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ELECTROMAGNETICS I
Maxwells Equations
EE 207 Electromagnetics I
Static fields and applications, Introduction to Maxwells equations.
EE 307 Electromagnetics II
Time-varying fields and applications.
Vector Algebra
Note that vectors are denoted by boldface. The magnitude of a vector may
be a real-valued scalar or a complex-valued scalar (phasor).
Note:
(1) The magnitude of the vector A!B is the separation distance d
between the points a and b located by the vectors A and B,
respectively [d = *A!B* = *B!A*].
(2) The vector A!B is the vector pointing from b (origination
point) to a (termination point).
Rectangular Coordinates
An airplane with a ground speed of 350 km/hr heading due west flies
in a wind blowing to the northwest at 40 km/hr. Determine the true air
speed and heading of the airplane.
Dot Product
(Scalar Product)
The dot product of like unit vectors yields one ( 2AB = 0o ) while the dot
product of unlike unit vectors ( 2AB = 90o ) yields zero. The dot product
results are
The cross product of like unit vectors yields zero ( 2AB = 0o ) while the cross
product of unlike unit vectors ( 2AB = 90o ) yields another unit vector which
is determined according to the right hand rule. The cross products results
are
The resulting cross product expression is
This cross product result can also be written compactly in the form of a
determinant as
(b.) To find a unit vector normal to both E and F, we use the cross
product. The result of the cross product is a vector which is normal
to both E and F.
We then divide this vector by its magnitude to find the unit vector.
Vector Definitions
Vector Magnitudes
The four remaining unit vector dot products are determined according to
the geometry relationships between the two coordinate systems.
(a.)
(b.) P (1, 3, 5) Y x = 1, y = 3, z = 5
(1 # x # 3)
(2 # y # 4)
(0 # z # 5)
(0 # D #1)
(0 # N # 2B)
(0 # z # 5)
Spherical volume (sphere of diameter = 4)
(0 # r # 2)
(0 # 2 # B)
(0 # N # 2B)
x=3 (x ! constant)
(2 # y # 4)
(0 # z # 5)
(0 # D #1)
(0 # N # 2B)
z=5 (z ! constant)
Surface on the Spherical volume (outer surface of the sphere)
r=2 (r ! constant)
(0 # 2 # B)
(0 # N # 2B)
x=3 (x ! constant)
(2 # y # 4)
z=5 (z ! constant)
D =1 (D ! constant)
(0 # N # 2B)
z=5 (z ! constant)
r=2 (r ! constant)
2 = B/2 (2 ! constant)
(0 # N # 2B)
Differential Lengths, Surfaces and Volumes
Rectangular Coordinates
Cylindrical Coordinates
Spherical Coordinates
Example (Line / surface / volume integration)
(a.)
(b.)
(c.)
Example (Surface / volume integration in spherical coordinates)
(a.)
(b.)
(c.)
Line Integrals of Vectors
where
dl = al dl
al ! unit vector in the direction of the path L
dl ! differential element of length along the path L
These differential lengths are valid for integration in any general direction
but the resulting integrands must be parameterized in terms of only one
variable (the variable of integration).
where
ds = an ds
an ! unit vector normal to the surface S
ds ! differential surface element on S
result = trapz(xvec,yvec)
vec = linspace(xmin,xmax,N)
which creates a vector vec containing N equally spaced points from xmin
to xmax.
Example (Numerical integration using MATLAB)
theta=linspace(pi/4,pi/2,100);
f=cos(theta).*(sin(theta)).^3;
result=trapz(theta,f)
result =
0.1875
plot(theta,f)
xlabel('\theta')
ylabel('f(\theta)')
In addition to the trapz command, MATLAB provides two other
1D integration tools: quad and quad8. These quadrature-based
integration schemes use higher-order approximations than the trapezoidal
rule. The formats of these MATLAB commands are
quad(f,xmin,xmax)
quad8(f,xmin,xmax)
function z=fxy(x,y)
z=cos((x.^2+1).*y);
dblquad('fxy',-1,1,0,2)
ans =
0.7875
The 2-D integrand in the previous example can be plotted (in 3-D) using
the following commands.
x=linspace(-1,1,50);
y=linspace(0,2,50);
[xx,yy]=meshgrid(x,y);
zz=fxy(xx,yy);
mesh(xx,yy,zz)
xlabel ('x'),ylabel('y'),zlabel('f(x,y)')
Electrostatic Fields
Coulombs Law
From Coulombs law, the force on the test charge Q at r due to the charge
Q at r is
The vector electric field intensity E at r (force per unit charge) is found by
dividing the Coulomb force equation by the test charge Q.
Note that the electric field produced by Q is independent of the magnitude
of the test charge Q. The electric field units [Newtons per Coulomb (N/C)]
are normally expressed as Volts per meter (V/m) according to the following
equivalent relationship:
For the special case of a point charge at the origin (r = 0), the electric field
reduces to the following spherical coordinate expression:
Note that the electric field points radially outward given a positive point
charge at the origin and radially inward given a negative point charge at
the origin. In either case, the electric field of the a point charge at the
origin is spherically symmetric and easily defined using spherical
coordinates. The magnitude of the point charge electric field varies as r 2.
The vector force on a test charge Q at r due to a system of point
charges (Q1 , Q2 ,..., QN ) at (r1 , r2 ,..., rN ) is, by superposition,
Determine the vector electric field at (1, 3,7) m due to point charges
Q1 = 5 nC at (2,0,4) m and Q2 = 2 nC at ( 3,0,5) m.
Charge Distributions
Charge Charge
Distribution Density Units Total Charge
In general, the various charge densities vary with position over the line,
surface or volume and require an integration to determine the total charge
associated with the charge distribution. Uniform charge densities do not
vary with position and the total charge is easily determined as the product
of the charge density and the total length, area or volume.
Uniform Charge Distributions
Line Charge ( L dl Q)
Surface Charge ( S ds Q)
Volume Charge ( V dv Q)
Example (E due to a line charge)
For the special case of a line charge centered at the coordinate origin
(zA = a, zB = a) with the field point P lying in the x-y plane [P = (x,y,0)],
the electric field expression reduces to
(E-field in the x-y plane due to a
uniform line charge of length 2a
centered at the origin)
To determine the electric field of an infinite length line charge, we take the
limit of the previous result as a approaches .
Note that the electric field of the uniformly charged infinite sheet is
uniform (independent of the height h of the field point above the sheet).
Electric Flux Density
so that the units on electric flux density are equivalent to surface charge
density.
The total electric flux ( ) passing through a surface S is defined as
the integral of the normal component of D through the surface.
Gausss law is one of the set of four Maxwells equations that govern
the behavior of electromagnetic fields.
Gausss Law - The total outward electric flux through any closed
surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by the surface.
Given a point charge at the origin, show that Gausss law is valid on
a spherical surface (S) of radius ro.
Gausss law applied to the spherical surface S surrounding the point charge
Q at the origin should yield
Use Gausss law to determine the vector electric field inside and
outside a uniformly charged spherical volume of radius a.
k = constant
S spherical surface of
radius r = a
S+ spherical surface of
radius r > a
S spherical surface of
radius r < a
Gausss law can be applied on S to determine the electric field inside the
charged sphere [E(r <a)].
Gausss law can be applied on S+ to determine the electric field outside the
charged sphere [E(r >a)].
or
Electric Field for the uniformly charged
spherical volume of radius a
Divergence Operator / Gausss Law (Differential Form)
Gradient operator
The divergence operator in rectangular coordinates can be determined
by performing the required integrations. The electric flux density within
the differential volume is defined by
For points close to P (such as the faces on the differential volume), the
higher order terms in the Taylor series expansions become negligible such
that
The flux densities on the six faces of the differential volume are
front face back face
The integrations over the six sides of the differential volume yield
The divergence operator in rectangular coordinates is then
Note that the divergence operator can be expressed as the dot product of
the gradient operator with the vector
Cylindrical
Spherical
Example (Divergence)
Given , determine .
V
Divergence Theorem
Gausss law can be used to illustrate the validity of the divergence theorem.
Using the divergence theorem, calculate the total charge within the
volume V defined by 2 r 3, 0 /2, 0 2 given an electric flux
density defined by by evaluating
(a.)
(b.)
S1 - outer hemispherical surface
(r =3, 0 /2, 0 2 )
S3 - flat ring
(2 r 3, = /2, 0 2 )
(a.)
0 0
(b.)
0
Electric Scalar Potential
Given that the electric field defines the force per unit charge acting
on a positive test charge, any attempt to move the test charge against the
electric field requires that work be performed. The potential difference
between two points in an electric field is defined as the work per unit
charge performed when moving a positive test charge from one point to the
other.
The amount of work performed in moving this point charge in the electric
field is product of the force and the distance moved. When the positive
point charge is moved against the force (against the electric field), the work
done is positive. When the point charge is moved in the direction of the
force, the work done is negative. If the point charge is moved in a
direction perpendicular to the force, the amount of work done is zero. For
a differential element of length (dl), the small amount of work done (dW)
is defined as
The minus sign in the previous equation is necessary to obtain the proper
sign on the work done (positive when moving the test charge against the
electric field). When the point charge is moved along a path from point A
to B, the total amount of work performed (W) is found by integrating dW
along the path.
Vector fields which have zero-valued closed path line integrals are
designated as conservative fields. All electrostatic fields are conservative
fields.
Example (Potential difference)
which yields
Note that the potential distribution of the point charge exhibits spherical
symmetry just like the electric field. The potential of the point charge
varies as r 1 in comparison to the electric field of a point charge which
varies as r 2. Surfaces on which the potential is constant are designated
as equipotential surfaces. Equipotential surfaces are always perpendicular
to the electric field (since no work is performed to move a charge
perpendicular to the electric field). For the point charge, the equipotential
surfaces are concentric spherical surfaces about the point charge.
The absolute potential of a point charge at an arbitrary location is
(Absolute potential for a point
charge at an arbitrary location)
Line Charge ( L dl Q)
Surface Charge ( S ds Q)
Volume Charge ( V dv Q)
Example (Potential due to a line charge)
Determine the potential in the x-y plane due to a uniform line charge
of length 2a lying along the z-axis and centered at the coordinate origin
Even integrand
Symmetric limits
(Gradient operator in
rectangular coordinates)
(a.)
(b.)
If the field point P is moved a large distance from the electric dipole (in
what is called the far field, r d ) the lines connecting the two charges and
the coordinate origin with the field point become nearly parallel.
(Dipole far field potential, r d)
V E
1 2
point charge ~r ~r
2 3
electric dipole ~r ~r
If we reverse the order in which the charges are assembled, the total energy
required is the same as before.
2WE = Q1(V12 +V13) + Q2(V21 +V23) + Q3(V31 +V32) = Q1V1+ Q2V2 +Q3V3
In general, for a system of N point charges, the total energy in the electric
field is given by
For line, surface or volume charge distributions, the discrete sum total
energy formula above becomes a continuous sum (integral) over the
respective charge distribution. The point charge term is replaced by the
appropriate differential element of charge for a line, surface or volume
distribution: L dl, S ds or V dv. The overall potential acting on the point
charge Qk due to the other point charges (Vk) is replaced by the overall
potential (V) acting on the differential element of charge due to the rest of
the charge distribution. The total energy expressions become
Total Energy in Terms of the Electric Field
where the integration is applied over all space. The divergence term in the
integrand can be written in terms of the electric field as
The total energy in the previous integral can be written as the integral of
the electric field energy density (wE) throughout the volume.
The electric field is found by taking the gradient of the potential function.
The total energy within the defined cube is found by integrating the energy
density throughout the cube.
0 0
where Dco is the material resistivity at the reference temperature To and "
is the temperature coefficient for the material. Certain conductors and
oxides exhibit superconductivity at temperatures near absolute zero (0K =
!273oC) where the resistivity of the material drops abruptly to zero.
Examples (Conductivity in S/m at T = 20oC)
Insulators Semiconductors Conductors
Porcelain (10!12) Silicon (4.410!4 ) Silver (6.1107 )
Glass (10!12) Germanium (2.2) Copper (5.8107 )
Mica (10!15) Gold (4.1107 )
Wax (10!17 ) Aluminum (3.5107 )
Carbon (3104 )
Ideal Models
Perfect Insulator (F = 0) Perfect conductor (F = 4)
Current Types
Currents that flow in conductors are only one of three different types
of currents. The three types of currents are:
where A is the total area of the surface S. The total current in Amperes
(Coulomb/second) represents the amount of charge passing through the
surface per second. A total current of 1 mA means that a net charge of 1
mC is passing through the surface each second.
Convection Current
The potential difference between the ends of the conductor means that an
electric field exists within the conductor (pointing from the region of
higher potential to the region of lower potential). The conduction current
can be defined in the same way as convection current using the free charge
density (DV) and the vector drift velocity (u).
Thus, the voltage and the uniform electric field may be written as
where
Resistance of a cylinder (length = l, cross-
sectional area = A, conductivity = F) carrying
a uniform current density
If the current density is not uniform, the resistance formula becomes
The power density inside the conductor is found by forming the dot
product of the vector electric field and the vector current density.
R=0
Equipotential volume
E=0 @
Perfect Insulator (F = 0)
R=4
J=0
Polarization in Dielectrics
The polarization P is defined as the dipole moment per unit volume such
that
Note that the electric susceptibility Pe and the relative permittivity ,r are
both measures of the polarization within a given material. The larger the
value of Pe or ,r for the material, the more polarization within the material.
For free space (vacuum), there is no polarization such that
P=0 Y Pe = 0 or ,r = 1
Mica 70 MV/m
Glass 35 MV/m
Air 3 MV/m
The total charge density (DT) in an insulating material consists of the
free conduction charge density (Dv) plus the bound polarization charge
density (Dvp).
If we insert the expression for the electric flux density in terms of the
polarization and the free charge density in terms of the total charge density,
we find
The divergence of the polarization vector gives the negative of the bound
polarization charge density.
Media Classifications
The previous equation is the integral form of the continuity equation. The
differential form of the continuity equation can be found by applying the
divergence theorem to the surface integral and expressing the total charge
in terms of the charge density.
The second and last terms in the equation above yield integrals that are
valid for any volume V that we may choose.
Since the previous equation is valid for any volume V, we may equate the
integrands of the integrals (the only way for the integrals to yield the same
value for any volume V is for the integrands to be equal). This yields the
continuity equation.
The continuity equation is given in differential form and relates the current
density at a given point to the charge density at that point. For steady
currents (DC currents), the charge density does not change with time so
that
the divergence of the current density is always zero.
The integral form of the continuity equation (and thus Kirchhoffs current
law) also holds true for time-varying (AC) currents if we let the surface S
shrink to zero around the node.
Relaxation Time
which yields
or
The solution to this homogeneous, first order PDE is
The relaxation time is a time constant that describes the rate of decay of the
charge inside the conductor. After a time period of Tr, the charge has
decayed to 36.8 percent (1/e) of its original value.
Copper
Fused Quartz
Electric Field Boundary Conditions
The closed line integral of the electric field yields a result of zero such that
where the electric field components are assumed to be constant over the
paths of length )x. Dividing the result by )x gives
or
where the electric flux density is assumed to be constant over the upper and
lower incremental surfaces. Evaluation of the surface integrals yields
Dividing by )x )y gives
(a.)
(b.)
Example (Boundary conditions)
The electric field and electric flux density boundary conditions on the
charge-free boundary are
such that
Given both media characteristics and the direction of the field in one of the
regions, the direction of the field in the other region can be determined
using this formula.
Electrostatic Boundary Value Problems
Inserting the relationship between electric field and electric flux density
gives
yields
Uniqueness
n-type silicon
Homogeneous medium (silicon permittivity ,=11.8,o)
p-type silicon A
or
The regions away from the depletion region are charge neutral (E = 0 and
V = constant). Thus, the p-n junction boundary conditions are
The electric field within the p-n junction is found by integrating Poissons
equation with respect to z.
where C1 and C2 are constants of integration. The first derivative of V(z)
with respect to z is equal to !Ez (z) according to
Note that Laplaces equation is a 3-D, 2nd order PDE. The separation of
variables technique is based on the assumption that the solution to the PDE
may be written as the product of functions of only one variable. Thus, the
3-D solution for the potential is assumed to be
The three terms on the left hand side of the equation above are each
dependent on only one variable. Thus, we may write
The individual functions must add to zero for all values of x, y, and z in the
3-D region of interest. Thus, each of these three functions must be
constants, such that
and
Note that the original 3-D 2nd order PDE has been transformed into three
1-D 2nd order ODEs subject to the separation equation. The general
solutions to the three separate ODEs are of the following form:
or linear
combinations
of these
Thus, the electric field is uniform between the plates and zero elsewhere.
The potential between the plates varies linearly given a uniform electric
field according to the definition of the electric field as the gradient of the
potential. The potential between the plates is a function of z only (1-D
problem) such that
Note that the magnitude of the electric field between the plates is simply
the ratio of the voltage between the plates to the plate separation distance.
This capacitor problem can also be solved as a boundary value
problem. The governing differential equation is Laplaces equation given
the ideal dielectric between the plates of the capacitor (Dv =0).
which is the same result found before. Note that the result of the first
integration was the electric field between the plates.
Ideal Parallel Plate Capacitor
In an actual parallel plate capacitor, the surface charge densities are not
uniform since the charge density grows large at the edges of the plates.
This crowding of charge at the conductor edges causes an effect known as
electric field fringing (nonuniform electric field).
The amount of fringing in the electric field near the edges of the
capacitor plates is small for closely-spaced large plates so that the ideal
parallel plate capacitor model is accurate for most capacitors. The ideal
parallel plate capacitor model becomes more accurate as the capacitor plate
area grows larger and the capacitor plate separation grows smaller.
The equation for the capacitance of the ideal parallel plate capacitor
is determined by starting with the capacitance definition in terms of charge
and potential.
The uniform electric field in the ideal parallel plate capacitor means that
the electric flux density within the capacitor is also uniform.
Inserting the equations for Q and V into the capacitance equation yields
Note that the capacitance of the ideal parallel plate capacitor is directly
proportional to the plate area and the insulator permittivity and inversely
proportional to the plate separation distance.
The total energy stored in the capacitor may be found by integrating
the energy density associated with the capacitor electric field.
Given the uniform electric field in the volume between the plates of the
ideal parallel plate capacitor, the energy density is also uniform, such that
The total energy results above can be rearranged into the normal circuits
equation for the total energy of a capacitor.
The last three equations on the right hand side of the total energy equation
above are valid for any capacitor.
Coaxial Capacitor
The closed surface includes the endcaps on either end of the cylindrical
surface, but there is no electric flux component normal to the endcaps so
that Gausss law gives
The voltage V across the capacitor conductors is found by evaluating the
line integral of the electric field along the contour C from the outer
conductor to the inner conductor.
The ratio of charge to potential for the capacitor gives the capacitance:
The uniform surface charge densities on the inner and outer conductors of
the ideal spherical capacitor (Dsa and Dsb, respectively) are
The surface charge density on the inner conductor is larger than that on the
outer conductor given the larger surface area of the outer conductor. This
produces a nonuniform electric field (Er) within the spherical capacitor
which is a function of r only, by symmetry. The process used to determine
the capacitance of the ideal spherical capacitor is the same as that used for
the ideal cylindrical capacitor.
Applying Gausss law on a closed spherical surface S of radius r such
that (a #r# b) yields
Inserting the spherical capacitor electric flux density (D= ,Er ar) gives
The ratio of charge to potential for the capacitor gives the capacitance:
Resistance, Capacitance and Relaxation Time
where Tr is the relaxation time. Thus, given the capacitance for a particular
capacitance geometry, the corresponding resistance can be determined
easily according to
Thus, the total current I in a resistor and the total electric flux R in a
capacitor are analogous quantities and can be used to visualize the series
and parallel combinations in capacitors with inhomogeneous dielectrics.
The common electric flux through the two dielectric regions denotes a
series capacitance combination. Even though no conductor exists on the
interface between the dielectrics, this configuration can be viewed as two
capacitors in series by placing two total charges of +Q and !Q (net charge
= 0) on the interface.
The overall capacitance of the inhomogeneous dielectric capacitor (C) is
found using the homogeneous dielectric capacitance equation applied to
the two dielectric regions.
Since the electric field is equal in both regions, the electric flux density is
distinct in the two regions (parallel capacitors). The capacitances of the
individual regions are
Thus, the charge distribution induced on the surface of the PEC produces
an induced electric field that exactly cancels the applied electric field
inside the PEC. The total field outside the PEC is the sum of the applied
electric field and the induced electric field due to the induced surface
charge.
Image Theory
(Method of Images)
The total electric field at some arbitrary point P located on the ground
plane is
The vectors pointing from the point charges +Q and !Q to the field point
P (r+ and r!, respectively) are
where
The total electric field on the ground plane due to the original point charge
and its image charge is