Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
T. SUNDARA ROW S
Geometric Exercises in
Paper Folding
and
OF COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
WITH 87 ILLUSTRATIONS
THIRD EDITION
XC?
4255
COPYRIGHT BY
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING Co,
1901
EDITORS PREFACE.
W. W. BEMAN.
D. E. SMITH.
OK02
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Introduction m
vn
I. The Square i
V. The Hexagon , 35
VI. The Octagon 39
VII. The Nonagon 45
VIII. The Decagon and the Dodecagon 47
IX. The Pentedecagon 5
X. Series 52
XI. Polygons 67
XII. General Principles 82
ready cut.
angle ACB by
*
CO.
A 2 B
Fig. i.
88, cor. 7)* the triangles YOC and XOC are con-
* These references are to Beman and Smith s New Plane and Solid Geom
etry, Boston, Ginn & Co., 1899.
x INTRODUCTION.
156 and 79) the triangles AOY and BOX are con
gruent. Therefore
AY+ YC=BX+XC,
i.e., AC^BC.
shows by paper- folding that, whatever tri
Fig. 2
angle be taken, CO and ZO cannot meet within the
triangle.
Fig. 2.
ures.
* See Beman and Smith s New Plane and Solid Geometry, p. 287.
especially
xii INTR OD UC TION.
interesting.
have sought not only to aid the teaching of
13. I
T. SUNDARA Row.
MADRAS, INDIA, 1893.
I. THE SQUARE.
the angle YBX equals the angle XBY, and that each
Fig. 3-
Fig. 4 .
right angles and all equal, (2) the four sides are not
all equal. (3) but the two long sides are equal, and so
also are the two short sides.
Fig. 5-
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
1 l
1 JL etc or i L :
L *
"2* "4" ~8~ 16 "2" 2^ jp 24
Therefore -f
^+^+ etc - to infinity = 1.
Fig. 9.
Fig. io.
(Fig. 11).
27. Each of the altitudes divides the triangle into
Fig. ix.
bisects AC in B .
equal.
32. Circles can therefore be described with O as a
40. A B B C CA , ,
bisect the corresponding alti
tudes.
41. CC
= 0.866....
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13.
gruent.
If the triangles FGH and HBC are cut off from
Fig. 14.
Therefore (a -f )
2 = a + P -f 2ab.
2
Fig. 15.
(a + )
2
-f (a )
2 = 2a 2
4- 2^
2
.
D O N C
Fig. 16.
( -*).
Because the rectangle EK = FM, therefore rect
Fig. 17.
Fig. 18.
^(9 2 +^C 2
, by 44.
.-. AB-AY=AG 1
J
But ^^ = 2
20 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
AY=XB.
subtracting BK we have
rectangle XKNY= square CHKP,
i. e., ^.AT-KA^^F2 ,
54.
CD-CP
58. Let AB = a, XB = x.
Then (a x^ = ax, by 51.
0a + **=:3<i#, by 54;
... (^_jc)
2 = ^(3
z 1/5) =^ 2
X 0.3819.
=a 2
(1/5 2) =a 2
X 0.2360
~
4
Fig. 19.
IN PAPER FOLD IN C
.-. AN=AB
and = \ of a right angle.
61. The right angle at A can be divided into five
p Q <~
Fig. 20.
Fig. 21.
Q P
R O B M
Fig. 22.
Mark Q
Find <9,
the middle point of AM, by folding.
IN PAPER FOLDING 25
triangle AMP.
Describe on PB the square BPQR.
The square is equal to the given rectangle.
For . BP = QP, and the angles are equal, triangle
BMP is evidently congruent to triangle QSP.
.-. QS=BM=AD.
.
-
.
triangles DA T and QSP are congruent.
.-. PC=SR and triangles RSA and CPT are con
gruent.
.-. rnABCD can be cut into three parts which
can be fitted together to form the square RBPQ.
Fig. 23.
Fig. 24.
12 -I- 32 = 10
2 2 -f 32 = 13.
IN PAPER FOLDING 27
Pi*. 25.
Fig. 26.
Fig. 26.
IN PAPER FOLDING 29
NK.
Then the pieces 1, 4, and 6, 3 and 5, and 2 and 7
form three equal squares.
Now CG = i i
?>BG ,
ABCD.
Divide BA in X in median section and take M
the mid-point of AX.
D c
A M X N S
Fig. 27.
Then AB-AX=XB 1
,
and AM=MX.
Take BN=AM or MX.
Lay off NP and J/^ equal to MN, so that /* and
/ RMA = | of a rt. / .
NMR = f of a /
. .
/ rt .
215
Fig. 28.
x= AB = ZAS
2cosl8 T/io + 21/5
o
IN PAPER FOLDING 33
20
0.4253....
10
--^-l)
cos 36 5 _|_
34 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
-2)... (2)
RF=MN.
RF: RE = RE :
F(by 51) .................... (3)
1/5 1:3 1/5 = 3 1/5 2 (1/5
:
2) ........... (4)
i 1/25 + 101/5,
V
snce = 5
2
. . the area of the inner pentagon
= EF* -
l
1/25+ 101/5
= ^^ 2
-(1/5 2)
2
1
~.- I/ 25 + 101 5 .
=2 :
(7 3l/5)
= 1 : 0.145898.. ..
Fig. 29.
= 0.866....
Fig. 30.
R=\AB.
82. If r be the radius of the inscribed circle,
r = - AB = 433 X A B.
4
IN PAPER FOLDING 37
Fig. 31-
triangle.
Fig. 32.
right angle.
Therefore the angles of the octagon at A, B, C,
and Dare each one right angle and a half.
*-f
89. The angle subtended at the center by each of
the sides is half a right angle.
= 4-- (4-21/2)
= --.(2-1/2).
=- 1/2-1/2.
91. The altitude of the octagon is CE (Fig. 33).
But C 2 = AC 2
= *- (2
_ 1/2 = ) (2 + 1/2)
A
Fig. 33-
a / 7^"
93. A
_ _
GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
Fig. 34-
square.
XE = WK;
.(21/1).
Now
.-. a 21/2.
Also XZ 1XE
(
a. tf (2 1/2).
IN PAPER FOLDING
Again OZ=
= ~(6-4v/2 + 2)
= (2<z
2
1/2").
HK=KZHZ
=a -
7i/2
1/2
(6 4i/2)
2 4)
= 2 -
1/2 -(1/2 -I)
2
.
44 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
= (2 1/2 )2 : 1 or 2 :
(j/2 + I) 2
;
1/2": i/2"+ 1.
VII. THE NONAGON.
Fig. 35-
= f sin 40
7?2 -
= --X
o
,
0.6427876
= a* X 0.723136.
VIII. THE DECAGON AND THE DODECAGON
Fig. 36.
Fig. 37-
As in 60,
Fig. 38.
regular 2*-gon.
IX. THE PENTEDECAGON.
24.
That is, the angle EOA, which is 72, is trisected
by OG.
Bisect the angle EOG by OL, meeting EA in Z,
pentedecagon.
Treating similarly the angles A OB, BOC, COD,
and DOE, we obtain the remaining sides of the pente
decagon.
X. SERIES.
ARITHMETIC SERIES.
Fig. 40.
a, a d, a 2d . . . . /.
GEOMETRIC SERIES.
being OPi : OP 2.
P3
Fig. 41.
a : x =x :
y y : 2a.
equations :
x2 = ay (1)
y = 2ax
2
(2)
xy = 2a* (3)
*Ibid., p. 207.
IN PAPER FOLDING 57
HARMONIC SERIES.
A X B Y
Fig. 42.
a -j- c
a
When a = = fr, c b.
system.
121. AX and AY being given, B can be found as
follows :
C A X B D Y
Fig. 43-
Fig. 44.
For
EE __
~~
CE
AB CB
EG __
~~
FE __ EB_
~~
CD CD ~C~B
EE _
EF CE EB_ ~
H
"
AB CD CB CB
1 1 1
+ CD ~= ~~~ _2_
~AB ~FE ~EG
IN PAPER FOLDING 6t
O
62 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
11, 13.
Therefore the sum of the series 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11,
2
13 is 7 .
Generally, 1 + 3 + 5 -f . . . .
-f (2 1) = ;/
2
.
o
IN PAPER FOLDING 63
etc., are
s(l + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7) = s*.
those numbers.
Generally, I3 +2 3 3
-f 3 ____ -f ;z
3
For [( + I)] 2
[( !)]*
=--
(>
2
-f ) (>
2
)2
=
Putting = 1, 2, 3 .... in order, we have
4-l 3 = (l-2)2_ (0-1)2
64 GE OME TRIG EXER CISES
Adding we have
1
4.5 /* 3 = [( + I)] 2
1 4. 3(n l)n.
Now .
3
(;? 1)
3 = 1 -f-
3( 1),
93 p^! 3 9-1
.
Hence, by addition,
IN PAPER FOLDING 65
Therefore
natural numbers.
= 2 2 + 3 3.. + ^ a
2 2
..
2
= 12 22 + 3 ____ +
_|_
2
(1 4- 2 -f 3 ____ -f n) rc
2
Therefore
12_|_32_|_ 52 ^ (2 I)
2
.
8_ c
_i )
s
==:W 2
+ (_!) + (.!), by 128,
= (2 1)
2
-(^ !)-,
. .
by putting n = 1, 2, 3, ....
13_o3= i2__o.l z
23
Pr=3 2 1-2
33 23 =5 2
2-3
66 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
Adding, we have
n* = I 2 4. 32 +5 2
. . . .
-{- (2 I)
2
[1-2 -f 2-34-3-4..
.. + (_ !)],
XI. POLYGONS.
of 2"
sides, (2")
the corresponding apothem, /(2")
its
A,
Fig. 47-
or AAv = (1)
PAPER FOLDING 6g
2 1/2 (2)
= 1*1/2+1/2 ...(3)
23 ) = J perimeter X apothem
-
1/2
2*) = *-2 4
-1/2 1/2 + 1/2;
^(2
4
)
= ^2- 22-1/2 1/2;
and tor the polygon of 32 sides,
25) = ^-2 5 -
1/2
Also ^2==-
As the number of sides is increased indefinitely
7o GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
2 + I/ 2 + 1/2.. ..is 2;
course, inadmissible.
sides.
C_ F E__ _G D
.-. FG = R AE
IN PAPER FOLDING 71
sides, and A B ,
their areas.
Then
p = n-AB, P=n-CD, p = 2n-AE, P = 2n-FG.
Because OF bisects / COE, and AB is parallel
to CD,
CJ^__CO__
~~ ~~
CO _ ~
CD
FE
"
~OE ~AO
72 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
CE _CD+AB
~
~EE AB
or
4n-C n-CD+n-AB
EE n-AJ3
2P _P+p
. . P =
Again, from the similar triangles EIE and AffE,
ET^ _ EE
~Aff~ AJE
or A 2
=.2.
or p = V P p.
Now,
tude, AH,
__
= ~
OH
&AOE ~OE
Similarly,
_OA
~
~OC
Again because AB || CD,
A A Off A AOE
angle EOC,
&COE CE OC+OE
&FOE~ FE OE
and OE = OA,
,__ ~ &AOH
OA
~~
Off
_
&COE &AOE +
&AOH
From this equation we y obtain
easily . IT .
B A
Also,
- -
*
- - tne radius of the circle = -.
IN PAPER FOLDING 75
2048-gon, r<>
= 0-636620 ^ 9 = 0-636620.
polygon of 4^ sides
_ _
2
or in general
T~\ ^^
140. The radii R\, R^. .... successively diminish, ^
and the ratio -77-12 less than unity and equal to the
cosine of a certain angle a.
+ cos a a
^=\
RZ \l
2--= cos 2-
76 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
R i,\ , of.
J^
jt+l =J?i Cosa- cos cos
-
,
O ^?
is -
,
a result known as Euler s Formula.
3-2", 5-2",
15 -2"
sides, the only regular polygons
which can be constructed by elementary geometry
are those the number of whose sides is represented
circle,
to A.
n
iv.
i<<.
Let us first take the pentagon.
By theorem iv,
By theorem i,
R(OA l OA )= 2
GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
1),
OA OA
l
-
=
Suppose
*The principal steps are given. For a full exposition see Catalan s Thto-
rtmes Probltmes de Gtomttrie Elententaire. The treatment is given in full
et
MN=R\ PQ=R^
and applying theorems i. and ii. we get
(M N)~ (P Q^)
= R.
ALSO by substituting the values of M, N, and Q in P
the above formula and applying theorems i. and ii.
we get
M ( N} (P Q} = 4^ 2 .
mined.
Again
Hence OA S is determined.
P Q = R( 1 + 1/17).
Fig. 51.
in G . Draw Z>^
per
pendicular to CD and take DF= OA.
Draw FG and /r .
also
Then
F H FF = ^ J/ 2
But FF
XII. GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
these processes.
I 1 1 1 1
X A O A X
Fig. 52-
*See Beman and Smith s New Plane and Solid Geometry, p. 56.
84 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
gons.
* See Beman and Smith s New Plane and Solid Geometry, p. 56.
t/*.,p. 5-
IN PAPER FOLDING. 85
OY are negative.
Fig- 53-
Fig. 54-
FiR. 55-
Fig. 56.
pleted a perigon, i. e. ,
four right angles. We may
therefore infer that the three exterior angles are to
Fig. 58.
parallel.
The two angles BAD and EBA are together equal
to two right angles. If we suppose the lines AD and
BE to move inwards about A and B, they will meet
B C CD D E
, , .. . .are all equal.
A B C D E F
Fig. 59-
spective.
= 1 :3.
Similarly
and so on.
If AB = \,
P =
A -
3-. 4,
*( + *)
But A Pi -\- P P + ^ A -f
2 3 is ultimately == AB.
Or
2"
""
1
"3
=
_
1
2~- 3
1 1 1
n n-\-\ n(n-\- 1)
Adding
F2 + ^3 + +
"-
IN PAPER FOLDING. 95
-"1
J_
""
*"
^4Z>
+ 0* .# -f (/ )
CF.
C is called the center of mean position, or the
mean center of A and B for t.he system of multiples
m and n.
c . . . .
, and placed at A, B, C . . . . would balance about
the mean center M, if free to rotate about M under
the action of gravity.
The mean center has therefore a close relation to
the center of gravity of Statics.
=a A M* + b BM* + c- CM 2
+ . . . .
Now
AB^
Similarly
98 GE OME TRIG EXER CISES
Adding
.. 2PA 2
is the minimum when PAf=Q, i. e.,
early.
bisector.)
equal.
2* 2-i-
sects it.
diameter.
the points.
circumference.
To prove that / A VB = *-
/ A OB.
Proof.
1. Suppose VO drawn through center O, and pro
duced to meet the circumference at X.
IN PAPER FOLDING 107
Then
2. And XOB= /.XVB + Z VBO,
3. .-. /_XVB = \_
4. Similarly A VX= \i_AOX (each=zero in Fig. 62),
/
and .-. LAVB = tAOB.
The proof holds for all three figures, point A hav
ing moved to X (Fig. 62), and then through X (Fig.
63).*
inscriptible in a circle.
*The above figures and proof are from Beman and Smith s New Plane
and Solid Geometry, p. 129.
io8 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
equal.
This is seen by folding through the center and
the point of intersection of the tangents.
Let AC, AB be two tangents and ADEOF the
line through the intersection of the tangents A and
the center O, cutting the circle in D and F and BC
in E.
Then AC or AB is the geometric mean of AD and
AF\ AE is the harmonic mean; andAO the arith
metic mean.
AD-AF_~ 2AD- AF
~OA~ AD-^AF
Similarly, any other chord through A be ob
if
Then O
and OA OC=OC: OB,
:
OA OD=OD\ OB.
:
no GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
OC or OD as radius.
Fig. 65.
same circle.
cyclic ;
and conversely.
Now take another point G on FBG. Draw OG,
and fold AK perpendicular to OG. Then K and G
are inverse points with reference to the circle CDE.
on the polar
219. Points so situated that each lies
of the other are called conjugate points, and lines so
conjugates of A and B.
Now OL 2 = O* + L 2
,
OPQ at P and Q.
Then OA-.OB = AP:BQ.
This holds whether the perpendiculars are towards
the same or opposite parts. The tangent is in one
case direct, and in the other transverse.
In the first case, O is outside AB, and in the sec
Fig. 66.
Fig. 67.
j>
2 = 4:ax or
to OY.
Let P be the point where QP meets the ordinate
of N.
Then P is a point on the curve.
N /F N
Fig. 69.
241. A r
and N coincide when PFP is the latus
rectum.
As N recedes from F to O, 7^ moves forward from
infinity.
At the same time, Amoves toward O, and T (OT =
moves in the opposite direction toward infinity.
pm\PK=Om*\ OK*
and mn OK=
: 1 : n.
. .
pm mn\PK OK= r* : ;z
3
.
r l
. .
ipn = w x en A^-
Hence the sum of the series of rectangles
p _|_ 22 -f- 32 + ( I)
2
( 1)(2 1)
1-2-3-w 3
= -J
of nn^VA in the limit, i. e., when is oo.
Fig. 70.
FA :AO = FA A O -.
= FA-\-FA :AO + A O
= AA OO :
= CA CO.
:
= FA :AO.
If EO = FO, FP is at right angles to FO, and
FP=FP .PP is the latus rectum.
246. When a number of points on the left half of
BC-.AC.
Fig. 72.
Fig. 73-
PN perpendicular to A A
Fold .
PN:A N=RD:A D.
Again, from the triangles, APN and DAR,
PN\AN=AD\ RD.
PN* .AN A N=AD\A D, a constant
.-. ratio,
lipse, but
the position of the parts is different. As
explained in 119, X, A lies on the left side of the
directrix. Each directrix lies between A and A ,
and
the foci lie without these points. The curve con
sists two branches which are open on one side.
of
CA = CA = CA = a.
Fig. 74-
QN A"C
Squaring, ^
_=_ ,
or y
2 = 2 (2ax +x 2
).
angle.
r 2 cos 26 =a 2
or r 2 = cos26 -pj
a.
on the curve.
Fig. 75-
OB= COS 26
a
And O4 2 =OG^=
COS29**"
* See
Taylor s Ancient and Modern Geometry of Conies, examples 308, 390
with footnote.
XIV. MISCELLANEOUS CURVES.
THE CISSOID.*
/(2a x)=x*.
Now, let PR cut the perpendicular from C in D
and draw AP cutting CD in E.
RN:CD = ON: OC=AM~AC=PM:EC,
.-. RN-,PM=CD:CE.
But RN\ PM=ON\ OM=ON: AN^ON* NR* :
CD:CF=OC:CD
M C N F A
Fig. 76.
According as b >, =,
or <#,
the origin is a
Fig. 78.
By Menelaus s Theorem,*
BC-ED OA=CE OD -BA -
... BC OA=CE-OD
BC ~~_ OD
~CE OA
BE ~
OD + OA GE
CE OA OA
See Beman and Smith s New Plane and Solid Geometry, p. 240.
IN PAPER FOLDING. 135
THE WITCH.
Fig- 79-
Fig. 80.
C ? Q S T U V
coming infinite.
X MA A
Fig. 82.
FM-FM =&.
Then
With the center F and radius FM, and with the
center F and radius FM ,
describe two arcs cutting
each other in P.Then P is a point on the curve.
When a number of points between A and B are
When x = c = -e^-
C
,=(<*--,-
I/}-
2
f 2 is found by taking the geometric mean be
tween y -j- c and jv r.
Fig. 83.
THE LIMACON.
Fig. 85.
Then ^ACB is
\ of
For CD
/_CJ3O
/_ODB
r 2 =a 2
cos26.
Let O be the origin, and OA=a.
Produce AO, and draw OD at right angles to OA
Take the angle A OP =8 and A OB =--26.
Draw AB perpendicular to OB.
In AO produced take OC=^OB.
IN PAPER FOLDING 145
= OB-OA
=a 2
cos 2 6.
As stated above, this curve is a particular case of
Fie. 86.
THE CYCLOID.
280. The cycloid is the path described by a point
on the circumference of a circle which is supposed to
cylinder.
A D G A
Fig. 87.
THE TROCHOID.
281. If as in the cycloid, a circle rolls along a
THE EPICYCLOID.
282. An epicycloid is the path described by a point
on the circumference of a circle which rolls on the
circumference of another fixed circle touching it on
the outside.
THE HYPOCYCLOID.
283. If the rolling circle touches the inside of the
fixed circle, the curve traced by a point on the cir
THE QUADRATRIX.*
284. Let OACB be a square. If the radius OA of
quadratrix.
This curve was invented by Hippias of Elis (420
B. C.) for the multisection of an angle.
If P and P are points on the curve, the angles
A OP and A OP are to one another as the ordinates
NOV 1 4 1 1 6 2005
JAN 31989
omoGla
DtdWflOt SUMMER
after-
Subject to recall
MAY 1 1996
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