AC Power Analysis

At the end of the chapter, student should be able to:

identifyand differentiate instantaneous power,
average power, complex power, apparent power
and power factor
Understand AC version of maximum power transfer
theorem and the concepts of effective or rms value
calculate power factor for power factor correction

2
 Introduction
Instantaneous Power
Average Power
Maximum Average Power Transfer
Effectives values of Current Voltage
Apparent Power & Power Factor
Complex power
Power factor correction
 Power is the most important quantity in electric utilities,
electronic and communication systems.
Every industries and household electrical device has power
rating that indicates how much power the equipment
requires.
Exceeding power rating can do permanent damage to the
appliances.
Most common form of electric power is 50Hz or 60Hz ac
power.

4
 Instantaneous power p(t) absorbed by an element is the product
of instantaneous voltage v(t) across the element and
instantaneous current i(t) through it
p(t ) v(t )i (t )
Instantaneous power is the power at any instant of time.
It is the rate at which an element absorbs energy
In a resistive circuit the voltage and current are in phase
calculation of power is straightforward
In reactive circuits, there will normally be some phase shift
between voltage, v and current, i and calculating the power
becomes more complicated

5
 Consider general case of instantaneous power absorbed by
arbitrary combination of circuit element under sinusoidal
excitation

v(t ) Vm cos(t v )
i (t ) I m cos(t i )

The instantaneous power absorbed by the circuit is

p(t ) v(t )i(t ) VM I M cos(t v ) cos(t i )

6
 Apply trigonometric identity

cos A cos B cos( A B) cos( A B

1
2
1 1
p(t ) Vm I m cos( v i ) Vm I m cos(2t v i )
2 2

First part is constant or Second part is sinusoidal

time independent. Its function whose frequency
value depends on phase is 2, which is twice the
different voltage and angular freq. of voltage or
current. current.

7
 By sketching of P(t)

power is
+ part absorbed by the
circuit/load

power is
- part absorbed by the
source

P(t) is periodic, p(t ) p(t To ) with period of To T 2

When p(t) is positive, power is absorbed by the circuit
When p(t) is negative, power is absorbed by the source (because of L & C)
P(t) change with time therefore difficult to measure.
8
 More convenient (wattmeter responds to average power)
Average power in Watt is the average of the instantaneous
power over one period.
T
Average power P 1 p (t ) d (t )
1
T 0
P Vm I m cos( v i )
2

P does not depend on time.

Average power can be found when current and voltage are
expressed in time domain or frequency domain.

9
 Consider two special case.
1. When v= i, voltage and current in phase.
This implies a purely resistive circuit or resistive load R and

1 1 1 2
P Vm I m I m 2 R I R
2 2 2
where =I x I*

This shows that purely resistive circuit absorbs power at all

times.

10
2. When V i 90, the circuit is purely reactive , and
1
P Vm I m cos 90 0
2

Showing that purely reactive circuit absorbed no average

power.
A resistive load absorbs power at all times, while reactive
load absorbs zero average power.

11
Calculate the instantaneous power and average power
absorbed by the passive linear network if v(t ) 165 cos(10t 20 )V
and i(t ) 20 sin( 10t 60 ) A

[Ans: P(t) = 1.061 + 1.650 cos (20t 100) kW, P=1.061kW]

12
 v(t ) 165 cos(10t 20 )V

i(t ) 20sin(10t 60 ) 20cos(10t 30) A

1 1
p(t ) Vm I m cos(v i ) Vm I m cos(2t v i )
2 2
1 1
p(t ) (165 x 20) cos(20 (30)) (165 x20) cos(20t 20 30)
2 2
=1061 1650cos(20t 10) W
Pave= 1061 W is the average power flow
Instantaneous power, P(t) = 1.061 + 1.650 cos (20t 100) kW

13
Calculate the instantaneous power and average power
absorbed by the passive linear network if v(t ) 80 cos(10t 20 )V
and i(t ) 15 sin( 10t 60 ) A

[Ans: P(t) = 385.7 + 600 cos (20t 100) W, P= 385.7 W]

14
In the circuit of figure below, calculate the average power
absorbed by the resistor and inductor. Find the average power
supplied by the voltage source.

[Ans:3.84kW, 0W, 3.84kW] 15



16
Determine the average power generated by each source and
the average power absorbed by each passive element in the
circuit.

[Ans:-367.8 W, 160 W, 0 W, 0 W, 207.8 W]

17
 Consider the circuit where an ac circuit is connected to a
load ZL and is represented by its Thevenin equivalent

Load is usually represented by impedance. In rectangular

form Thevenin impedance ZTH and load impedance ZL are

ZTH RTH jX TH
Z L RL jX L
18
 The current through the load is
VTH VTH
I
ZTH Z L ( RTH jX TH ) ( RL jX L )
The average power delivered to the load is

VTH RL
2
1 2 2
P I RL
2 ( RTH RL ) ( X TH X L ) 2
2

Objective now is to adjust the load parameters R L and XL so

that P is maximum.

19
 To do this, P and P are set equal to zero.
RL X L

RL RTH ( X TH X L )2
2 X L X TH

For maximum average power transfer, ZL must be selected so that

X L X TH and
R L RTH
Thus,
Z L RL jX L RTH jXTH ZTH

Meaning that for maximum average power transfer, the load

impedance ZL must be equal to the complex conjugate of the Thevenin
impedance Zth
20
 Setting RL=RTH and XL = -XTH gives us maximum average power as
2
VTH
pmax
8RTH
In situation in which the load is purely real, condition for
maximum power transfer is obtain by setting XL=0, that is

RL RTH X TH ZTH
2 2

Means that for maximum average power transfer to a purely

resistive load, the load impedance(or resistance) is equal to the
magnitude of Thevenin impedance.

21
 Calculate the load impedance for maximum average power
transfer and the maximum average power.

[Ans:3.415-j0.73, 1.429W]
22
23
24
In figure below, the resistor RL is adjusted until it absorbs
maximum average power. Calculate RL and the maximum
average power absorbed by it.

[Ans:30, 6.863W]
25
Zth

26
 Effective value arises from the need to measure the
effectiveness of the voltage or current source in delivering
the power to resistive load.
Definition: Effective value of periodic current is the dc
current that delivers the same average power to a resistor
as the periodic current.
T T
1 1
Effective value is given by Veff dt , I eff dt
2 2
v i
T 0
T 0

This indicates that effective value is the square root of the

average of the square of the periodic signal.

27
The same power is delivered to the resistor in the circuits
shown.

periodic, period T

28
 For the sinusoid i(t ) I m cos t , the effective or rms value
is T
1 2
I rms cos tdt
2
I m
T 0

T
I m2 1

T 02 (1 cos 2t )dt

Im
I rms
2

Vm
Similarly for v(t ) Vm cos t , Vrms
2

29
 Average power can be written in terms of the rms values
1 Vm I m
P Vm I m cos( v i ) cos( v i )
2 2 2
Vrms I rms cos( v i )

Therefore average power absorbed by a resistor R is given by

2
V
P I rms
2
R rms
R
When a sinusoidal voltage or current is specified, it is often in
terms of its maximum value or its rms value.

30
Determine the rms value of the current waveform if the current is
passed through a 2 resistor. Find the average power absorbed
by the resistor

[Ans:8.165A, 133.3W]
31
32
The waveform shown is a half-wave rectified sine wave. Find
teh rms value and the amount of average power dissipated in
a 10 resistor.

[Ans:5 V, 2.5 W]
33
Find the effective value of the fullwave rectified sinewave.
Calculate the average power dissipated in 6 resistor.

[Ans:Vrms= 5.657V, Vave=5.33W 34

 Product of VrmsIrms is known as apparent power, S
The apparent power (in VA) is the product of the rms values
of voltage and current.
Apparent power is measured in volt-amperes or VA to
distinguish it from average or real power which measured in
watts.
Therefore
S Vrms I rms

35
 Power factor is dimensionless since it is the ratio of the
average power to the apparent power,

The angle is called power factor angle, and it is equal to the

angle of the load impedance if V and I is the voltage
across the load and current through it respectively.
The power factor is the cosine of the phase different
between voltage and current. It is also the cosine of the
angle of the load impedance.

36
 In between these two extreme cases, pf is said to be
leading or lagging.
Leading pf means current leads voltage a capacitive load
Lagging pf means current lags voltage an inductive load
for a resistive load, PF=1
for a purely reactive load, PF=0
generally, 0 PF 1

37
Obtain the power factor and apparent power of a load whose
impedance is Z 60 j 40 and when the applied voltage
is v(t ) 160 cos(377t 10 )V

[Ans: 0.832 lagging, 177.5VA]

38


Current lags voltage, so Pf=0.832 lagging

Apparent Power S Vrms I rms

[Ans: 0.832 lagging, 177.5VA]

39
Determine the power factor of the entire circuit as seen by the
source. Calculate the average power delivered by the source?

[Ans:0.9734 leading, 125 W]

40
41
Calculate the power factor of the entire circuit as seen by the
source. What is the average power supplied by the source?

[Ans:0.936 lagging, 1.062 kW]

42
 Previously we have 3 types of power:
o Instantaneous power p(t)
o Average power P
o Apparent power - S also known as TRUE/REAL POWER
average power delivered to the load
Calculated from effective/rms value

43
 Reactive power Q is the measure of the energy exchange
between the source and the reactive part of the load.

The unit of Q is VAR ( voltage-ampere reactive)

Energy storage element neither dissipate nor supply power,

in the same way, reactive power being transferred back and
forth between load and source.

44
45
 The Reactive Power Q represents a lossless interchange
between the load and the source. Notice that:

Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf)

Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf) -jQ
Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf) +jQ

46
47
 Complex power is important in power analysis because it
contains all the information pertaining to the power
absorbed by a given load.
Complex power (in VA) is the product of the rms voltage
phasor and the complex conjugate of the rms current
phasor.
As a complex quantity, its real part is real power P ( in Watt)
and its imaginary part is reactive power Q (in VAR).

48
 Consider ac load in the figure.

Complex power S absorbed by ac load is the product of the

voltage and the complex conjugate of the current, or

1 *note: S and S are difference.

S VI S = Complex power,
2 S = Apparent power

49
 complex power can be written in polar and rectangular form
as
S Vrms I rms ( v i )
Vrms I rms cos( v i ) jVrms I rms sin( v i )

Thus, complex power enables us to obtain real and reactive

power from voltage and current phasors.
magnitude of complex power is the apparent power; hence
complex power is measured in VA.
Angle of complex power is the power factor angle.

50
 In summary
1
complex power S P jQ VI Vrms I rms v i
2
Real power P is the average
apparent power S S Vrms I rms P 2 Q 2 power in Watt delivered to
the load; the only useful
power. It is the actual power
dissipated by the load.
real power P Re( S) S cos( v i )
Reactive power Q is a
reactive power Q Im( S) S sin ( v i ) measure of the energy
exchange between source
and reactive part of the
P load.
power factor cos( v i )
S

51
 For a load, Vrms=110850V, Irms=0.4150A. Determine
a. complex power (S) and apparent power (S)
b. the real power (P) and reactive power (Q)
c. the power factor (pf) and the load impedance (Z)

[Ans:44700VA, 44VA, 15.05W, 41.35VAR, 0.342 lagging, 94.06+j258.4]

52
53
Figure shows a load being fed by a voltage source through a
trasnmission line. The impedance of the line is represented by the
(4+j2) impedance and a return path. Find the real power and
reactive power absorbed by the source, the line and the load.

[Ans: (2163.5 j910.8) VA, (455.4 + J227.7) VA, (1708 J1139)VA]

54
 Problem: Most domestic loads (washing machines, air-
conditioner) and industrial loads (induction motors) are
inductive and operate at a low lagging pf.
Inductive nature of load cannot be changed, but its pf can
be increase.
Solution: Process of increasing the pf without altering the
voltage or current to the original load is known as pf
correction.
Alternatively power factor correction may be viewed as the
addition of a reactive element (usually a capacitor) in
parallel with the load in order to make power factor closer
to unity.
55
 For inductive loads, a loads pf is improved or corrected by
deliberately installing a capacitor in parallel with the load.

pf correction: a) original inductive loads b) with improve pf

56
 Power Factor Correction

The effect of adding the capacitor can be

illustrate using power triangle or phasor
diagram.
From the figure, it is assume that figure a
has a pf of cos 1 and b has pf of cos 2
adding capacitor has caused the phase
angle between supplied voltage and
current to reduce from 1 to 2, therefore
Phasor diagram showing the
increase pf. Effect of adding a capacitor
In parallel with the inductive load
Also, magnitudes of the vector shows with
the same supplied voltage, circuit in
figure a draws larger current IL compare
to I in figure b. 57
 Power Factor Correction

Larger currents result in increased power

losses (since = ).
Hence increased charge from power
company
Beneficial to both power company and
consumer that every effort to minimize
current level or keep the power factor as
close to unity as possible.
Power triangle illustrating
power factor correction
By choosing the suitable size of capacitor,
the current can be made in phase with
the voltage implying unity power factor.

58
 Q c = Q1 Q 2
= P (tan 1 - tan 2)
= CV2rms

Q1 = S1 sin 1 C Q c P (tan 1 tan 2 )

= P tan 1 Vrms
2
Vrms
2

P = S1 cos 1 Q2 = P tan 2
59
When connected to a 120-V(rms), 60 Hz power line, a load
absorbs 4 kW at a lagging power factor of 0.8. Find the value
of capapcitance necessary to raise the pf to 0.95.

[Ans:310.5F]
60
When connected to a 120-V(rms), 60 Hz power line, a load absorbs 4 kW at a lagging power
factor of 0.8. Find the value of capapcitance necessary to raise the pf to 0.95.

61
Find the value of parallel capacitance needed to correct a load
of 140kVAR at 0.85 lagging pf to unity pf. Assume that the
load is supplied by a 110-V(rms), 60-Hz line.

[Ans:30.69mF]
62
[Ans:20 A, 17.85 163.260 A , 5.907 -119.50 A
(4451 + j617) VA, 0.9904 (lagging)]
63
64