic-loading effect: The effect of variable over- other without a common boundary. They are equal if
burden on seismic velocity. they are spatially equivalent. Spatial objects may inter-
topographic names: Latin place names used with features sect.
on planets and satellites: dorsa, scarp; maria, seas sin- tornado chart: A chart for correcting logging curves for
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gular mare; monte, mountains singular mons; patera, distortions because of adjacent beds, now largely super-
shallow dish-shaped depression; planitia, plains; rupes, ceded by inversion techniques.
ridges; rille, narrow linear valleys; valles, valleys. torr: The unit of pressure required to support a column of
topology: The study and description of spatial relation- mercury one mm high at standard gravity. Named for
ships and the connectivity of points in space. A simple Evangelista Torricelli 1608 1647, Italian mathemati-
object is composed of only one element. Simple cian and physicist. Equals 133.3 pascal.
objects include: vertex, a unique point which is zero- torsion balance: 1. An instrument for measuring second
dimensional; edge, a one-dimensional, straight or derivatives of the gravitational potential. In a non-
curved spatial element; loop, a one-dimensional, con- uniform field, the forces on equal masses at opposite
tinuous object that encloses a two-dimensional object; ends of a horizontal beam suspended by a very fine
face, the flat or curved surface bounded by a loop; torsion wire differ, producing a torque that can be
shell, a three-dimensional surface enclosing a volume; measured by counter balancing it with a known torque.
region, a three-dimensional volume. An edge does not The measured gradients can be integrated to make a
include the vertices at its termination, nor a face include gravity map. 2. A device for measuring the derivatives
its loop, nor a region its shell. Complex objects are of force fields, such as magnetic or electrical.
composed of more than one simple or other complex tortuosity: tor, choo os i te
The length of the path of a
object. Disjoint objects do not touch or overlap; objects fluid passing through a unit length of rock.
meet if they share a common boundary; they overlap if total conductance: The integral conductance of a layer-
they share common space but do not have a common cake.
boundary; they cover if they overlap and share a com- total gradient method: See analytic signal method.
mon boundary; they contain if one is wholly within the total intensity: The total magnetic intensity as opposed to
FIG. T-11. Township-range location system showing the system for numbering square-mile sections.
total reflection 363 transfer function
components in the vertical or horizontal directions. indicated by the cursor. Its function is similar to that of
total reflection: Reflection where the angle of incidence a joystick or a mouse.
exceeds the critical angle. At and beyond the critical track etch: A radon detector similar to an alpha cup q.v..
angle the energy is either reflected or converted. tracking: Following an attribute such as the maximum or
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tour: tow r A time shift in drilling operations. minimum associated with an event across a section or
towed deep ocean gravimeter Towdog: An automated throughout a volume; same as picking. Automatic
gravimeter towed just above the seafloor. tracking is done at a workstation; the event to be
tower: Tour q.v.. tracked is picked seeded manually and then the com-
towing bridle: Assembly by which the towing ship holds puter finds the corresponding event nearby by using a
a marine streamer in the proper position amidship and correlation algorithm such as cross-correlating. An
keeps it from rubbing the stern. interpreter needs to verify the results of autotracking
township Twp: 1. A unit of area, nominally six miles on and occassionally intervene because autotracking algo-
a side. It is subdivided into 36 sections, numbered as rithms encounter difficulties at discontinuities as at
shown in Figure T-11. 2. A designation of an east-west faults and where waveshape changes perhaps because
row of townships. American townships are specified in of interference, and where the signal becomes too
relation to standard reference parallels which often are small.
not stated explicitly; T3N indicates a township in the track plotter: A device that continuously displays the
third row north of a reference parallel. Canadian town- position of a ship, operated from navigation system
ships are counted northward from the 49th parallel. See signals.
also range. traction: 1. A stress q.v. on a surface. 2. Frictional stress.
T.P: Turning Point q.v., sometimes turn point. 3. A shearing stress, as opposed to pressure.
TPH: Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons. train: A series of successive semi-periodic motions, as a
T-phase: A short period 1 s or less wave which travels wavetrain.
through the ocean with the speed of sound in water; it is training set: The data analyzed to determine decision
occasionally identified on the records of earthquakes in criteria as a prerequisite to classification. Also called a
which a large part of the path is across deep ocean. learning set.
trace: 1. A record of the data from one seismic channel, trajectory: The path of a seismic wave. Synonym: ray-
one electromagnetic channel, etc. See Figure R-6. 2. A path q.v..
line on one plane representing the intersection with transceiver: Device which is both a transmitter and a
another plane, such as a fault trace. 3. The sum of the receiver, such as used in sonar. See transponder.
diagonal elements of a matrix; spur. Transcontinental Geophysical Survey: The study by
trace analysis: Determining and plotting the corrected geophysical methods of the crust and upper mantle
arrival time of events for every trace. along a band 4 wide about 440 km centered on
latitude 37 N extending across the U.S. and offshore
trace attributes: Seismic data measurements along a seis-
into the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
mic trace. See attribute, seismic.
transcribe: To copy information from one storage
trace equalization: Adjusting a seismic channel so that
medium to another, as to make a magnetic tape from a
the amplitudes of adjacent traces are comparable in the
paper seismic record. See also reformat.
sense of having the same rms value over some specified
transcurrent fault: A strike-slip or wrench fault. Defor-
interval, or some other criterion. mation occurs around the ends of the fault. Compare
trace gather: See gather. transform fault and see Figure F-3.
trace integration: A form of mixing that was used with transducer: A device that converts one form of energy
the weight-drop method. into another. Many types of transducers are reversible,
trace inversion: Calculating acoustic impedance or veloc- for example converting electrical energy into acoustical
ity from a seismic trace to make a synthetic acoustic- energy and vice versa. The electrodynamic geophone is
impedance log q.v. or synthetic sonic log. a reversible transducer that converts mechanical motion
tracer: A distinctive element or chemical used to trace the to electrical voltage, or passing a current through the
movement of fluid in a reservoir. coil causes the coil to move with respect to the case.
trace sequential: An arrangement of data in which one Other reversible transducers are electrostatic, variable
channel trace is recorded without interruption, fol- reluctance, magnetostrictive, piezoelectric, etc. Piezo-
lowed sequentially by other channels. As opposed to electric transducers of barium or lead zirconate or titan-
time sequential or multiplexed format in which the ate are used in many hydrophones and sonar transduc-
data for one record time are recorded for all channels, ers.
followed by the data for the next record time, etc. transduction factor: Ratio of output to input for a trans-
trace, subsurface: A line on a reflecting surface connect- ducer. For digital-grade velocity geophones, it is of the
ing reflection points for successive locations along a order of 0.25 V/cm/s. For a hydrophone, of the order of
seismic line. The subsurface trace allows for migration 6 V/bar.
effects. See Figure S-27. transfer characteristics: Transfer function q.v..
track: 1. A trace q.v.. 2. The data positions which can be transfer function: The ratio of output to input as a func-
read by a single magnetic head. 3. The route lane for tion of frequency. The frequency-domain characteristics
a boat to take. 4. To follow the movements of an object. of a system e.g., a filter. The complex function of
trackball: A ball that can be turned in any direction to frequency that changes sinusoidal inputs into outputs.
move a cursor on a videodisplay so that something can Multiplying the frequency-domain transform of the
be done with the matrix element whose location is input by the transfer function yields the frequency-
transfer impedance 364 transmission loss
domain transform of the output. The transfer function provided by multiple emitter transistors.
usually is represented by amplitude-versus-frequency transit: 1. A precision instrument for measuring horizon-
and phase-versus-frequency curves; these contain the tal and vertical angles. It consists of a telescope
same information as the impulse response in the time mounted so as to swivel vertically and secured to a
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domain and are convertible into the impulse response revolvable table carrying a vernier for reading horizon-
through the Fourier transform. tal angles. A graduated circle for measuring vertical
transfer impedance: The complex ratio of a potential angles and a compass and level are also included. Also
difference at one pair of terminals or electrodes to the called transit-theodolite. Transit and theodolite
current at the other pair. are largely interchangeable, American usage generally
transform: To convert information from one representa- favoring the first, European usage the latter. Usually a
tion into another, as with the Fourier transform or transit has an open vernier and a built-in compass
Laplace transforms. whereas a theodolite has a micrometer and a detachable
transformed wave: Converted wave q.v.. compass. An especially precise transit is sometimes
transform fault: A fault that separates tectonic plates and called a theodolite. An accuracy of about 10 seconds of
which displaces the rift zone associated with the gen- arc can be achieved, though 30-second accuracy is
eration of new crust and/or the zones where plates more likely. See Figure T-12. 2. The passage of a
collide. Motion takes place on the portion between the celestial body across a celestial meridian. 3. The pas-
active centers. See Figures F-3 and P-5 and Moores and sage of a satellite involved in satellite navigation.
Twist 1995, 132 Transit was the system name of the former Navy
transform pair: A waveform and its frequency-domain Navigation Satellite System.
equivalent, or a time-domain operation and its transit-and-chain surveying: A survey in which direc-
frequency-domain equivalent. See Figures F-19 to tions are determined by transit and distances are mea-
F-22. Used also for transforms other than Fourier. sured directly.
transgression: A landward movement of the shoreline. transit-and-stadia surveying: A survey in which hori-
Opposite of regression. zontal and vertical directions are determined by transit
transgressive surface: The first major flooding surface and distances are measured by observing a stadia rod
across the shelf within a sequence Van Wagoner, through the transits telescope.
1995. transition zone: 1. The region near the land-sea boundary
transgressive system tract: The middle tract in a where neither land nor marine operations can be carried
sequence, bounded below by a transgressive surface out without significant modifications. May include
and above by a downlap surface or maximum-flooding marsh, shallow lagoons, surf zone, and marine waters
surface onto which a highstand tract downlaps. Parase- that are too shallow or too obstructed for normal towed-
quences within it backstep in retrogradational manner. streamer marine operations. 2. A region where physical
It is deposited during a rapid eustatic rise. See Figure properties are changing rapidly, such as the lowermost
S-32b. mantle.
transient: A nonrepetitive pulse of short duration, such as transit theodolite: See transit.
a voltage pulse or seismic pulse. transit time: The traveltime of a sonic-log pulse over one
transient electromagnetic method TEM: An electro- foot or one meter of distance. See sonic log.
magnetic method in which the waveform of the trans- translocation: A positioning technique which uses infor-
mitted signal is a train of pulses, step-functions, ramps, mation from a nearby fixed station to correct for tem-
or other waveforms, and measurements are made in the poral variations. 1. Observation of a satellite transit
off-times between pulses, usually after the primary field from a nearby fixed location in order to correct for
has stopped changing. Principal advantages of transient minor variations in satellite orbit. 2. Observation of
methods over continuous-wave methods are that the radio-positioning signals at a fixed station for informa-
primary field is not present during the measurement of tion on sky-wave variations.
the secondary field and that measurements of the sec- transmission coefficient: 1. The ratio of the amplitude of
ondary field as a function of time are equivalent to a wave transmitted through an interface to that of the
continuous-wave measurements over a wide frequency wave incident upon it. This ratio can be greater than
range. Transient methods are used for both depth one. 2. A measure of the amplitude of a wave passing
sounding and continuous profiling. Also called time- through an interface restricted to the case of normal
domain electromagnetic method TDEM. See Fig- incidence. 3. Because with the reflection method we
ure E-7 and Input system. are usually interested in energy which has passed
transient IP method: See pulse method. through an interface twice once going down and once
transient response: Response of a system to a very short returning upward, a two-way transmission coefficient
transient, ideally an impulse which would yield the T* for normal incidence is often used:
impulse response, q.v.. T*1R 2 4 1 V 1 2 V 2 / 1 V 1 2 V 2 2 .
transistor: An electrical device with three or more termi-
nals using a semiconductor for controlling the flow of where R is the reflection coefficient at normal inci-
current between two terminals by means of current flow dence, 1 , 2 , V 1 , and V 2 are the densities and veloci-
between one of these terminals and a third terminal. ties in the upper and lower media. 4. A ratio of the
Ideally it is a current-controlled current source which energy densities which involves the square of trans-
operates in only one direction. mission coefficients as defined above.
transistortransistor logic TTL: A family of integrated transmission loss: The loss of wave energy in traveling
circuit logic in which multiple inputs on gates are through an interface. The amplitude of a transmitted
transmitter Tx 365 transverse isotropy
wave may be either smaller or larger than that of the For any matrix, (AT) TA.
incident wave and still involve loss of energy. transposed recording: Seismic field recording in which a
transmitter Tx: In resistivity and IP surveying, a cur- single large geophone group or a small number of
rent waveform generator. Also called a sender. In elec- groups records energy generated at a succession of
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tromagnetic methods, the current in a loop or grounded source positions, as opposed to conventional survey-
wire. ing where single source locations are recorded by a
transmutation: trans, myoo ta shn A nuclear transfor- number of geophone groups.
mation in which one element is changed into a different transverse electric TE: A mode of EM wave propaga-
element. tion in which the electric field is perpendicular to the
transparent: 1. Not evident to the user; something the direction of propagation. In 2D modeling and process-
user does not need to take into account. 2. A material ing of magnetotelluric q.v. data, the mode in which
that allows waves or light to pass right through it so the electric field is parallel to strike. Also called
that one can see what is beyond it. E-polarization. See also transverse magnetic.
transponder: tran spon dr A device which transmits a transverse isotropy: Also called polar or azimuthal
signal upon receiving another signal. When the receiver
anisotropy; see Figure T-13. It involves elastic proper-
in the device detects the interrogating signal it trig-
ties that are the same in any direction perpendicular to
gers the transmitter which replies with a coded pulse or
a symmetry axis and it has five independent elastic
sequence of pulses or responds in some other way.
Transponders are used with both electromagnetic and constants; see Thomsen anisotropic parameters. This
sonar waves. A radar transponder is also called a radar symmetry is like a crystal having hexagonal symmetry;
beacon, a sonar transponder a pinger. see Figure S-29.
transport: 1. A device or method for moving equipment Layering and parallel fracturing tend to produce trans-
or personnel, as transport for a geophysical crew. 2. A verse isotropy. A sequence of isotropic layers such as
device for moving magnetic tape past magnetic heads sedimentary bedding produces thin-layer also called
for reading or writing on the tape. periodic thin-layer PTL anisotropy, although the
transpose: The transpose AT of a matrix A is the matrix layering need not be periodic for wavelengths that are
whose rows are identical to the columns of A. Thus if appreciably larger than the layer thicknesses. The axis
matrix A is of size (mn), matrix AT is of size (n of symmetry is perpendicular to the bedding with the
m). For conformable matrices, velocities of P- and SH-waves parallel to the bedding
being larger than that perpendicular to the bedding. The
AB TB TA T. velocity parallel to the bedding is greater because the
FIG. T-13. Transverse isotropy. a Wavefront with vertical axis of symmetry (TIV); b with horizontal symmetry axis
(TIH) leading to azimuthal anisotropy; c phase (wavefront) angle and group (ray) angle for transverse isotropy; d
elliptical wavefront where ; in this case V NMOV vertical; e anisotropic wavefront where ; in this case
V NMOV vertical; f wavefront for tilted symmetry axis; g wave equations for transverse isotropy.
transverse magnetic TM 367 trench
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Vertically fractured horizontal bedding may produce The extended trapezoidal rule applies the rule to
orthorhombic symmetry the symmetry of a brick subintervals.
where velocity is different along the three orthogonal trapped modes: See trapped wave.
symmetry axes. This situation involves nine indepen- traveling block: See drill rig.
dent elastic constants and leads to different S-wave trapped wave: Channel wave q.v..
splitting in the three directions. travel path: The path given by Fermats principle q.v..
Usually a least-time path from the source to receiver
With a vertical symmetry axis, pure S- and P-waves geophone that also satisfies some other constraint.
may exist only in certain directions. SH-wavefronts are traveltime: The time between time break and the record-
ellipsoidal in shape elliptical anisotropy, q.v.; see Fig- ing of a seismic event.
ure A-10c and SV- and P-modes of propagation are traveltime curve: A time-distance curve q.v..
coupled with wavefronts that in general are not traverse: 1. A survey line or series of connected survey
orthogonal to the directions of wave propagation. lines. 2. A sequence of connected profiles, as a seismic
Phase velocity is velocity perpendicular to a surface of line. 3. A series of measured distances at measured
constant phase wavefront and ray velocity in the angles; see Figure P-3. A closed traverse consists of
direction of energy transport, also called group veloc- measurements in a closed loop. Compare triangulation
ity is generally not in the same direction as phase and trilateration. 4. An ordered collection of bin nodes.
velocity, phase and ray velocities being different see An arbitrary line.
Figure A-14a. The reciprocal of phase velocity, also a trawl door: A type of paravane used to pull streamers to
vector quantity, is called slowness. The surfaces for the side of a towing vessel.
SV-wavefronts may have cusps. tree: A non-linear data structure, where each item is a
transverse magnetic TM: A mode of EM wave propa- node linked connected to other items.
gation in which the magnetic field is perpendicular to tree structure: An acyclic graph of nodes and branches.
the direction of propagation. In 2D modeling and pro- One node is the root of the tree.
cessing of magnetotellric q.v. data, transverse mag- trench: A long, narrow, arcuate depression in the seafloor
netic is the mode in which the magnetic field is parallel which results from the bending of a lithospheric plate as
trenching 368 tripping
it descends into the asthenosphere at a subduction zone. trim statics: Second-order statics corrections; see statics.
trenching: 1. Electrical profiling q.v.. 2. Burying geo- trip: To pull the drillstem from a borehole, e.g., to change
phones in an ocean-bottom cable. the drill bit.
trend: 1. The direction of prevailing alignments, structure, tripartite array: tri par tit A method of determining the
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stratigraphic features, etc. 2. The direction of the strike apparent surface velocity and direction of propagation
of a magnetic model with respect to magnetic north. of microseisms or earthquake waves by determining the
Principal profiles are perpendicular to the model; thus times at which a wave passes three separated, noncolin-
east-west for a trend of 0, north-south for a trend of ear points. The recording stations are arranged in a
90. triangle; the spacing should be large enough to measure
trend analysis: 1. The fitting of an analytic surface the time differences but small enough that dip changes are
regional to data points as a representation of the small.
order in the data, as opposed to the erratic element triple junction: The place where three plates of the
the residual. The objective may be to analyze trends Earths lithosphere join. The boundaries of the plate
in the data or to interpolate between data points. The junctions may be rifts R, subduction zones T, or
underlying assumption is that the data may be decom- transform faults F. Triple junctions may be of 16
posed into a relatively low-order, smooth surface plus different types, such as RRR, TTT, FFF, RRT, RRF,
more-or-less random noise. The number of independent TTR, TTF, FFR, FFT, or RTF; see Figure T-16. A triple
parameters in the analytic surface should be apprecia- junction is stable when the relative motions of the three
bly less than usually less than 10 percent of the plates and the azimuths of their boundaries are such that
number of data points. Also called surface fitting. 2. the configuration of the junction does not change with
The 2D Fourier analysis of a surface into spatial fre- time, although the location of the triple junction may
quency components or wavelengths so that one can move along one of the boundaries. An unstable triple
determine preferred orientations and wavelengths. junction evolves to a different geometry.
triad: Three stations one master and two slaves which triple product: A triple scalar product is
constitute a positioning system, such as loran, raydist, PQ RR PQ R QP QP R
etc. A master and three slaves constitute a star.
triangulation: 1. Establishing locations by a system of Px Py Pz
overlapping triangles where the angles are directly
measured but only a few of the sides are directly Qx Qy Qz
measured. Sometimes called the method of intersec- Rx Ry Rz
tion. First-order triangulation has an accuracy from
one part in 25 000 to one part in 100 000; second- A triple vector product is
order, an accuracy of one part in 10 000; third-order PQ RR PQ R QP
one in 5000. Fourth-order is without any appreciable
error considering the application of the survey results. RP Q RQ P.
Triangulation with a plane table is shown in Figure P-2 triplication: Having three branches, as the reflection from
but a plane table is not an accurate way to triangulate. a buried focus. See Figures B-11 and D-19
Compare traverse and trilateration. 2. Tesselation triplets: 1. A method of determining the elevation correc-
q.v., representation of a surface by triangles. tion factor ecf for gravity data from sets of three
triaxial borehole seismometer TABS: A three- readings each. It is assumed that elevation does not
component seismometer such as the Galperin geo- correlate with geologic structure. If the difference
phone, where the components are each at a 54.7 angle between the height at a station and the weighted mean
with the vertical so that their responses are identical. of the heights of stations on either side of it is h i and the
Tridem: A frequency-domain EM system employing two difference between the observed gravity reading at the
vertical coplanar coils on opposite wingtips, operating station and the weighted mean at the neighboring sta-
at 520, 2020, and 8020 Hz. tions is g i where the weighting is usually taken as
tridiagonal matrix: A square matrix in which the only inversely proportional to the distance, then the eleva-
non-zero elements are those on the principal diagonal tion correction factor k is given by:
and the two adjacent diagonals.
trigonal: trig nl or tri gon l 1. A grid of equilateral k h i g i /h 2i ,
triangles or regular hexagons produced by three sets
of equally spaced lines positioned at 60 to each other, and the probable error in k is
used in making grid-residual maps. See Figure T-14. 2. 0.67 g 2i /h 2i k 2 /n 1/2 .
One of seven crystal systems of symmetry; hexagonal
symmetry. See Siegert 1942. 2. A method of flying aerogravity or
trigonometric identities: Some statements which hold for aeromagnetics for reconnaisance mapping. Three
all angles are shown in Figure T-15. closely-spaced lines are flown that are significantly
trilateration: Establishing locations by a system of over- separated from the next set of three lines.
lapping triangles where all sides are directly measured. tripping: 1. Changing the mode of operation. For
Compare triangulation and traverse. example, switching a seismic recording channel from
trim: 1. The longitudinal axis of a ship not being horizon- the uphole geophone to the group assigned to the chan-
tal on the average, the bow being raised or depressed. nel, or changing from fixed initial gain to AGC or
Compare pitch and list. 2. To apply statics based on a binary gain. 2. Exiting or entering the borehole with the
shallow reflection. drill string.
trisponder 369 truncation
trisponder: A type of tellurometer q.v.. Del Norte trade trough: The lowest part of a waveform between succes-
name. sive peaks.
trivial solution: A solution that is so simple or so obvi- trough-peak pair: 1. A 90 wavelet. 2. Reflections attrib-
ous as to not involve any difficulties or any interest. uted to the top and bottom of a reflecting bed. See
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FIG. T-16. Triple-junction geometry and stability. R denotes a ridge (spreading), T a trench (converging), F a transform
fault. The dashed lines ab, bc, ac represent velocities that leave the boundary geometry between the respective plates
unchanged; a triple junction is stable if they meet at a point. (After McKenzie and Morgan, 1969.)
truncation error 370 turbidity current
erosion at an unconformity. Apparent truncation is pro- method employing a ground Turam transmitter and
duced by the thinning of bedding because of starvation. helicopter-borne receivers.
2. See truncation error. Turam method: tur am Electromagnetic-survey
truncation error: 1. The error resulting from using only a method employing an energizing source consisting of a
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finite number of terms of a series, or the error produced long insulated cable grounded at both ends, or a large
by using only a limited operator length in a convolu- horizontal loop. The cable is often several kilometers
tion, or a finite gate length in a correlation. 2. The effect long and energized at 100 to 800 Hz. Measurements are
of digitizing an analog signal whose corresponding made of the field-strength ratio and phase difference of
digital value exceeds the maximum value permitted; the voltages induced in two receiving coils about 100 ft
see clipped. Loss of information in digitized data apart. Usually the plane of the two loops is horizontal.
because of truncation of high-order or low-order bits Many profiles may be made using the same source
causes different kinds of errors. 3. In calculating the location. See Bosschart 1964 and Figure E-7.
total mass from a gravity anomaly, the error resulting turbidimetry: Estimate of the turbidity of a suspension by
from integration not being carried to the limit of the visually estimating light extinction or measurement of
anomaly. absorption of a light beam passing through the suspen-
truth table: A listing which presents all possible input and sion.
output states of a logical function. See Boolean algebra turbidite: Sediment laid down by a turbidity current
and gate. q.v..
TS Dip: Temperature Salinity Dip, a device used to deter- turbidity current: tur bid te
A bottom-flowing current
mine the velocity of sound in sea water by measuring resulting from a fluid that has higher density because it
the temperature, salinity, and depth and using an equa- contains suspended sediment. Turbidity currents are
tion to relate this to velocity.
TSP: Time at the Source Point; up-hole time q.v..
T-spread: A seismic spread in which the source point is
offset perpendicular to the center of the spread by an
appreciable distance; a broadside. See Figure S-18.
TST: Transgressive System Tract q.v..
tsunami: tsoo na me Water waves set up by distur-
bances in the seafloor; tidal wave. From the Japanese
for harbor wave.
TTI: Tilted Transverse Isotropy, transverse isotropy q.v.
with a tilted axis.
TTL: Transistor/Transistor Logic q.v..
tubing: Small diameter pipe used as a flow line within a
borehole.
tube wave: A surface wave in a borehole. See Sheriff and
Geldart 1995, 5355, 489.
tumescence: too mes nz Swelling increase in eleva-
tion because of increase in a magma chamber under-
neath. From the Latin to swell.
tuned array: An array of marine seismic sources of dif-
ferent strengths arranged to suppress bubble pulses
relative to the initial pulse.
tuned voltmeter: A voltmeter containing a band-pass fil-
ter.
tuning effect: Constructive or destructive interference
resulting from two or more reflectors spaced closer than
a quarter of the dominant wavelength. The composite
wavelet exhibits amplitude and phase effects that
depend on the time delays between the successive
reflection events and the magnitude and polarity of their
associated reflection coefficients, and also on the shape
of the embedded wavelet. See Figure T-17.
tuning fork: A U-shaped bar of hard steel, fused quartz, FIG. T-17. The tuning effect illustrated for a wedge; the
or other elastic material that vibrates at a definite natu- material above and below it is the same, but the wedge
ral frequency when set in motion. Used as a frequency has different acoustic impedance. When the wedge is a
quarter-wavelength (1/4) thick, the second half-cycle of
standard.
the reflection from the top interferes constructively with the
tuning thickness: A bed that is 1/4 wavelength in thick- first half-cycle from the bottom, resulting in an increase in
ness, for which reflections from its upper and lower amplitude. The magnitude of the increase and how many
surfaces interfere. The interference is constructive amplitude maxima there are depend on the shape of the
where the contrasts of the two interfaces are of opposite embedded wavelet. a The wedge; b seismic section
polarity, often resulting in an exceptionally strong across a linear wedge that has lower acoustic impedance
reflection. See Figure T-17. than the surrounding sediments for a minimum-phase
Turair system: tur r An electromagnetic exploration wavelet; c amplitude versus thickness graph.
turkey shoot 371 type location
intermittent, but they possess considerable erosional example, to undershoot a platform or to obtain longer
power and transport appreciable volumes of sediment. offset data than feasible by towing longer streamers.
See Bouma sequence. two-dimensional 2D: Having no variation perpendicu-
turkey shoot: A direct comparison of the results of lar to the vertical plane which includes the line of
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recording with two or more sets of instruments simul- measurement, such as a plane perpendicular to the axis
taneously under the same field conditions, or of pro-
of an infinitely long feature. Infinitely long means so
cessing with different algorithms or by different com-
panies. Done to compare relative performance. long that the effects of the ends are negligible.
turn around: The period of time between submission of two-dimensional filtering: Apparent velocity or f-k filter-
data for computer processing and receipt of the results. ing; see apparent velocity.
turning point, turn point TP: 1. The location of the two-dimensional plot: A contour plot of depth-probe or
survey rod in the procedure where transit and survey sounding data delay time, apparent resistivity, metal
rod successively leap-frog over each other in traversing factor, etc. as a function of position along a line often
along a line. The point on which a foresight is taken plotted below midpoints and electrode separation or
from one instrument station in a line of survey and on offset. See pseudosection and Figure P-17.
which a backsight is taken from the next instrument 2.5D 212D body: A body that is limited in extent per-
station. 2. A point on maximum-depth-estimation
pendicular to the profile line.
curves at which limiting depths reach a minimum; an
aid in gravity interpretation. 3. The deepest point on a 2.5D 212D modeling: Potential field modeling where
diving wave q.v.. end corrections are applied to the field of a model that
turning wave: 1. A downward-going wave whos raypath extends to infinity perpendicular to the line.
has been curved so much that it has an upward compo- 2.5D 212D seismic: A pseudo-3D survey made by inter-
nent of motion; a diving wave. If it is reflected on its polation between data from 2D surveys.
upward going path for example, by an overhanging salt 2.5D prestack migration: Passes of 2D prestack migra-
flank, it is called a turning-wave reflection see Fig- tion in orthogonal directions.
ure D-19. They require special processing, as applying two-level display: A composite of two time slices dis-
ordinary normal moveout will destroy their coherency.
played in different color or intensity, to indicate the
They are useful in defining features such as the flanks
of salt domes below salt overhangs. gradient direction. See Figure D-18b.
turning wave migration: Migration of turning-wave two-phase flow: Two different states of fluid, gaseous and
reflections. liquid, moving simultaneously.
turnkey: A design and/or installation in which the user twos complement: The radix complement form for rep-
receives a complete running system. A turnkey bid is a resenting negative binary numbers. It can be found by
price for specified work which is all-inclusive; a turn- replacing all ones by zeros and all zeros by ones and
key bid for services, often a fixed price per unit of then adding one. For example, the decimal number 27
production. A turnkey system is a system that is com- is represented as 0011 011 and 27 by 1100 101. When
plete by itself. A turnkey computer console contains a
a number is added to its negative, all registers are
single control, usually a power switch, that can be
turned on and off only with a key. empty. There is only one representation for zero: all
turtle structure: A structure resulting from successive zeros. Compare ones complement.
sediment flowage usually salt flowage contemporane- two-sided: Being defined for both positive and negative
ous with deposition. Salt withdrawal first leaves a values of the argument.
depression which then fills with sediments; subsequent two-way control: Reverse control q.v..
salt withdrawal from the surrounding region then leaves two-way transmission coefficient: See transmission coef-
the region of the early withdrawal relatively high ficient.
because of the greater thickness of sediments there. TWP: Township q.v..
TV: Time-Variant q.v.. twt: Two-way time.
TVD: True Vertical Depth in a borehole, often measured
Tx: An electromagnetic transmitter.
from the kelly bushing. Differs from the measured
depth if the hole is deviated. T-X curve: Time-distance curve q.v..
TVG: Time-Varying Gain. See time-variant. type curves: Master curves, computed IP, resistivity, or
TVSW: Time-Variant Spectral Whitening. electromagnetic response plotted against electrode
TW: Polarization time in nuclear magnetic resonance log- interval, source-receiver spacing, or frequency for vari-
ging. ous models. Type curves are used for interpreting field
T-wave: Tertiary wave; seismic waves from earthquakes data where the conditions of the models appear to hold.
characterized by travel within the oceans as ordinary Abscissa and ordinate are usually normalized so that
sonic waves, which are then converted to P-, S-, or the curves are dimensionless and plotted on log-log
surface waves for travel on the continents.
paper; data may be compared by using transparent
twin array: A dipole-dipole array where one dipole is
fixed as the other dipole is moved about to make overlays. Type-curve derivations often employ the
measurements rapidly. method of images. Models are sometimes given type
two array: Pole-pole array q.v.. names as in Figure T-7.
2-boat marine acquisition: The use of two boats in type location: The location where stratigraphic units for-
marine acquisition where only one carries a source, for mations or their subdivisions were originally specified.
U
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Udden-Wentworth scale: See Wentworth scale. slightly less than formation pressure. This produces less
UKOOA: United Kingdom Offshore Operators Associa- formation damage but is dangerous because of the
tion format for record identification and location infor- possibility of a blow out.
mation. See UKOOA-PI/84 1985 and compare SEG- underdamped: See damping.
PI. underdetermined: A system that contains more
ULSEL: Ultra-Long Spaced Electric Log q.v.. unknowns than equations.
ultra-long spaced electric log ULSEL: A modified underplating: 1. Addition of material at the base of an
long-normal borehole log mounted on a 5000 ft bridle. accretionary prism by scraping it off a subducting slab
The A to M spacings are 75, 150, 600, and 1000 ft. or by thrusting to produce duplex structures in the
Differences between the measured resistivities and accretionary prism. 2. Addition of gabroic material
anticipated resistivities calculated from conventional from the mantle to the base of the Earths crust through
resistivity logs indicate nearby resistivity anomalies, partial melting.
such as a salt-dome, or nearby hydrocarbons. Has been underpressure: Formation fluid pressure lower than
used to sense casing in a blow-out well from an hydrostatic, i.e., lower than that of a column of inter-
approaching relief well. stitial fluid extending to the surface. Usually taken as
ultrasonic: P-wave frequencies in the range of 105 to 107 lower than 9.74 kPa/m0.433 psi/ft.
Hz. undershooting: Seismic surveying using a source on one
umbilical: um bil i kl 1. A cable connecting a remote side of an obstacle or property into a spread on the
sonde with the mother ship. 2. High-pressure hoses opposite side in order to obtain subsurface coverage
linking air gun arrays to the compressors on board a under the obstacle or property itself. Used when the
seismic vessel. surface of the property is inaccessible such as on a line
uncertainty: The precision with which a measurement or crossing a river or to get data beneath some feature
value is known. Often implies a 50-50 chance that any
whose presence might introduce intolerable uncertain-
one of a series of measurements would fall within a
ties if measured through it such as to map beneath a
given range. Does not necessarily imply anything about
salt dome.
accuracy, which is comparison with the true value. See
underthrusting: Thrust faulting in which a lower plate is
probable error and standard deviation. Uncertainty dif-
pushed under relatively passive overlying rock.
fers from error q.v., which is a deviation from the
undetermined multiplier: Lagrange multipliers q.v.
correct value.
uncertainty map: A map based on conditional simula- undrillable: A proposed well where the fluid pressure is
tions that show the probability that values are above or so close to the fracture pressure that it is impractical to
below a given threshold value, such as maps showing drill, because to do so would require excessive casing
the probability that porosity is greater than some value. strings.
unconformity: A surface separating younger from older unexploded ordnance UXO: Military explosives,
rocks along which somewhere there has been subareal including landmines, that were employed in wartime
erosional truncation with a significant hiatus indicated action or training exercises that for any of several
Van Wagoner, 1995. Erosion which is only local is reasons did not explode and were lost or left behind,
generally excluded but sometimes surfaces of subma- creating potential hazards.
rine erosion are included. Generally evidenced by a Uniform resource locator URL: A World-Wide-Web
basinward shift in facies, onlap, and/or truncation, and address looking like http://www.Garnet.Geosc.uh.
generally involves an appreciable time of nondeposi- edu//.html. The first part http is a hypertext transfer
tion. The date assigned to an unconformity is that of its protocol, the // indicates the path.
correlative conformity; see sequence boundary. An unijunction transistor: A transistor made of n-type semi-
unconformity is often a good seismic reflector and can conductive material with a p-type alloy region on one
be recognized even where the layers above and below side; connections are made to base contacts at either
the unconformity are parallel. At an angular unconfor- end of the n-type material, and also to the p region.
mity the older strata dip at a different angle usually Primarily used in timing circuits.
steeper than the younger strata. At a disconformity the union: Disjunction q.v.; see Figure B-5.
beds above and below are generally parallel despite a Unipulse: An airgun designed to minimize bubble effects.
significant hiatus. At a nonconformity stratified beds Petty-Ray trade name.
lie on igneous or metamorphic rocks. uniqueness: Retaining only one trace of each offset range
uncontacted oil: Oil that cannot move toward a well for further processing where more than one CMP with
because no connecting passageway exists. the same offset falls within a bin.
uncorrelated record: A vibroseis record to which corre- unit cell: The area defined by 2 source and 2 receiver lines
lation with the vibroseis sweep has not been performed. in an orthogonal geometry, which contains bins with all
uncracking: Unwrapping q.v.. possible offset distributions in the nominal full-fold
underbalanced drilling: Drilling with mud weight CMP geometry.
372
unit circle 373 upscaling
unit circle: A circle of unit radius. See z-transform and occurred since it was last updated. Satellites are
Figure Z-3. updated by having new position information injected
unit impulse: Impulse q.v. having a value of one. each day. Doppler-sonar positions are updated with
unit step: A step function q.v. whose magnitude is one. satellite-fix information.
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univariant: Having only one parameter. updip shooting: The direction of seismic surveying where
Universal Transverse Mercator UTM: A standard reflectors or refractors dip away from the geophones
rectangular map grid. The projection is onto a cylinder toward the source point.
tangent to the Earth along a central meridian i.e., with uphole geophone: A geophone placed a few feet from a
the cylinder axis perpendicular to the Earths axis. See shothole to detect uphole time q.v.. Sometimes called
Figure M-4 and Mercator Projection. The Earth is a bug.
divided into 60 north-south columns, each 6 of longi- uphole method: 1. Constructing a shallow wavefront dia-
tude wide. The central meridian is assigned the value of gram by sources located at several depths and recording
500 000 m easting and the equator a northing of 0 in the on a full surface spread of geophones. See also Meiss-
Northern Hemisphere and 10 000 000 m in the South- ner technique and Figure M-8. 2. See also uphole
ern Hemisphere. survey.
universe: The complete collection of objects, numbers, uphole seis: Uphole geophone q.v..
functions, etc., with probabilities attached to relevant uphole shooting: Uphole survey q.v..
subcollections; population. uphole stack: The combining of seismic records from
UNIX Operating system: yew-nihks An easy-to- sources at different depths, after time-shifting based on
build-on freeware operating system that uses the C uphole-time measurements, so that reflection energy is
language. Originated at Bell Laboratories in 1969; in register. A method of attenuating ghost energy.
trademark UNIX is owned by The Open Group, an Sometimes erroneously called vertical stack, which
industry standards organization. UNIX has evolved in a is a different process. See also flair.
variety of versions: Solaris is an operating environment uphole survey: 1. Successive sources at varying depths in
developed by Sun Microsystems to run on Suns a borehole in order to determine the velocities of the
SPARC workstations, IRIX is an operating system near-surface formations, the weathering thickness, and
developed by SGI, Silicon Graphics, AIX is an open sometimes the variations of record quality with source
operating system from IBM, and systems from other depth; see Figure S-22. 2. A string of geophones is
companies. sometimes placed in a hole of the order of 200 ft deep
unloading effect: The relatively small change in rock to measure the vertical travel times from a nearby
properties as pressures on the rock are relieved. The shallow source. See Figure U-1.
effect is usually small compared to irreversible com- uphole time: Time for the first wave from an explosion to
paction effects caused by putting the rock under pres- reach the surface at or near the shotpoint. Used in
sure loading. determining weathering or near-surface corrections to
unmigrated seismic map: A map showing seismic reflec- seismic data. See Figure R-6. Also called bugtime.
tion traveltime data posted at midpoints. See also map uplap: In-filling of a basin, usually accompanied with
migration. greater compactional settling in the center than near the
unsupervised classification: Determining the natural margins so that reflections near the margins dip toward
classes into which a population divides without use of a the basin.
training set; see classification q.v.. UPS: Universal Polar Stereographic projection, used for
unwrapping: Determining phase as a continuous function latitudes 8090; see Figure M-4.
of time or frequency from data where discontinuities of upscaling: Deciding on the rock-property parameters to
2n n being an integer are possible. Also called use for modeling at a coarser scale than that at which
uncracking. they were measured, for example, determining the
update: To correct a system for deviation or drift that has parameter values to use in reservoir simulation. Upscal-
FIG. U-1. Uphole survey. a Plot of traveltimes versus source depth for geophones at the source point and three offset
distances. b Vertical section showing raypaths.
VHx1x7/t1t7.
upstairs 374 UXO
ing tends to lose heterogeneities. user friendly: Equipment or a technique that is easy to
upstairs: In the numerator of an equation. use.
upstream: Exploration and production operations as user group: An organization of those who use specified
opposed to refining, marketing, and transportation equipment, software, etc., whose objective is to share
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the form tropic variograms. Also called a semivariogram. The
difference between the constant value of the sill and a
1 x1 x 21 ... x N1
1 variogram curve is effectively a correlogram. Vari-
1 x2 x 22 ... x N1
2
ograms are generally modeled for kriging or simulation
. by assuming a simple curve up to the elbow and a flat
... ... sill thereafter. Kriging uses smooth models that
1 x N x 2N ... x N1 N
approximate the data rather than the data themselves.
Van Houten cycles: Cycles of about 21, 100, 400 ka, variometer: ver e om i tr An obsolete instrument used
determined from sediment repetitions in the Newark for measuring small magnetic variations by slight rota-
Basin that roughly correlate with Milankovitvch cycles tions of a magnet suspended on a torsion fiber. See also
q.v.. magnetometer.
Vaporchoc: A marine seismic energy source in which a varisweep: var swe p A method of increasing the
quantity of superheated steam under high pressure is energy in specific bandwidths by vibroseis sweeping
injected into the water. Subsequent condensation of the over narrow bands and summing.
steam attenuates bubble oscillation. Also called steam VAX: 1. Variable-Area record section; see variable area.
gun. CGG trade name. 2. A computer; Digital Equipment tradename.
vaporware: Hypothetical software marketed as already V-band: Radar frequencies between 46 and 56 GHz; see
existing. Figure R-1.
vara: An old Spanish unit of length, about 33 inches or V-bar: Average velocity V; see velocity.
0.85 m, but the exact length differs from country to VCA, VCP: A Vertical-loop EM configuration with the
country. receiving loop CoAxial, CoPlanar. See VLEM.
variable amplitude recording: Recording wiggle trace VD: Variable-Density q.v..
q.v.. See Figure D-17.
variable-area VA: A display in which the width of a
blacked-in area is roughly proportional to the signal
strength. See Figure D-17.
variable-density VD: A display method wherein the
photographic density is proportional to signal ampli-
tude. See Figure D-17.
variable-density log VDL: A microseismogram log or
3D log.
variable reluctance geophone: A geophone whose mag-
netic reluctance is made to vary by mechanically
changing the size of an air gap.
variable word length: Data words containing variable
numbers of characters.
variance: The square of the standard deviation , a mea-
sure of dispersion about the mean, a measure of the
width of the probability distribution for a single random
variable. The average squared difference of each obser-
vation from the mean. FIG. V-1. Variogram.
375
VDL 376 vector
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Vectors are quantities that have both magnitudes and directions, commonly represented by bold face, by arrows
whose length is proportional to the vectors magnitude, or by components.
In Cartesian coordinates with the unit orthogonal vectors i, j, and k),
Aa 1 ia 2 ja 3 k; Bb 1 ib 2 jb 3 k; a i A cosA,i ; A magnitude of A a 21 a 22 a 23 1/2 .
AB a 1 b 1 i a 2 b 2 j a 3 b 3 k.
Addition is shown in a; the negative of a vector is represented by an arrow pointing in the opposite direction and
subtraction by adding the negative vector.
The dot product or inner product is not a vector but a scaler of magnitude
A"B A B cosA,B a 1 b 1 a 2 b 2 a 3 b 3 ,
where the cosine is of the angle between their directions.
The cross product or outer product is a vector perpendicular to both A and B in the direction a right-hand screw
would advance if turned from A toward B c, see also Figure I-3:
ABk A B sinA,B a 2 b 3 a 3 b 2 i a 3 b 1 a 1 b i j a 2 b 1 a 1 b 2 k
a1
b1
i j
a2
b2
k
a3 .
b3
A vector field has values associated with every point in space d.
del / x i / y j / z k,
divergence: div V V V 1 / x V 2 / y V 3 / z;
curl VVi V 3 / y V 2 / z j V 1 / z V 3 / x k V 2 / x V 1 / y .
Vectors are not limited to three dimensions. Equivalent expressions in cylindrical and spherical coordinates are shown
in Fig. C-14. For rotating vectors, see complex notation.
(e)
FIG. V-2. Vectors. a Addition and subtraction of vectors; b components of vectors and orthogonal unit vectors
i, j, and k; c cross product of two vectors is orthogonal to both of them; d an increment to a vector is not
necessarily in the direction of the vector; e vector operations.
VDL: Variable Density Log q.v., also called a 3D log. electrical vector observations at the station and base.
Schlumberger trade name. See Yungul 1968.
vectogram method: vek to grm A scheme in telluric vector: vektr 1. A one-dimensional array; a sequence
surveying in which x-y rather than strip-chart recorders of values that go together in some way, such as values
are used. The technique yields more accurate results of a wavelet at successive discrete time intervals. Thus
and is faster than triangle or ellipse methods. Exact a wavelet which has the values 0.75, 0.25, 0.50 at
time-ties are not required to establish simultaneity of three successive time intervals and is zero at other times
vector computer, vector processor 377 velocity
functional forms are given by Al-Chalabi 1997. the depth of refractors; see hidden layers q.v..
velocity gradient: The derivative of the velocity field. velocity layering: The layering formed by contours of
Sometimes means a lateral horizontal change in velocity values usually instantaneous velocity, some-
velocity, sometimes a vertical change. times stacking velocity or average velocity, which may
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velocity inversion: A decrease in velocity with depth. be quite different from the bedding. Often implies a
Such a situation can result in erroneous calculation for series of layers each of which has constant velocity, as
FIG. V-6. Velocity analysis. (a) Seismic record section. (b) Velocity analysis of data in (a). The graph shows semblance
as a function of the velocity that normal moveout implies. (c) Graph of the maximum semblance at each arrival time. (d)
Graph of the peak amplitude at each arrival time. (Courtesy Grant Norpac.)
velocity log 380 vernal equinox
is often involved in ray tracing and modeling. sis q.v. or velocity panels q.v.. 2. Velocity as a
velocity log: Sonic log q.v.. function of frequency in a medium that shows disper-
velocity model: The spatial distribution of velocity, often sion q.v..
using constant-velocity units layers, through which velocity survey: 1. A series of measurements to determine
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raypaths obeying Snalls law can be traced. Often refers average velocity as a function of depth, as results from
to the velocity model used in migration, especially well survey q.v.. 2. May also refer to running a sonic
depth migration. Also called a velocity cube. See log q.v.. 3. Sometimes refers to surface velocity
Schultz 1999. shooting, X 2 T 2 . 4. See also vertical seismic profile.
velocity panels: A display of the coherence when various velocity sweeping: Trying various stacking velocities to
normal moveouts implying various velocities are see which seems to produce the best results.
assumed. See Figure V-7 and velocity analysis. velocity wavelet: A wavelet which depicts the velocity of
velocity profile: Data obtained with an expanding spread earth-particle motion rather than displacement. The
designed to record reflections over a large range of most common type of wavelet encountered.
offset distances so that velocity can be determined from Vening Meinesz hypothesis: va n ing mi nez See isos-
the time-distance data for reflection events. Also called tacy. Named for Felix Andries Vening Meinesz 1887
X 2 T 2 q.v.. 1966, Dutch geophysicist.
velocity pull-up, push-down: A velocity anomaly Venn diagram: ven An illustration of relationships used
q.v. resulting from local shallower material of excep- in logic and in Boolean algebra; see Figure B-5d.
tionally high or low velocity. It has the effect of Named for John Venn 1834 1923, British mathema-
pulling up or pushing down horizons under the shal- tician and logician.
lower high or low velocity. vented-gas column: A stream of gas bubbles above a
velocity scan: Velocity panel q.v.. seafloor mound that is caused by gas from depth forcing
velocity sag: A velocity anomaly q.v. involving a time its way to the sea bottom.
delay. vergence: The edge or margin, especially the limit where
velocity shadow: An anomalous uplift or depression that conditions change significantly.
is not real underneath a high- or low-velocity feature. vernal equinox : The point on the celestial sphere
See velocity pull-up, push-down. occupied by the sun at the time of the vernal equinox
velocity spectrum: 1. Stacking velocity as a function of about March 21, which is the reference point from
reflection traveltime, such as shown in a velocity analy- which right ascension and celestial longitude are calcu-
FIG. V-7. Velocity panel. Panels (e) and (f) show a common-midpoint gather for the applied stacking velocity V S ; a
mute has been applied in (f). Other panels show the results where V S has been decreased or increased by nV S ;
n4,3,2,1; V S is often 200500 ft/s. (From Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 310.)
vernier 381 vertical seismic profiling VSP
surface. VSPs are also run in directional and horizontal ated by the drill bit is used as a seismic source. See
wells. A walkabove VSP is made with the sonde in a reverse VSP.
deviated hole and the source moved so as to be verti- vertical stack: 1. Combining the records from several
cally above it. The result of a VSP is often displayed as sources at nearly the same location without correcting
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a corridor stack; see Figure C-16. for static or offset differences. Used especially with
vertical seismic profile VSP deconvolution: On the surface sources in which the records from several suc-
display emphasizing downgoing energy, everything cessive weight drops, vibrations, pops, etc., are com-
beyond the first arrivals must be a multiple of some bined to give in effect the field record which would
sort, so that a Wiener filter that removes this energy will have resulted from a much stronger source. 2. Adding
produce a deconvolved downgoing section. The same together the traces of a vertical seismic profile after
filter applied to the upgoing section will deconvolve it. time-shifting so as to horizontally align upward-
vertical seismic profile VSP processing: The first step traveling waves. 3. Sometimes used incorrectly to
is usually a slant-path correction to traveltimes because mean uphole stack q.v..
the raypath is not vertical. The sonde depth z divided by vertical time: 1. The arrival time that would be observed
the first-break times t v gives the average velocity V (z) for a given reflection if the travel path had been verti-
and z/t v gives the interval velocity V i . The energy cal. The vertical time differs from the observed arrival
that arrives shortly after t v is relatively free of multiples time if the reflector is dipping so that the reflecting
and is used to make a corridor stack sometimes called point is not directly under the midpoint or if velocity
an outside corridor stack. If t v (z) is subtracted from variations distort raypaths. 2. Uphole time q.v..
each trace, downgoing arrivals are emphasized and if very long baseline interferometry VLBI: Measuring
t v (z) is added to each trace, upgoing arrivals are the distance between antennae by correlating random
emphasized. If the source generates S-waves and a quasar noise. This method can determine precise geo-
3-component geophone is used, the downgoing S-wave detic measurements with an accuracy of a few cm.
can usually be seen and if its traveltimes are added to very low frequency VLF: 1. Radio transmission at fre-
each trace, S-wave reflections become evident. Other quencies of 3 to 30 kHz, used for communication with
types of processing are also done to VSP data or to data submerged submarines and for long-range radio posi-
involving appreciable offsets. tioning. Most VLF transmitters work in the range 15 to
vertical seismic profiles while drilling: The noise gener- 24 kHz. See Figure E-11. 2. An electromagnetic pros-
FIG. V-10. Vertical seismic profile. (a) Each trace is recorded at a depth in a borehole using an air-gun source at the
surface. (b) Same except each trace has been shifted by the one-way traveltime to the surface, thus aligning reflections
(upcoming events) horizontally. A shift in the other direction would align downgoing events horizontally. (c) Portion of a
reflection record section across the well location. (d) Sonic log in the well. (From Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 490.)
VES 383 virtual image
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FIG. V-11. Vertical seismic profile checklist. (From Gilpatrick and Fouquet, 1989, 35.)
pecting method which uses such transmissions as which a vibrator is used as an energy source to generate
plane-wave sources. The VLF receiver measures the tilt a controlled wavetrain. A sinusoidal vibration of con-
of the total field by nulling one of two small orthogonal tinuously varying frequency Figure V-12 is applied
coils in the plane of the primary field. See also Figure during a sweep period typically lasting up to 32 s. In
E-7. 3. A radiolocation system such as Omega that used upsweeping the frequency begins low and increases
very-low frequency energy. with time, and in downsweeping the highest frequen-
VES: Vertical Electric Sounding q.v., such as Schlum- cies occur first. The frequency is usually changed lin-
berger sounding, frequency, transient, or geometric early with time. A non-linear sweep usually involves
sounding in electromagnetic exploration, or frequency vibrating longer at the higher frequencies to somewhat
sounding in magnetotelluric exploration. compensate for the increased loss of high frequencies in
vibe: Vibrator q.v.. travel through the earth. A vibroseis field record con-
vibration monitor: A calibrated recorder of ground and sists of the superposition of many long reflected
structural acceleration and velocity. Used to measure wavetrains and is generally uninterpretable because of
vibrational amplitudes and the modal frequencies of the extensive overlap; it is correlated with the sweep
buildings, towers, etc. under ambient conditions. Also wavetrain to produce an interpretable record which
used to measure potentially damaging vibrations due to resembles a conventional seismic record such as results
blasting, pile driving, etc. from an impulsive source. Developed by Conoco.
vibration survey: Study to measure the amount, intensity, Vibroseis is no longer a trademark.
and characteristics of the vibrations resulting from VIM: Vibration Isolation Module, a device used to isolate
blasting, pile driving, etc. a seismic streamer from the vibrations of the towing
vibrator: An instrument which produces mechanical vessel and tail buoy. Also TMIV, Tuned Vibration
oscillations used as a seismic source for vibroseis q.v.. Isolation Module.
vibratory plough: A device for burying detonating cord vintage data: Legacy data q.v..
about 50 cm deep for use as a seismic source; a vibrat- virtual image: An image point in a constant-velocity
ing blade pulled by a tractor. model that could produce the same event as the actual
Vibroseis or vibroseis: vi bro siz, A seismic method in source; see image.
virtual memory 384 volume attributes
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virtual memory: A technique that permits a user to treat large enough to realign the magnetization direction of
secondary memory as an extension of main processor domains with rather high energy barriers. The weak
memory. Blocks of data pages are transferred field of the Earth acts to bias the direction of these
between rapid access and secondary memories as jumps.
access to them requires. Use of the storage is transpar- visionarium: An area designed for virtual reality immer-
ent to the user. sion, often employing a curved screen and three or
virtual reality: A simulated environment generated by a more projectors. Compare cave.
computer where a human provided with combinations visualization: Viewing data so as to appreciate 3D
of visual, auditory, and tactile presentations can study aspects, sometimes by optical stereo or motion effects,
and manipulate data. Used to understand 3D seismic sometimes by virtual reality q.v. or other methods.
data. Also called artificial reality, visualization, and Volume rendering.
immersive simulation. See also visionarium and cave. vitrinite reflectance: A measure of thermal maturity
virus: Software which infects other programs and may determined by geochemical analysis.
destroy information. A virus insinuates itself into VLBI: Very Long Baseline Interferometry q.v..
executable files or documents, from which it uses the VLEM, VEM: Vertical-Loop ElectroMagnetic configu-
computers links to other programs to replicate itself. In ration where the transmitting loop is in a vertical plane.
contrast, worms are able to spread to other computers Called VCP when the receiving loop is coplanar or
and replicate themselves there, using e-mail address VCA when coaxial. See Frischknecht et al. 1989.
lists, so that a receiver is apt to believe that he knows VLF: 1. Very-low frequency q.v.. 2. VLF instrumentation
the sender and thus is apt to open and activate the used to measure ellipse of polarization parameters.
worm. A Trojan horse is a type of virus that, when voice grade: A channel with a frequency range from
downloaded or opened, accesses the computers vital approximately 300 to 3000 Hz.
systems and damages them. A hoax is an e-mail posting void ratio: The ratio of porosity to nonporosity (1
that raises an alarm about a nonexistent virus. Unaware ).
readers are apt to forward the information to others, Voigt solid: voit See viscoelastic. Named for Waldemar
creating a chain-letter effect. Voigt 18501919, German physicist.
viscoelastic: Having a stress-strain relationship which Voigt waves: P-waves in a Voigt or viscoelastic solid.
includes terms proportional to both the strain and the volcanism: A geologic process which involves the erup-
rate of change of strain. Leads to attenuation of seismic tion of molten rock. Volcanism is associated with earth-
waves dependent on the square of the frequency. A quake tremors swarms and continuous vibration.
viscoelastic solid behaves as a solid on a short time volt V: The SI unit of potential difference. The potential
scale and as a liquid on a long time scale; it is also call difference between two points where one joule of work
a Voigt solid. is done by one coulomb going from one to the other, or
viscometer: A device for measuring fluid viscosity. the unit of electromotive force that will drive one
viscosity: Resistance of a fluid to flow; stress/rate of ampere through a resistance of one ohm. Named for
shear. Count Alessandro Volta 17451827, Italian physicist.
viscous magnetization VRM: Remanent magnetization voltmeter: An electrical instrument used to measure the
produced by a weak magnetic field over a long period potential difference between points in a circuit. A volt-
of time. It is generally proportional to the logarithm of meter may respond to average, root-mean-square, or
the time and parallel to the weak applied field. Viscous peak voltage values.
magnetization has its origin in thermal energy which is volume attributes: Seismic data measurement throughout
volume control 385 vug
a volume. See attribute, seismic. VSP to CMP transform: An operation to move offset
volume control: Gain control q.v.. VSP data to the reflecting point locations assuming
volume magnetization: Magnetic moment per unit vol- there is no dip. Where the dip is appreciable, it is
ume. followed by VSP migration.
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volume rendering: Visualizing 3D data by optical stereo, VS VP: The ratio of velocities of S-wave to P-wave. This
motion, or other means. ratio is sensitive to lithology or interstitial fluid. The
volume reverberation: Watertrack q.v.. ratio is about 1/2 for most rocks, is larger for gas
von Neumann architecture: von noi man Serial com- saturation, and zero for fluids. Measurements of Pois-
puter design based on a high-speed memory feeding sons ratio give equivalent information.
data one point at a time into a central processing unit
CPU. Compare parallel processing. Named for VS 2
0.5
Johann von Neumann 19031957, Hungarian math- V S 0.5 1/2
VP
ematician. , .
VP 1 VS 2
von Schmidt wave: Head wave q.v.. 1
vortex shedding: A mode of fluid flow involved in pulling VP
a cable through the water. See fairing. VTI: Polar anisotropy q.v. Transverse Isotropy with a
vote: See majority vote. Vertical axis; layering anisotropy.
voxel: A volume element, the 3D version of the 2D pixel. VTS: Vehicle Tracking System used to locate marine
voxel tracking: Following an event that is characterized vehicles.
by a seed voxel through a volume, e.g., by following a VTVM: Vacuum-Tube Voltmeter.
local cross-correlation maximum. Generally generates a V2: Subweathering velocity, often determined from first-
surface whose characteristics are changing slowly. break refraction arrivals.
VRM: Viscous Remanent Magnetization q.v.. vug: A cavity or open space in rocks, often of diagenetic
VSP: Vertical Seismic Profiling q.v.. origin.
W
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W: Watt, the SI unit of power, equal to one joule per waterbreak: The arrival of energy that travels in the water
second. directly from the source to a waterbreak detector. Used
Wadati-Benioff zone: wad a te ben e of See Benioff- to determine the location of waterbreak detectors in a
Wadati zone. seismic streamer with respect to the source location.
wag: Water Alternating with Gas, an enhanced oil recov- Filters in the waterbreak circuitry pass components
ery method, injection of water alternating with injection between approximately 500 and 5000 Hz, thus avoiding
of gas. possible confusion with shallow refractions of lower
walkabove VSP: A vertical seismic profile q.v. into a frequency and with background sonic energy of higher
deviated well where the surface source is moved so as frequency; see Figure C-2e. The velocity of seismic
to produce vertical travelpaths. acoustic waves in water is shown in Figure W-1.
walkaway: 1. Noise analysis (seismic) q.v. performed by waterbreak detector: A high-frequency detector sensitive
moving source points to progressively larger offsets to the direct wave carried in the water; see waterbreak.
while keeping geophones fixed, or the source point can water cut: The volume fraction of water produced from a
remain fixed while the geophones are moved to pro- well.
gressively larger offsets. See Figure N-3. 2. A walk- waterfall display: A graph of inline versus crossline loca-
away vertical seismic profile q.v.. 3. A profile extend- tions of various groups within a towed streamer. Used
ing to long offsets. to show the drift of different parts of the streamer at
walkaway test: A test of the quality of an electromagnetic successive locations along a line.
transmitter by moving a receiver over long distances waterflood: See flood.
perpendicular to the center of a transmitter. watergun: A seismic source that propels a slug of water
walkaway VSP: See vertical seismic profile. into the water mass, producing an implosive effect.
walking stick: A non-polarizing electrode used in self water injection: 1. A method of drilling that uses air as
potential measurements. the principal fluid for removal of cuttings but with
wall resistivity log: A microresistivity log q.v.. enough water added to lubricate the hole and make the
Walsh-Hadamard transform: walsh had mard A wall firm enough to prevent excessive caving. Used
non-sinusoidal transform for digital system processing, when drilling dry sand. 2. Injecting water to help dis-
which can be computed using additions and subtrac- place oil or gas in secondary recovery.
tions only. water saturation Sw: Fraction of the pore volume filled
wand: An input device that reads bar codes. with formation water. See Archies formulas.
Warburg impedance: var boorkh Impedance involved water track: A mode of reflected sonar energy produced
in current transfer at an electrode by a Faradaic path by scattering within the tens of feet below a transducer.
q.v.; it is a measure of the rate of ion-diffusion. Varies When using Doppler-sonar navigation in water deeper
inversely as the square root of the frequency. See also than 100 to 300 m, the scattered energy overrides the
Cole-Cole relaxation model. Named for Emil Gabriel reflection from the deeper ocean bottom and accuracy
Warburg 1846 1931, German physicist. drops by about a factor of four compared with bottom
Warburg region: The steep part of the resistivity- mode. Water-track positioning is done with respect to
spectrum curve near the inflection point where the the water which may itself be moving, introducing
electrode impedance of a rock is dominated by additional systematic error.
Faradaic-path conduction; see Faradaic path. water velocity: See Figure W-1.
warping: Changing the processing or display parameters water wave: A surface wave on water, usually wind-
for different parts of displays in order to better match generated. In deep water, wavelength depends on
legacy data to more recent data. wind speed V w :
wash: A situation where different factors cancel each 4 2 gV 2w ,
other.
washing: Demagnetizing degaussing a rock or other where ggravitational acceleration. In shallow water
material, especially by gradually increasing the demag- waves become asymmetric and break when h,
netization to remove successively harder portions of the where hwater depth.
remanent magnetization. watt W: The SI unit of power; a joule per secondvolt
washout: An interruption in the continuity of a coal seam ampere. Named for James Watt 1736 1819, Scottish
because the coal was eroded by a river channel cutting engineer.
into the coal deposits. wave: A disturbance that is propagated through the body
wash tank: A settling vessel where oil and water can or on the surface of a medium without involving net
separate. Also called a gun barrel. movement of material. Waves are usually characterized
WASSP: Exploding wire q.v., a marine energy source. by periodicity Figure W-2. The general expression for
Teledyne trade name. a plane wave in rectangular coordinates is
water-bottom roll: A pseudo-Rayleigh wave involving
the seafloor, analogous to ground roll on land. f xmynzVt g xmynzVt ,
386
wave amplitude 387 wave equation
an S-wave is called a converted wave. Surface waves
or interface waves may travel by several modes, the 2 2 2 1 2
most common of which are Rayleigh waves q.v. or 2 2 2 2 ,
x y z V2 t2
pseudo-Rayleigh waves. Other surface waves include
Love waves q.v., hydrodynamic waves, coupled where represents wave displacement pressure, rota-
waves, and Stoneley waves. A tube wave q.v. is a tion, dilatation, etc. and V the velocity of the wave.
surface wave which travels along the surface of a Functions f (xmynzVt are solutions to this
borehole. See also wave notation. Wave motion at a equation. In spherical coordinates where r is the radius,
point is often described mathematically in terms of the colatitude, and the longitude, the wave equation
harmonic components: becomes:
FIG. W-1. Water velocity. (a) Velocity as a function of temperature and salinity. The speed of P-waves in water is given
by
1 2
V2 t2
1
2
r
r
r2
r
These forms do not provide for the conversion of
P-waves to S-waves nor vice-versa. The vector wave
equation is more general; it is
1
1 2
2 2 /t 2 ,
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sin
sin sin 2
2
which can be written in component form as
The foregoing are forms of the scalar wave equation
2 x /x x /x y /y z /z
2 /t 2 .
If div 0, this gives an S-wave; if curl 0, a
P-wave. The wave equation in polar anisotropic trans-
versely isotropic media is given in Figure T-13.
wave-equation migration: Migration q.v. or imaging
accomplished by application of the wave equation in
one of several ways: in the time domain by a finite-
difference method, in integral form Kirchhoff migra-
tion, in frequency or wavenumber domains after a 2D
transform into frequency-wavenumber domain;
frequency-domain migration, or some combination of
domains. See Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 267268,
326 335.
wavefield: 1. The spatial perturbations at a given time that
result from the passage of a wave, such as the pressure
changes caused by a seismic wave. 2. The temporal
perturbations over a given surface that result from
seismic waves. Migration is sometimes referred to as
downward propagation of the wavefield.
wavefield decomposition: Separating a wavefield into
two wavefields, one down-going and one up-going;
wavefield separation.
waveform: A plot usually as a function of time of a
quantity involved in wave motion, such as voltage,
current, seismic displacement, etc. The waveform
involved in seismic work is called the embedded wave-
let q.v..
wavefront: 1. The surface over which the phase of a
traveling wave disturbance is the same. The wavefront
moves perpendicular to itself as the disturbance travels
in an isotropic medium. A locus of equal traveltime. 2.
The leading edge of a waveform. A wavefront is a
phase velocity surface, the locus of phase propagation.
S-wave group velocity may have cusps when
S-anisotropy exceeds 10%.
wavefront chart: A plot of the location of wavefronts
emanating from a point source after various amounts of
travel time; see Figure W-3. Wavefronts are surfaces
rather than curves see Figure M-11. The shape of
wavefronts depends on the velocity distribution. Usu-
ally implies coincident source and receiver. Charts for
offset geophones are called bathtub charts q.v. and
wavefronts are elliptical when the velocity is constant.
Raypaths corresponding to different values of apparent
velocity usually are drawn also on such charts; raypaths
are perpendicular to wavefronts for isotropic media; see
Figure W-3.
wavefront curvature: See Figure W-4, buried-focus
FIG. W-2. Wave definitions. For sinusoids, (a) how
displacement at one point varies with time; (b) how wave effect, normal moveout.
looks at different places at a given instant. (c) If wavefront wavefront healing: The diffraction of energy into shadow
approaches at an angle, the apparent wavelength differs zones obscures much of the effect of a shadow-
from the true wavelength. For nonperiodic waves, (d) producing obstacle at large distances from it; this is
dominant period is based on the time between principal called healing of the wavefronts. Figure W-5 shows
adjacent troughs (or peaks); (e) dominant wavelength is the reflection from a plane containing a hole, the effect
measured similarly. of the hole being nearly healed.
wavefront method 389 wavefront method
wavefront method: A seismic interpretation method circles assuming constant velocity about each geo-
often graphical which involves reconstructing emerg- phone position of radius (t 1 t)V, where t 1 is the
ing wavefronts from the arrival times at various geo- traveltime observed by that geophone and V is the
phones from a common source or the equivalent. The velocity of the upper layer; see Figure W-6. Similar
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wavefront for the time t is constructed by striking wavefronts can be constructed from other source points
FIG. W-3. Wavefront charts. (a) Wavefronts for a particular velocity function become farther apart with depth because
of the increase of velocity with depth. Raypaths are orthogonal to wavefronts. (b) Wavefronts where velocity increases
from right to left as well as with depth. (Courtesy Chevron Oil Co.)
wavefront velocity 390 wave notation
transmitted.
wave impedance: 1. The ratio of orthogonal components
of electric-field to magnetic-field intensities. See
impedance. 2. The complex ratio of particle velocity or
pressure to displacement in a wave as a function of
frequency.
wavelength : The distance between successive similar
points on two adjacent cycles of a monochromatic
wave, measured perpendicular to the wavefront.
V/ f 2 / 1/wavenumber,
where Vwave velocity and f frequency. See Fig-
ure W-2. Dominant wavelength refers to the wave-
FIG. W-4. Wavefront curvature. Normalized curvature of length of the dominant frequency component.
wavefronts at the surface (plotted horizontally) as a func- wavelet: A seismic pulse usually consisting of only a few
tion of reflector curvature (plotted vertically) for a point cycles. An embedded wavelet q.v. or basic wavelet or
source. Normalized means the curvature has been
equivalent wavelet is the time-domain reflection shape
multiplied by the reflector depth. (From Sheriff and
Geldart, 1995, 157.)
from a single positive reflector at normal incidence. See
also Ricker wavelet and polarity standard.
wavelet equalization: A form of wavelet processing used
with the objective of making the equivalent or embed-
or from the reversed profile of a refraction interpreta- ded wavelet q.v. the same on different traces.
tion. The solution that locates the reflector or refractor wavelet extraction: Wavelet processing used to determine
must satisfy the observed arrival times. See Rockwell the shape of the embedded wavelet q.v..
1967. wavelet processing: Deconvolution processing which
wavefront velocity: The velocity of a wavefront, which is attempts to determine the embedded wavelet shape or
in the direction perpendicular to the wavefront. Also to control or change the shape of the embedded wave-
called phase velocity. Differs from ray velocity q.v. in let. The objective usually is to achieve some specified
anisotropic media. wavelet shape. The specified wavelet is often but not
wave guide: 1. An arrangement that constrains wave necessarily zero phase and short in length. See Sheriff
travel to within a low-velocity layer by repeated reflec- and Geldart 1995, 148, 299300.
tion at the boundaries, or by velocity gradients that wave notation: 1. Earthquake waves are conventionally
bend raypaths back into the channel. Natural wave identified using letters to designate the nature of the
guides have lower velocity than adjacent beds. Wave wave over various legs of their travel path; see earth-
travel in a wave guide is called normal-mode propa- quake seismology and Figures W-7 and E-2. A Jeffreys-
gation and the waves are called channel waves or Bullen chart Figure J-1 shows the normal arrival time
seam waves. A wave guide can also be formed where for various types of waves. See also T-wave, H-wave,
FIG. W-5. Wavefront healing: A plane wavefront reflected from a reflector 5000 ft deep containing a slit (at the time of
the reflection, 1.330 s) three trace intervals wide shows how the diffraction process heals the wavefronts. (Courtesy
Chevron Oil Co.)
wavenumber k 391 weathered layer
weathering Wx, LVL: A near-surface, low-velocity averages or fitting curves to data. Generally i 1.
layer, usually the portion where air rather than water Weisss theory of magnetism: visz z or wisz z A
fills the pore spaces of rocks and unconsolidated earth. ferromagnetic material is made up of small regions or
Seismic weathering is usually different from geologic domains magnetized to saturation i.e., spins aligned
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weathering the result of rock decomposition. The cooperatively despite the tendency of thermal agitation
term LVL low-velocity layer is often used for the to disorient the spins as in paramagnetism. A weak
seismic weathering. Frequently the base of the weath- external field can orient the domains with the field
ering is the water table. Sometimes the weathering direction, and, if strong enough, can align the domains
velocity is gradational, sometimes it is sharply layered. irreversibly, making a permanent magnet. Named for
Weathering velocities are typically 500 to 800 m/s Pierre Weiss 18651940, French physicist.
although weathering velocity may be 150 m/s for the Welch window: See Figure W-12.
first few cm compared to subweathering velocities of weld: The seam line between sections formerly separated
1500 m/s or greater. Weathering thickness is calculated by salt after the salt has moved beyond.
from uphole-survey data and from refraction first well classification: The AAPG-API terminology for wells
breaks. See weathering correction. is shown in Figure W-8.
weathering correction: A correction of seismic reflection well completion: Preparation of a well for production.
or refraction times to remove the delay in the weather- Above ground the blow-out preventer is replaced with a
ing or low-velocity layer LVL. The simplest correc- production wellhead and other surface facilities are
tion is based on uphole times from shots in the subwe- installed. Downhole additional casing, a liner q.v.,
athering layer see uphole shooting. Correction and/or small-diameter tubing to bring produced fluids
methods based on first-break times include the ABC to the surface may be installed. Packers q.v. are used
method see Figure A-1, the Blondeau method, the to isolate reservoirs. In open-hole completion the cas-
summation method, and the first-break intercept-time ing shoe is just above the reservoir usually limestone.
method see Figure S-22 and separate entries. Auto- Liner completion may involve placing a screen or slot-
matic statics-correction programs see Sheriff and Gel- ted liner below the casing to exclude sand from enter-
dart, 1995, 18 19, 146, 261263, based on maximiz- ing; the region around the liner may be gravel-packed.
ing the coherence of reflection events are usually an Casing that has been set through the reservoir may be
early stage in digital processing. See also double-layer
weathering.
weathering map: A map showing the thickness occa-
sionally velocity of the weathering or low-velocity
layer LVL.
weathering shot: A special source impulse to give weath-
ering data. Where pattern sources or geophone patterns
are used, the first-break quality may be too poor for
good weathering corrections and a separate single
weathering source may be recorded into a single geo-
phone of each group. See also uphole shooting. Some-
times called a poop shot or short shot.
weber: va br The unit of magnetic flux in the SI
system, being one joule/ampere. The analogous unit in
the cgs system is the maxwellone erg/abampere.
1 weber10 8 maxwells. Named for Wilhelm Edward
Weber 1804 1891, German physicist.
weight-drop: Use of a dropped weight as a seismic
source; thumper.
weighted array: Pattern in which geophones or seismic
sources are distributed along a line or over an area so
that the contributions of various parts of the line or
area are unequal. Sometimes achieved by varying the
geometric distribution of geophones and/or sources or
weightdrops, by varying the outputs of the different
geophone elements or varying the charge size in differ-
ent holes, or by varying the geophone/source spacing.
See also tapered array.
weighted average: The sum of a set of values x i multi-
plied by weighting values w i , normalized by the sum of
the weights: (w i x i )/w i .
weighting material: Additives to drilling mud to increase FIG. W-7. Wave notation: Earthquake waves are identi-
its density and therefore permit a column of mud to fied conventionally using letters to designate the nature of
control high pressure and prevent a blowout. the wave over various legs of their travelpath. Arrivals of
weights: Numbers that multiply measurement values to seismic waves from earthquakes (see earthquake seis-
give greater emphasis to some values than to others in mology) are identified in this way; see Figures E-2 and
various mathematical operations, such as calculating J-1.
well-conditioned 393 Werner deconvolution
perforated by shaped charges jets or bullets. Produc- reference time at the base of the casing and to check the
tion may be stimulated increased by fracturing or integrated time. A standard computation form is shown
acidizing q.v.. in Figure W-10. See also vertical seismic profile.
well-conditioned: Situation in which a small change in well test: A borehole test of production characteristics.
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the data results in only a small change in the solution. Well tests can be of several kinds: see drillstem test and
well log: A record of one or more physical measurements interference test.
as a function of depth in a borehole. Also called a well-tie line: An arbitrary line q.v. connecting wells.
borehole log. Distinction is sometimes made between a well tie: Running a seismic line by a well so that seismic
log as an entire record which may contain curves events may be correlated with subsurface log infor-
showing several measurements and the individual mation. The planning of well ties must consider the
curves themselves, which are also called logs. 1. Wire- migration of seismic data where dip is present, so that
line logs are recorded by means of sondes carrying the desired well tie is achieved properly.
sensors which are lowered into the hole by a cable. well-velocity survey: Well survey q.v..
Examples include logs which record electrical measure- Wenner electrode array: wen r Electrode arrange-
ments SP, resistivity, etc., acoustic measurements ment used in resistivity surveying, consisting of four
sonic, 3D, etc., nuclear measurements natural radio- equally spaced collinear electrodes, with the outer two
activity, neutron logs, etc., and miscellaneous measure- serving as current sources and the inner two as
ments hole size, temperature, etc.. 2. Other types of potential-measuring points. See Figure A-18.
well logs are made of data collected at the surface; Wentworth scale: went wrth A scale of particle size.
examples are core logs, mud logs q.v., drilling-time See Figure W-11.
logs, etc. 3. Measurement-while-drilling q.v. logs. 4. Werner deconvolution: wur nr A method of inverting
Still other logs show quantities calculated from other regularly spaced magnetic data such as obtained from
measurements; examples are moveable-oil plots, syner- aeromagnetic surveys. The method assumes that
getic logs, etc. Pickett 1970 lists types and applica- anomalies are produced by thin sheets or planar inter-
tions of well-log measurements, as shown in Figure faces with infinite strike and depth extent which are
W-9. perpendicular to the line of measurement. The anomaly
well stimulation: Operations such as fracturing and produced by a thin sheet can be expressed in terms of
acidizing that increase a wells productivity. four unknowns so that, in a noise-free environment,
well survey: A method of determining the average veloc- values at four successive points suffice for a solution.
ity as a function of depth by lowering a geophone into Similarly, the vertical or horizontal derivative of the
a hole and recording energy from sources on the sur- anomaly produced by a planar interface between rocks
face. Often run in addition to a sonic log to supply a of differing magnetization can be expressed in terms of
ing, and displaying 3D data. See Figure T-4c. Trade This equation is the necessary and sufficient condition
name of Compagnie Ge ne rale de Ge ophysique. for minimizing the mean-square error between a
Widess limit: wi ds See resolvable limit. desired output z(t) and the actual output y(t) which
width: 1. The width of an anomaly usually is measured results from passing an input x(t) through a causal
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between either half amplitude or inflection points. See filter with an impulse response f (t). xx ( ) is the
also half-width. 2. The width of a pulse is the width of autocorrelation of x and xz ( ) is the crosscorrelation
a boxcar q.v. with the same peak height and contain- of z and x. When digital processing is involved, this
ing the same area. equation becomes the normal set of linear simultaneous
Wiener filter: we nr A causal filter that will transform equations normal equations. 2. The Wiener-Hopf
an input into a desired output as nearly as possible, equation of the second kind which applies to a nonsta-
subject to certain constraints. As nearly as possible tionary input involves a time-varying filter f (t, ) and
in a least squares sense implies that the sum of the time-varying correlation functions:
squares of differences between the filter output and the
desired result is minimized. The filter optimizes stand-
out of a signal S which is a function of frequency, f in
the presence of random noise N also a function of
xz t, f t, xx , d .
xz f t xx t dt, 0.
windmill array: An array designed to have nearly the
same response at all azimuths.
window: 1. A portion of a seismic record free from certain displayed. Used when several data sets are to be dis-
disturbances; that is, where noise trains are absent. 2. played simultaneously. Windows can be moved about
The portion of a data set chosen for consideration, such or other windows laid on top of them.
as for designing operators to be used for autocorrelation window attributes: Seismic data measurement within a
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or frequency analysis. Also called gate. See also win- window; see attribute, seismic. Window classification
dow carpentry. The equivalent width of a window is involves the size of the window over which measure-
the width of a boxcar with the same peak amplitude ments are made, the slopes of the edges of the window
which contains the same energy. 3. To select for analy- see window, weighting within the window, smooth-
sis data within specified bounds. 4. A portion of a ing, averaging, residuals, peak values, the distribution
computer screen in which some particular data are within the window 15, 50, and 85% values, mean,
FIG. W-11. Wentworth particle-size scale. log 2 mm(log10 mm/log10 2), where mmgrain size in millimeters.
window carpentry 397 working rays
median, kurtosis, continuity, smoothness, edges, per- polarity changes, spectra, etc.
cent greater/smaller than a threshold, linearity or cur- window carpentry: Abrupt discontinuities, such as at the
vature, gradient e.g., AVO, slope or other derivatives, edges of a boxcar window, produce undesirable ringing
integrated values, absolute values, averages of absolute and overshoot effects. Window carpentry concerns
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values, relations within or between windows correla- designing the boundaries of windows to minimize
tion, semblance, covariance, peak-trough differences, undesirable effects by weighting the values within a
window according to some scheme. Window weight-
ings in common use are shown in Figure W-12. Note
the tradeoff between narrowness of the major lobe and
low sidelobe energy.
window pair: A window and its Fourier transform, such
as shown in Figure W-12a,b.
wind scale: Wind force is often given in terms of a Beau-
fort number. See Figure B-2.
wink technique: Rapid alternation of two displays which
are nearly alike, so that the places of difference appear
to jitter whereas places which are alike remain station-
ary.
Winterstein layer stripping: A top-down procedure for
removing the azimuthal anisotropy from seismic data.
See Winterstein 2001.
wipe-out zone: 1. A region without recorded reflections,
possibly representing gassy sediments or a zone with
very small internal contrasts such as a mud-filled chan-
nel. 2. A region from which reflections cannot be
obtained because of raypath disturbances or excessive
attenuation in a shallower region. Sometimes caused by
lack of illumination q.v..
wire-frame representation at workstation: A graphi-
cal representation of the surface of a 3D object by
means of points or lines in a distorted mesh.
wireline: The wire rope used to lower and raise tools e.g.,
tools for recording well logs q.v., corer q.v. to take
sidewall samples, etc. in a borehole.
wireline corer: See corer.
wireline log: A well log q.v. recorded, while being with-
drawn by a sonde that has been lowered into the bore-
hole by a cable.
wiring harness: An arrangement of firing lines for a
series of explosive charges at various depths in a bore-
hole. The deepest charges have to be exploded first.
witness marker: A marked location such as a blaze on a
tree which helps locate a survey point whose location
is known with respect to the witness marker.
WKBJ solutions: A method attributed to Wentzel, Kram-
ers, Brillouin, and Jeffreys for finding approximate
solutions to the equation
d 2 /dx 2 2 s 2 0,
where is large and positive and s 2 is a monotonically
increasing function of x. The WKBJ approximation is
a high-frequency approximation that assumes that the
properties of the medium are constant over several
wavelengths. See Aki and Richards 1980, 416 418.
wood gator: A truck-mounted wood chipper used to clear
brush on seismic lines.
WOR: Water/Oil Ratio.
word: A group of characters occupying one storage loca-
tion in a computer. This unit is treated by the computer
FIG. W-12. Windows in the time and frequency domains. as an entity. Often consists of 32 bits.
(a) Window shapes in time-domain. (b) Spectral shapes. workbench: 1. Work station q.v.. 2. A 3D visualization
The effective width of the boxcar is greater than that for tool.
the other window shapes and hence the central lobe is working rays: Rays that are perpendicular to a reflector
sharper. are traced to the surface, where they form a file that is
workstation 398 Wyrobek method
used to locate the starting points for iterative raytracing. mented decremented past its maximum minimum
See Fagan 1991, 20. value. For example, a 4-bit register can contain any
workstation: An interactive terminal, either stand-alone value from 0 to 15. When it contains 15, incrementing
or connected to a larger computer. Used for interpreta- it results in a value of zero.
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tion, modeling, making processing decisions, etc. by write-protect: A setting that makes it impossible to over-
one person at a time. write a digital storage device and hence alter data.
workstation network: Interconnected workstations that Diskettes have a hole in them which write-protects
can access files and data from each other. them when the hole is open.
World Data Centers: Centers for the collection, Wulff net: wolf See sterographic projection. Named for
exchange, and distribution of data from various geo- Georg Wulff 18631925, Russian crystallographer.
physical disciplines, e.g., solid-earth geophysics, solar- WWSSN: World-Wide Standardized Seismograph Net-
terrestrial geophysics, oceanography, glaciology, work, each station consisting of three orthogonal short-
meteorology, tsunamis. They were originally estab- period geophones up, north, east and three long-
lished for the International Geophysical Year but are period geophones.
being continued under the auspices of the International WWV: The United States Bureau of Standards radio sta-
Council of Scientific Unions ICSU. World Data Cen- tion which broadcasts time and frequency standards.
ter A is in Boulder, Colorado, World Data Center B is in WWV Ft. Collins, Colorado and WWVH Maui,
Moscow, World Data Center C is split with parts in Hawaii broadcast continuously on 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20,
Japan and parts in Western Europe. and 25 MHz the last 2 only by WWV. WWV is off the
World Geodetic System: WGS84 is now used for satel- air for 4 min commencing at 45 min 15 s after each
lite positioning; WGS72 was used before 1987. See hour and WWVH for 4 minutes commencing at 15 min
Figure G-2. 15 s after each hour. Each second is marked by a signal
World-wide Standard Seismograph network WWSS: or tick. A voice announcement is given every minute,
A network of seismic stations utilizing the same type of for example, National Bureau of Standards, WWV,
instruments. Fort Collins, Colorado. At the tone, 17 hr, 16 min,
World Wide Web WWW: A distributed hypertext Coordinated Universal time. WWVB broadcasts a
information system developed at CERN. binary-coded-decimal version of WWV.
worm: See virus. WWW: World Wide Web q.v..
wow: 1. Variations in the speed of a magnetic tape or a Wyllie relationship: wi le The time-average equation
camera, evidenced by an irregular timing-line pattern. q.v.. Named for M. R. J. Wyllie, American geophysi-
Often periodic and of low frequency. 2. A pattern seen cist.
in isovelocity contours caused by a velocity anomaly Wx: Weathering q.v..
much smaller than the spread length. Wyrobek method: wi ro bek A refraction interpretation
wrap around: 1. Aliasing in the f -k domain q.v.. Wrap- method based on applying delay and intercept times to
around can be prevented by padding q.v. with zeroes. continuous refraction profiling, even where the profiles
See also Figure F-11b. 2. The effect produced when a are not reversed. See Wyrobek 1956 or Sheriff and
digital memory element usually a register is incre- Geldart 1995, 441 442.
X
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x: 1. The distance from the source to a particular geophone X2-T2 analysis: A method of determining stacking veloc-
group; offset. 2. An x-spread is a cross-spread; see ity V s and the depth of a reflector z from the arrival-
Figure S-18. time versus offset relationship:
x-band: See radar and Figure R-1.
V 2s t 2 4z 2 x 2 .
x-hole: Crosshole; see crosshole method.
xmit: To transmit. If x 2 is plotted against t 2 , the slope gives the inverse of
xml: EXtensible Markup Language, a language for inter- the velocity squared and the depth can be obtained from
net use. the intercept. Applies only to a constant velocity
xo: Subscript used with log terms to indicate values appro- medium. Because of the variation of velocity with
priate to the flushed zone adjacent to the borehole. depth, x 2 -t 2 curves are not perfectly straight lines. For
XR: EXtended Range; see extended-range shoran. horizontal velocity layering and horizontal reflectors,
X-ray fluorescence XRF: Measuring distinctive sec- the stacking velocity V s is given by the slope at the
ondary X-rays emitted when a sample is bombarded by origin. See also velocity and Sheriff and Geldart 1995,
electrons, X-rays, or -rays. 86, 134.
XRD: X-Ray Diffraction. X-Y reader: A device for converting the positions of
XRF: X-Ray Fluorescence. points on a map or graph to digital coordinates. Coor-
x-spread: Cross-spread q.v.. dinatograph.
Y
yardstick: A standard of performance for evaluating oscillation of a logging sonde because of unequal drag
devices or processes. as it is pulled up the hole. 3. A method of marine
yaw: Rotational motion of a ship or aircraft about a ver- seismic shooting in which the seismic cable or streamer
tical axis. A steady heading at an angle to the course being towed by the recording boat is alternately
such as to compensate for cross wind or cross sea is released so that it floats freely in the water during
called crab. Compare pitch and roll. recordings, and then is reeled in between recordings to
yellow pages: A directory of suppliers or service compa- catch up with the recording boat, which is traveling
nies. steadily ahead all the while.
Youngs modulus: yng See elastic constant. Named for Yumatsu impactor: u An impulsive seismic
, mat su
Thomas Young 17721829, British natural philoso- energy source that involves the use of hydraulics to
pher. accelerate a 440 lb mass against a weighted baseplate.
yo-yo: 1. Moving sources up/down in a borehole. 2. Depth Trade name of Japex Geoscience Institute Inc.
399
Z
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ZA: The ratio of atomic number Z to atomic weight A phase filter is symmetric, then the output will also be
and, hence, proportional to the ratio of electron density symmetric. Zero-phase filtering can be approximated
as measured by the density log to mass density. by using a linear-phase filter, a mixed-phase filter which
Apparent density equals true density where Z/A shifts component frequencies proportional to their fre-
1/2, which is closely approximated for many miner- quency, and then delaying the time reference. A zero
als e.g., quartz, calcite, anhydrite, dolomite. The phase filter produces no phase distortion. See Figure
apparent density is larger than the true density when P-2 and phase characteristics. 2. A wavelet symmetric
Z/A1/2 e.g., gypsum, oil, 110% for water, smaller about zero time. It is the shortest possible wavelet for
when Z/A1/2 e.g., salt. any given spectrum. The SEG standard for display of a
Zeeman effect: za mn A splitting of spectral lines in zero-phase wavelet is shown in Figure P-6.
the radiation emitted by atoms or molecules in a mag- zero time: The reference time for a seismic trace, with
netic field. Named for Pieter Zeeman 18651943, respect to which arrival times are measured.
Dutch physicist. zeta potential: za t Adsorption potential, the potential
Zener diode: ze nr A silicon diode in which the break- drop across the diffuse layer in an electrolyte, which
down voltage in the reverse direction Zener voltage is consists of a group of relatively mobile ions at the
used for voltage stabilization or voltage reference. interface between a solid and a liquid. See adsorption.
zenith: ze nth A point directly overhead. Zenith dis- Zietz-Andreasen method: ze tz an dra
sn A magnetic
tance is the angle between zenith and a body. interpretation method; see Zietz and Andreasen 1967.
zero: A root q.v. of an equation. zig-zag: A 3D acquisition geometry where the source lines
zero crossing: Where a seismic trace crosses the zero- zig-zag between the receiver lines.
deflection axis, where the phase of a semiperiodic sig- zipper: An overlap in a 3D survey that causes either
nal is zero. source locations to be repeated into a new set of
zero crossings, number of: An attribute sometimes used receiver positions or receiver positions to be reoccupied
as a frequency measure. for a new set of source locations.
zero frequency: Alternating-current phenomena extrapo- Zoeppritzs equations: zo pritz Equations that express
lated to zero frequency in the frequency domain. The the partition of energy when a plane wave impinges on
amplitude at zero-frequency is the dc shift. an acoustic-impedance contrast. In the general case for
zero-frequency seismology: Study of long-term displace- an interface between two solids when the incident angle
ments, strains, and tilts. is not zero, four waves are generated: reflected P-wave
zero-lag correlation: The value of an autocorrelation and S-wave and transmitted P-wave and S-wave. The
xx (0) or crosscorrelation zx (0) for zero time shift; a partition of energy among these is found from four
measure of the mean power or crosspower. boundary conditions which require continuity of nor-
zero-length spring: A spring whose effective length, as mal and tangential displacement and stress. Using the
measured from its fixed point of support, is zero when symbols given in Figure S-12, Snells law states:
the external forces acting upon it are zero. The stress-
strain relationship between its points of attachment sin P1 sin S1 sin P2 sin S2
projected back to zero length has zero strain. Gravime- ;
V P1 V S1 V P2 V S2
ters using a zero-length spring are linear and have
extreme sensitivity combined with stability and reduced
sensitivity to leveling error. this defines all angles. For an incident plane P-wave of
zero offset ZSR: Source and receiver located at the unity amplitude, the continuity conditions yield the four
same place, the objective of a common-midpoint sec- Zoeppritz equations shown in Figure Z-1.
tion by correcting for normal moveout and stacking. Figure Z-1 also shows the variation of energy with
Also coincident source-receiver. angle for several sets of parameters. Beyond the critical
zero-offset ray tracing: Using seismic rays that are angles for P- and S-waves, the respective refracted
orthogonal to a seismic reflector so that after reflection waves vanish. The increase in reflection energy near the
they retrace the same path they traversed in reaching critical angle is sometimes referred to as the wide-
the reflector. angle phenomenon and is sometimes exploited in seis-
zero-offset section: A seismic section where each trace is mic surveying. The same relationships in terms of
the result of a coincident source and geophone, the potentials are called Knotts equations. See Sheriff and
section that a common-midpoint section simulates. Also Geldart 1995, 7375. Because no provision was made
called a ZSR Zero Source-Receiver distance section. in the equations derivation for the head waves, these
zero-phase: 1. A filter for which the phase shift is zero for equations do not give head-wave amplitudes or correct
all frequencies. Zero-phase filters are anticipatory and values beyond the critical angle.
hence are not physically realizable, i.e., half of the zonation of a reservoir: Vertical permeability differences
energy arrives before the time reference so that one gets often subdivide a producing zone into subzones that
output before the input arrives. If the input to a zero- may produce somewhat independently. The subzones
400
zone chart 401 z-transform
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FIG. Z-1. The Zoeppritz equations for an incident plane P-wave of unity amplitude are:
cos P1 sin S1 cos P2 sin S2 A cos P1
sin P1 cos S1 sin P2 cos S2 B sin S1
Z 1 cos2 S1 W 1 sin S1 Z 2 cos 2 S2 W 2 sin 2 S2 C Z 1 cos 2 S1
V S1 /V P1 W 1 sin 2 P1 W 1 cos 2 S1 V S2 /V P2 W 2 sin 2 P2 W 2 cos 2 S2 D V S1 /V P1 W 1 sin 2 P1
where Z i i V Pi, W i i V Si, and A,B,C,D are respectively the amplitudes of the reflected P- and S-waves and the
transmitted P- and S-waves. However, their derivation does not consider head waves and hence they do not yield
reliable values at and beyond the critical angle. (a) Energy fractions of reflected P-waves RP, reflected S-waves RS,
transmitted P-waves TP, and transmitted S-waves TS for a P-wave velocity ratio of 0.5, density ratio 0.8, Poissons ratio
of 0.3 in the upper medium and 0.25 in the lower. (b) Similar to (a) except for P-wave velocity ratio of 2.0 and density
ratio of 0.5. (c) Energy fraction for reflected P-waves as a function of P-wave velocity ratio; no density contrast and
Poissons ratios are 0.25. (From Denham and Palmeira, 1984.) (d) Energy fractions for reflected P-waves as a function
of density ratio; P-wave velocity contrast 1.5, Poissons ratio 0.25. (From Tooley et al., 1965.)
and perhaps the entire reservoir are often beyond associated with a waveform in sampled form; see
seismic resolution. z-transform and Figure Z-3.
zone chart: A template for making terrain correction or ZSR: Zero Source-Receiver distance; zero offset.
isostatic corrections to gravity data. A zone chart Fig- z-transform: A transform useful for representing time
ure Z-2 can be laid over a topographic map with its series and calculating the effects of various operations.
center at the station being corrected and the difference If the sample values of a wavelet at successive times
in mean absolute elevation between each zone and the are: x t [x 0 ,x 1 ,x 2 ,x 3 ,...,x n ], then the z-transform of
stations elevation tabulated without regard for sign the wavelet is
because the correction is always positive regardless of
whether zones are higher or lower than the station x z x 0 x 1 zx 2 z 2 x 3 z 3 ...x n z n .
elevation to determine the terrain correction.
zoom: To enlarge or reduce. An interactive graphics term The z-transform may be thought of as ze i t , where
for increasing or decreasing the magnification of a angular frequency; this allows one to relate it to the
display. Derived from the photographic term. See Fig- Fourier transform. The z-transform technique is an easy
ure D-24. way of converting from the time domain into a form
z-plane: A representation of the z-transform polynomial which can be treated as in the frequency domain. Con-
z-transform 402 z-transform
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403
Appendix A 404
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
Plane angle radian rad
Solid angle steradian sr
Note that the kilogram is not a unit of force (weight). The
word weight is often ambiguous and its use should be
avoided. The temperature unit kelvin is not degree kelvin.
Squared or cubed should follow unit names except for areas and volumes; thus, meter per second
squared, square meter, watt per cubic meter.
The spellings metre and litre are preferred but meter and liter are the official U.S. forms of spelling.
The use of liter as a cubic decimeter is discouraged.
24 yotta, Y
10 Angular velocity revolutions per minute,
10 21 zetta, Z rad/2 min, revolutions
10 18 exa, E per second, rad/2 s
10 15 peta, P Area hectare, ha10 4 m2
10 12 tera, T Calorific value kilowatt hour per kilogram
Energy kilowatt hour,
10 9 giga, G
kw.h(1/3600)J
10 6 mega, M
Energy unit electron volt, eV
10 3 kilo, k Length centimeter, cm10 2 m
10 2 hecto, h Magnetic flux density gammanT
10 deka, da Mass tonne10 3 kg
10 1 deci, d Plane angle degree0.017 453 29 rad
10 2 centi, c Pressure bar100 kPa
10 3 milli, m Temperature degree Celsius,
10 6 micro, CK273.15
10 9 nano, n Time minute, min60 s
10 12 pico, p hour h3600 s
10 15 femto, f day, d
10 18 atto, a year, a
10 21 zepto, z Volume liter or litre, Ldm3
hectare meter,
10 24 yocto, y
ha.m10 4 m3
When prefixes are used, the first syllable is Yield liter/tonne
accented.
Note that degree in degree Celsius is lowercase. Centigrade is now obsolete. The symbol to indicate
degree is not used when temperature is expressed in kelvin.
406
Appendix B: Greek Alphabet and Hindi Numerals
Appendix C: Symbols Used in
Geophysical Exploration
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The following symbols are recommended for publications of the SEG. Additional symbols used in
well logging and mathematics are listed in Appendices D and E. Symbols are generally bold face when
they indicate vector quantities.
a Apparent as a subscript; velocity gradient with depth; year.
A Area.
AMT Audiomagnetotelluric.
bB Magnetic induction in time/frequency domain.
c Velocity of light; seismic velocity.
C CapacitanceQ/V.
dD Electric displacement in time/frequency domain.
ds Depth of source/shot.
e Base of natural logarithms.
E Youngs modulus; elevation; voltage EMF.
eE Electric field strength in time/frequency domain.
EM Electromagnetic.
F Magnetic vector potential.
f,F Frequency; fair reliable but with less accuracy/certainty than desirable; function.
FE Frequency effect.
FEM Frequency-domain electromagnetic.
g Acceleration of gravity.
G Conductance.
G, G Scalar/tensor Greens function.
h Thickness.
hH Magnetic field strength in time/frequency domain.
I Current scalar.
I Intensity of magnetization a vector; current vector.
i,j (1) 1/2 .
i, j, k Unit vectors in the x-, y-, z-direction.
IP Induced electric polarization.
J Free charge current density a vector.
k Bulk modulus; susceptibility.
Ke Relative dielectric permittivity [K e 1(4 0 )].
Km Relative magnetic permeability [K m ( 0 /4 )].
L Inductance; area over a decay curve; length.
m Volume chargeability.
M Mutual inductance, integral chargeability.
m, M Magnetic polarization in time/frequency domain.
MF Metal factor.
MIP Magnetic induced electric polarization.
MMR Magnetometric resistivity.
MT Magnetotelluric.
n Unit normal vector.
n Index of refraction.
p Raypath parameter; pressure.
P Polarization; dipole moment/volume; poor probably reliable with poor accuracy; pressure.
PFE Percent frequency effect.
407
Appendix C 408
r Position vector.
r Radial distance.
R Resistance; reflectivity reflection coefficient; radius.
s Laplace transform variable.
S Admittance1/Z; surface.
t Time; traveltime.
T Period; temperature; age; transmission coefficient
TEM Time-domain electromagnetic.
u x , u y , uz Unit vectors in Cartesian coordinates or i, j, k.
u , u , u z Unit vectors in cylindrical coordinates.
ur , u , u Unit vectors in spherical coordinates.
U Group velocity; magnetic scalar potential.
v, V Velocity; phase velocity; volume
V Voltage; electric or gravity scalar potential.
vp,VP Very poor in both reliability and accuracy.
wx Weathering.
x Offset distance; distance.
X Reactance; X C 1/(2 v C); X L 2 v L.
y Admittance.
z Depth
zn Time delay of n units.
Z Impedance.
S Rate of energy generation, saturation, semblance, sift window, source, surface area
SP Spontaneous or self potential
SSP Static SP
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Angle, attenuation coefficient, disassociation factor, pore aspect ratio, SP reduction factor
Thermal expansion coefficient
Coefficient of thermal conductivity. -ray response, dipmeter pad rotation, gyromagnetic ratio,
specific gravity
Free-air gradient
Displacement ratio, Kronecker delta function, skin depth
Diffusion effect, dilitation
Hydraulic diffusivity, dielectric permittivity, strain
Displacement
Viscosity
Acoustic transit time per unit length, induction number
Azimuth angle, incidence/reflection/refraction angle, phase shift, rotation
Dielectric constant dielectric permittivity, thermal diffusivity
Decay constant, anisotropy, mean free path, Lame constant, mobility, wavelength
Grain size parameter, ratio of pore surface area to volume
Attenuation coefficient, magnetic permeability, shear modulus, viscosity
Ionic mobility, Poissons ratio
Logarithmic energy decrement
Density, radial distance
Capture cross section, mass per unit length, scattering cross section, stress, surface tension
Macroscopic cross section
Dead time, half-life, time constant, time delay, tortuosity
angle, borehole inclination, phase shift, porosity, sonde tilt
Neutron flux
xy Crosscorrelation
X Magnetic susceptibility
Angle, flux, solution to wave equation
Potential
Angular frequency
Appendix E: Mathematical Symbols
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Vertical
bars Absolute value, modulus, magnitude of vector
Determinant
a 11 a 12
a 21 a 22
and sometimes matrices
Evaluated at f x a f a
a 11
a 21
a 12
a 22
412
413 Appendix E
2 Laplacian
Very small increment
Partial derivative, f (x,y)/ x
Sum, as 3i1 a i a 1 a 2 a 3 ; sum of all appropriate elements
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Product, as 3i1 a i a 1 a 2 a 3
xy ( ) Correlation of x with y as function of time shift
Standard deviation
Angular velocity frequency
abs Absolute
arc Inverse, as arc sin xsin1 xangle whose sine is x
arg Argument of
av Average; also indicated by a superscript bar: V
cis Cos i sin
d Differential
det Determinant
div Divergence 2
erf Error function, as erf(x)2/ x0 e v d v
erfc Complementary error function 1 erf
exp Exponential function, as exp[x]ex
Im Imaginary part of
lim Limit; lim limit as a approaches
a
ln Natural logarithmloge log to the base e
max Maximum
P[E] Probability of E
P[EF] Probability of both E and F
P[E/F] Probability of E given F
Re Real part of
rms Root-mean-square
sgn Sign of as sgnx1 if x 0, 1 if x 0
z x
2x
1/2
Z 1/2 x
j x ;n x ;i gn x ;k gn x ;h 1 x ;k 2 x
Gamma function (x)
Struve function H (x)
Modified Struve function L (x)
Error function erf(x)
Complementary error function erfc(x)
Legendre functions P (x)
Associated Legendre functions P m (x)
Appendix E 414
F e i t d F
f t e i t dt
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Laplace transform F s L f t f t e st dt
0
Re
d Re f
1
Im
d
For definitions of functions and related matters, refer to Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A., 1972,
Handbook of mathematical functions: Dover Publications, Inc.
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TR Triassic
C
Special symbols for ages:
Cambrian
P C
415
Precambrian
Appendix F: Map and Rock Symbols
Appendix G: Abbreviations of Organizations
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416
Appendix H: Numerical Constants
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417
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418
Appendix I: Geologic Time Scale
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419
for Spherically Symmetric Earth
Appendix J: Preliminary Reference Earth Model
Appendix K: Conversion of Units
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Each of the fractions below has the value of 1, i.e., numerator and denominator are equal. Hence
multiplying any dimension by one of the fractions and cancelling terms does not change the value.
Circular measure
0.01745 radians 57.30 degrees 9.55 rev/minute
degree radian rad/s
Linear measure
0.3048 m 3.281 ft 1.609 km 0.6214 statute mile 1.852 km 1.1516 statute mile 60 nautical miles
ft m statute mile km nautical mile nautical mile degree at equator
2.54 cm 106 micron 1010 Angstrom 9.46 m 66 ft 100 link 6 ft 1 league
inch m m 1015 light year chain chain fathom 3 statute miles
Velocity
1.689 ft/s 1.15157 mile/hour 0.5148 m/s 1.853 km/hour
knot knot knot knot
Area
1028 barn 640 acres 1 section 2.471 acre 2.590 km2 100 hectare 0.4042 hectare 258.7 hectare
m2 mile2 mile2 hectare mile2 km2 acre mile2
9 mi2 5760 acre
Gulf of Mexico GOM block GOM block
Volume
3.785 liters 4.546 liters 7.4805 U.S. gallons 0.15899 m3 0.028 m3 159 liter
U.S. gallon British gallon ft3 U.S. bbl ft3 U.S. bbl
1 acre ft 7758 bbl 5.61 ft3 1 U.S. bbl 42 U.S. gallons 1233 m3
1233.5 m3 acre ft U.S. bbl 0.159 m3 U.S. bbl acre ft
Mass
2.2046 lb 0.4536 kg 1.120 short ton 1.102 short ton 0.9842 long ton
kg lb long ton metric tonne metric tonne
Pressure
1.01325 pascal 1 bar 29.92 inches of Hg 14.223 lb/inch2 1 cm of Hg
5 5
10 atmosphere 10 pascal atmosphere 104 kg/m2 1333 pascal
14.7 psi 1 newton/m2 0.06895 bar 703.07 kg/m2 0.1333 kPa 16.018 kg/m3
atmosphere pascal lb/inch2 lb/inch2 torr lb/ft3
0.069 bar 6.895 kilopascal 0.01014 atm
psi psi kPa
420
421 Appendix K
Work Energy
1055 joules 4186 joules 3600 joules 1.6020 joule 0.2930 watt/hour
BTU kilocalorie watt hour 1019 electron volt BTU
0.948 BTU 1.055 kilojoule 107 erg 0.06895 bar BTU in 6 MCF gas
kilojoule BTU joule lb/in2psi BTU in U.S. bbl oil
Power
745.7 watts 0.001341 horsepower
horsepower watt
Other
3.71010 becquerel abamp 108 abvolt 299.79 volt 2.9979109 statamp 1F/ft 1C/km
curie 10 amp volt statvolt amp 1.8C/m 2.9F/mile
mPa.s langley 16.018 kg/m3 41.86 mW/m2 1 neper 105 dyne 9.869104m2
2 3 2
centipoise joule/m pound/ft 10 cal/m2s1 HFU 8.686 dB newton millidarcy
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