AESTRACTS
I PROD INNOV MANAG 83
One industry-based designer said she knew purists
w-ith artistic temperaments who thought they were
consistently right . . they werent marketing peo-
pl?,. j
Interestingly, in the Netherlands, this confusion
about the two roles is clarified-they have two terms.
0 te, vormgever works in the arts and craft field,
w:nereas the other, ontwerper works in industrial or
graphic design.
One aspect of the controversy rides on the issue of
de signer portability-whether a designer can float
from industry to industry, or should specialize and
be!;ome strong in a single industry. Business firms like
thl: latter, and put specific industry experience first on
their list to evaluate design firm candidates.
411 of this has led to younger designers who have
ino.dequate preparation for the jobs they want. But
many design firms have committed to the industrial
vie w-they call themselves specialists in new product
development, and hire multi-disciplinary staffs, in-
chding ergonomists, psychologists, and engineers.
They even may leave design, as a term, off their bro-
ch ne covers.
industry, however, is simultaneously taking the ear-
lier, holistic, view of comprehensive design service
internally and breaking it into planning, engineering,
modelmaking, prototyping and so on. And they are
ap;,lying to the new product operation the same three
po.nular criteria-speed, cost, and quality.
Some firms, e.g., Phillips, have combined the var-
ioL s ideas-calling their creative steps design, but
stalfing them with teams of anthropologists and soci-
olcgists. And they are focusing entirely on the market
again (shades of the fifties). Todays firms want prod-
ucl,s designed for niche markets, where individuals
(CL.stomers, who are not designers) have greater influ-
ence. And designers talk about reaching the point
whlzre every product would essentially be custom. The
author says, Then everyone will be a designer.
!I:O he recommends that designers play a role within
industry of asking, probing, and suggesting-new ma-
terials, new structures. The role would be more cul-
tur 11and intellectual, more entrepreneurial.
rind, given that many designers cannot manage
SUC,~a dual role (function and design), the author feels
tha: perhaps many of them should leave the field. If
industry needs mediocre designers to staff their now
noc.design-led teams, having fewer of them available
may force businesses to once again seek out truly cre-
ative designers who proudly add new meaning to what
they do.
.
1995:12:7&88
In the issue that followed the one containing the
previous article, the editors printed twenty letters from
readers. A few of their statements may add under-
standing to the seriousness of the definition/role of
designers.
Design should learn the language of other disci-
plines and therefore lose the frustrations of being a
minority.
A designer is a person who will, 99% of the time,
ask the right questions of the right people at the right
time. Does Why do you have to make that lever that
shape, why cant it be this shape? sound familiar?
Design is the synthesis of technology and human
needs into manufacturable products.
Saying that design alone has no meaning, a writer
went on to say, if you add another word, such as
manufacturing, quality, or software, the couplet snaps
into focus.
I think it would be a pity if designers stopped
thinking of themselves in terms of being artisans . . .
Well-informed artisans might yet help save the world.
Im not sure that theorists of the human interface
variety have proved their worth.
An engineer who would not describe himself a
designer arguably is not an engineer.
Virtual worlds may totally transform the role of
design in the future.
Design is not an added value. It is a value.
Determinants of Innovative Behavior: A Path
Model for Individual Innovation in the Workplace,
Susanne G. Scott and Reginald A. Bruce, Academy of
Management Journal (June 1994), pp. 580-607
This was a study of innovative behavior in an indus-
trial R&D laboratory. Scientists and engineers were
first scored on how innovative each ones behavior
was. (This assessment, like all those to follow, used
established scales.) An objective scoring was also
achieved from data on invention disclosures.
Then it was hypothesized that the degree of inno-
vativeness in behavior would be influenced by lead-
ership, individual problem-solving styles, and work
group relations. Leadership was measured by how
well leaders exchanged with members and how well
leaders set out each members role expectations. In-
dividual problem-solving was defined as intuitive or
systematic (the former encouraging innovation and the
latter discouraging it). Group work relations were felt
to be good if there were plentiful team member-
member exchanges.
84 J PROD INNOV MANAG ABSTRACTS
199$12:76-X8

All three of these (leadership, problem-solving The Agricultural Products Division, of Monsanto,
style, and group relationships) were felt to contribute in 1992 threw out its relay-team, hand-off system of
to a favorable overall climate, which in turn would product innovation, Using concurrent engineering,
also stimulate innovative behavior. they formed large groups of biologists, chemists, en-
All of this led to several hypotheses, only some of vironmental scientists, manufacturing engineers, reg-
which were confirmed. ulatory affairs experts, and employees from packag-
ing , marketing, and sales. No longer do project
1. Innovative behavior is positively stimulated by a managers have to jump up and down on tables to try
favorable climate. Yes, to some extent, but not as to get things done. Team members understand the
a major factor. importance of time, and juggle schedules accordingly.
2. Good leader-member relations contribute signifi- At Amgen, similar teams exist, but they change
cantly to a good working climate. Yes, very much so. composition as the project passes through various
2a. Good leader-member relations also contribute phases. The team leaders spend much of their time
directly to innovative behavior. Yes, to some fighting for more resources for the team, and as a
extent, but not much. result, a new drug, Neupogen, made it through to
3. The degree to which supervisors encourage inno- approval in six years, versus the industry standard of
vative behavior contributes significantly to a favor- ten to twelve years.
able climate. Yes, very much so. US West has gone a step further-teams there now
3a. The degree to which a supervisor expects inno- include subcontractors, other corporation partners,
vative behavior from an individual, and states a and potential customers. CityKey came out in twelve
role accordingly, stimulates innovative behav- months.
ior by that individual. No, this was not so. Along with this favorable trend, however, have
4. Good member-member relations (group work re- come a few problems. A recent study by Susan Cohen,
lations) contribute significantly to a favorable cli- at the University of Southern California Center for
mate. No, this is not so. Effective Leadership, looked at 170 teams in eleven
4a. Good member-member relations also contrib- companies. The key finding was that teams are still
ute directly to individual innovative behavior. terra incognita. Managers dont really understand
No, this is not so. what makes one effective and another a failure.
5. The degree to which an individuals problem- If team membership changes during a project, in-
solving style is intuitive is positively related to his formation can get lost, as new members repeat work
or her innovative behavior. No, this is not so. already done or methods already tried. But, US West
6. The degree to which an individuals problem- found that if membership is held for the duration, the
solving style is systematic is negatively related to team can become so focused that they lose sight of the
his or her innovative behavior. Yes, this is so. many other teams on similar territory.
Compensation is a problem, especially when team
In summary, it is important that leaders make inno- members are paid on team performance. Sara Lee Knit
vative role expectations clear to subordinates, and that Products tried training in teamwork skills and conflict
there be good leader-member exchange. A good cli- resolution, but they still got the complaint about lazy
mate can be enhanced by good leader-member ex- members getting equal pay. Hamilton Standard Com-
changes and good member-member exchanges. Last, mercial Aircraft Electronics had to cool off the zeal of
systematic problem-solving style should be discour- workers about to burn themselves out.
aged, but it doesnt help if the new style is especially Firms often have to rely on inexperienced workers,
intuitive. with little or no team experience, and also may fail to
reward winners and punish failures. These practices
Innovation Congregations, Tom Kiely, Technology discourage champions. And, even if champions are
Review (April 1994), pp~ 56-60 willing, they know they may be risking their careers.
Ladders in departments are more certain than ladders
This is a lighthearted commentary on the general prac- on teams, and abandoned projects may turn members
tice in business of having people work in groups, back to departments that have no room for them at the
sometimes called teams and sometimes called other moment.
things. If workers fear being cut adrift, even at the close of