2

Using LHospitals Rule find the following limits lim n2 en = 0, lim (lnnn) =
n n
0, lim n sin(/ n) = .
n

If f (x) is a continuous function, and lim an = L, then lim f (an ) = f (L).

n n

2n
Using this find the following limits lim e1/n = e0 , lim tan( 1+8n ) = tan(/4),
n n
q
3 1

lim 3 27n3n+9n 1 n
2 +1 = 3 , lim cos(2/n) = cos(0), lim arctan 2n = /2, lim 21+3n =
n n n n
3
2 .

2n4 +n2 +1 en +en (ln n)2 + n
To Determine the limit of fractions like lim 3n 3 +1+n , lim 3en +ln n , lim (ln n)2 +1 .
n n n
biggest thing in numerator 2n4 +n2 +1
We take the lim biggest thing in the denominator . For example lim 3 =
n n 3n +1+n
4 n n n (ln n)2 + n
lim 2n3 = lim 2n
= limit does not exist. lim e +e
n = lim e
n =1/3, lim 2 =
n 3n n 3 n 3e +ln n n 3e n (ln n) +1
n
lim 2 = 0(By LHospitals Rule).
n (ln n)

Remember/Recall the hierarchy of bigness among

different kind of functions . loga-
rithmic functions(ln n, (ln n)2 , etc) << n, 3 n,etc << polynomials << exponentials(e2n , 2n ,
etc) << factorials(n!,(2n-1)!, etc).

3+5n2 n3 2
using this find the following limits lim n+n 2 =5, lim n+1 =diverges, lim ln(2n +
n n n q
n n 3n
1)ln(n2 +2n+1) = ln 2, lim ee2n+e
1 =0, n
lim 3n + 5n (Solution )= lim
n n
5n (1 + 5n ) =
p n n
5 n 1 + (3/5)n = 5 n 1 + 0 = 5, lim n 1 + 2n + en + n =
n

Squeeze Theorem If {an }, {bn }, {cn } are three sequences such that an bn cn ,
and lim an = lim cn = L. Then lim bn = L exists and is equal to L.
n n n

n
cos2 n
Using squeeze theorem find the following limits lim 2n
sin
=0, lim 1+ 4n
n
=0, lim (3)
n! =0
n n n

3n+2 n n+1
Find lim lim 2 3n+2
5n , n
e
n

3n+2 2n en+1
Soln lim 5n = 32 lim ( 53 )n = 0, lim e
lim ( 2e
3n+2 = 9 n 3 )
n
= diverges
n n n

Let {an } be sequence. Then lim an = 0 if and only if lim |an | = 0.

n n

(1)n (n2 +2n+1)

Using this determine if the limit in the following cases is 0. lim n3 = 0,
n
n1
lim (1)n cos(1/n) diverges, lim (1)n1 arctan(n)= diverges, lim (1) n2 +1
n
=
n n n
n 3
(1) n
0, lim e2n+1 =0
n

n n
Let {an } be an alternating sequence. for example {(1)n n2n+1 }, {n cos(n)}, { (3) (2)
n! }, { n2 +1 },
that is an = (1)n bn or an = (1)n1 bn , where bn > 0. Then |an | = bn , and

1
2

lim an exists if and only if lim |an | = lim bn = 0. If lim an does converge
n n n n
then we must have lim an = 0. If lim |an | 6= 0, then lim an diverges.
n n n

This is only true for alternating Sequences

Monotonic Sequence Theorem Let {an }, be bounded i.e m an M for
some numbers m, M . and {an } is eventually monotonic that is for some number
N we have an+1 > an for all n > N or an+1 < an for all n > N . that is even-
tually increasing or eventually decreasing. Then lim an converges and satisfies
n
m lim an M .
n

using MST find the following limits, suppose a1 = 1, an+1 = 3 a1n , and assume
(donot prove) this sequence is increasing and an < 3 for all n, deduce lim an
n
3+ 5
converges and find the limit. Ans 2

1
suppose a1 = 2, an+1 = 3a n
, and assume (donot prove) this sequence is de-
creasing and 0 an 2 for all n, deduce lim an converges and find the limit. Ans
n
3 5
2

Suppose {an }, {bn } are two sequences, and lim an converges, and lim bn
n n
converges. Then lim (an bn ), and lim an + bn converge. and lim (an bn ) =
n n n
( lim an )( lim bn ), and lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn . For example
n n n n n
n
lim (cos(1/n) arctan(n)) = /2, lim (e1/n + e )=1+0=1
n n

Suppose {an }, {bn } are two sequences, such that lim an converges and lim an 6=
n n
0, but lim bn diverges. Then lim (an bn ), and lim an + bn diverges. For ex-
n n n
ample lim n cos(n) n
diverges because lim n+1 = 1 6= 0 converges, but lim cos(n)
n n+1 n n
diverges.

Using this determine if the following limits converge lim arctan(n) sin(1/n) = 0,
n
2 2
lim cos(n)n
2 diverges, lim cos
2
n n n
= 0, lim e e = 1. WATCH OUT the last two
n 3n +1 n n +1 n
limits converge.
The following is a flowchart/steps one can use to determine the con-
vergence of a series
 3

start

sn is given or lim sn =PL

can find sn i.e find lim sn converges, an
n
telescoping series converges and =L

limP
sn diverges,
then an diverges

find a by plugging
|r| < 1, then
P
an is a geo- in the starting P
metric series an converges
value of n into the a
and = 1r
formula, and |r|
|r| > 1 then
P
an diverges

if lim |an | 6= 0,
TOD:is
TOD implies
lim |an | = 0 ? P
an diverges

lim |an | = 0, TOD lim | aan+1 | < 1,

lim | an+1 | > 1, is inconclusive, n Pn
n an then an con-
then
P
an diverges apply ratio test, verges absolutely
find lim | aan+1
n
|
n

lim | aan+1
n
| = 1,
n
then Ratio Test If this is an Pbn 6= n1
lim 0, then
is inconclu- alternating series, (1) bn
sive, Is this an is lim bn = 0 diverges
alternating series
if an approx-
Pimation to
lim bn = 0, and (a)n1 bn is
if lim bn = 0, then {bn } is eventually reqd, then find n
is {bn } eventu- decreasing, then such that bn+1
ally decreasing PAST implies maxerror, then
an converges by ASET sn is
no a good enough
approximation
P P
P is |an | conver- |an |P
converges,
is an a positive
gent(use Compar- then an con-
series, i.e is
ision test or limit verges absolutely,
an 0 for all n
Comparision test) hence converges
P
|anP | diverges,
then an may
still converge

LCT doesnot
Apply Limit
help, then use try integral Test
Comparision Test
Comparison Test
4

P
Test of Divergence(TOD): Let an be a series. If lim |an | 6= 0, then
n=1 n

P
an diverges. if lim |an | = 0, then the test is inconclusive. This is slightly
n=1 n

P (1)n (n2 1)
different from the book, but is easier to apply in the cases like n2 +1
n=1

2n
P P
Using TOD, determine if the following series converge. cos(n) diverges, 3n+1
n=1 n=1

P n1
P n(n+1) P P n
diverges, 3n1 diverges, (n+2)2 diverges, cos(1/n) diverges, 2 di-
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

P P (1)n n P (1)n n
verges, arctan(n) diverges, n+1 diverges, 3n2 +n+1 inconclusive
n=1 n=1 n=1
a
A geometric series a + ar + ar2 + converges if |r| < 1, then the sum is 1r , it
diverges if |r| 1. a is called the first term, r is called the common ratio. For the
n+1
7
P
series 10n . the starting value of n is 3, plugging this into the formula we get
n=3
74 (74 /103 )
the first term a = 103 , and r = 7/10. since |r| < 1 we get sum is 1(7/10) . while in

3n
P
the geometric series 2n+1 , we have |r| = 3/2 > 1, hence this series diverges.
n=1

Determine if the following geometric series converge. If they do, then find their sum.

12 10n 1 , 4 + 3 + 9/4 + 27/16 + , 10 2 + 0.4 0.08 + ,
P P P
(5) n , (9)n+1 , ( 2)n
n=1 n=1 n=1

6(0.9)n1 , cos(1)k .
P P
1 + 0.4 + 0.16 + 0.064 + ,
n=1 n=1

P
P
Let an , bn be two series then if one of the two series converges, while
n=1 n=1

P
the other one diverges then (an + bn ) diverges. If both the series con-
n=1

P
verge, then (an + bn ) converges. If both the series diverges, we donot know
n=1

P
what happens to (an + bn ). In class, we denoted this by C + C = C, C + D =
n=1
D, D + D =?

1+2n 1+3n
P P
using this determine if the following series converge 3n = 1/2 + 2, 2n
n=1 n=1

n1 n
P
diverges, [(0.8) (0.3) ](find the sum, leave your answer as a fraction),
n=1

( e1n + 1
( n2 + 3
P P
n(n+1) ) converges, 5n ) diverges
n=1 n=1

( nc 1
P
Find all values of c for which the series n+1 ), converges.Ans- Converges
n=1
only for c = 1, diverges for all other values of c.
 5

P
(v.important) Given a series an , sn is the sum of the terms from the start
n=1
upto and including the term one gets by pluging in n into the formula of the series.

1
P
For example for the series ln n , s3 = 1/ ln 2 + 1/ ln 3.
n=2

P
if the series starts at n = 1, i.e an , then a1 = s1 but for n > 1, an = sn sn1 .
n=1

n1
P
for example if the series is an , and it is given sn = n+1 , then a1 = s1 = 0, while
n=1
a3 = s3 s2 = 2/4 1/3 = 1/6.

P
an converges if and only if lim sn converges. and if they do converge then
n=1 n

n1
P
an = lim sn . For example in the above example lim sn = lim = 1.
n=1 n n n n+1

P
hence an converges and equals 1.
n=1

an is sn = 3 n2n . Then find
P
Suppose the nth partial sum of the series
n=1

n2
P
a1 = 1/2, an = 2n . determine if an converges yes. If it does find the value of
n=1

P
an = 3.
n=1

(v.important) Using the telescoping series method find sn for the follow-
ing series. then using sn determine if the series converges. if it does then

( 1n n+1
1 2
P P
find the value of the sum. ) = 1 converges, n2 +4n+3 = 7/12
n=1 n=2

1 n
P P
converges, n(n+1) = 1 converges, ln( n+1 ) diverges.
n=1 n=1

Integral Test, Comparision Test, Limit Comparision Test, can be used

only for series with positive terms.

P
P
if an bn , and bn converges, it is NOT always true that an converges. for
n=1 n=1
example consider the series (1 1 1 1 1 ) < (0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + ). we
cannot use comparision test because an is not positive.

1
P
the p-series np , converges if p > 1 diverges if p 1. For example
n=1

n.1 diverges as p = .1 1.
P
n=1

P
using the p-series test determine if the following series converge. 5
n diverges,
n=1

2
(n1.4 + 3n1.2 ) converges, 1 1
P P P
n0.85 diverges, typo, 1 +
2 2
+
3 3
+
n=1 n=1 n=1
6

converges

nen converges,
P
Using the integral test determine if the following series converge
n=1

1
P
n ln n . diverges
n=2

en +n+1
P P
Given a series like an = n2 en +1 . to apply limit comparison test, to this we
n=1 n=1

P an
need a second series bn , which is easier to handle but such that lim = 1 or
n=1 n bn
biggest summand in the numerator of an n
e 1
any nonzero number. Take bn = biggest summand in the denominator of an = n2 en = n2 .
Then it is clear
en +n+1
n2 en +1
lim 1 =1
n
n2

1
P
. we know n2 converges, hence the given series must converge by limit compar-
n=1
ison test.

1
P
using the limit comparison test determine if the following series converge n+4
n=1

n n3
P P
D, 2n3 +1 C, n4 .5 D, 1 + 1/4 + 1/7 + 1/10 + D (find a formula for
n=1 n=1

1 n2 1 n1 4+3n
P P P P
the nth term, then use LCT, n2 +9 C, 3n4 +1 C, n4n C, 2n D,
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

1+4n 1 sin( n1 ) D
P P P
1 + 1/3 + 1/5 + 1/7 + 1/9 + 1/11 + D, 1+3n D, n3 +1
C,
n=1 n=1 n=1

P
P
P
Given a series an , if the series |an | converges, then we say an
n=1 n=1 n=1

P
converges absolutely. In this case an must also converge. Hence ab-
n=1
solute convergence implies convergence. But the converse is false. it
may happen that a series converges, but it does not converge absolutely.

If the terms of a series are not positive. Then we cannot apply comparison, LCT or
integral test to it. In this cases sometimes it helps to check the series for absolute

P
convergence. to do that we check that the series |an | is convergent. if it is
n=1

P
so, then an is absolutely convergent, hence convergent. But if Ser1an is not
n=1

P (1)n
absolutely convergent, it may still be simply convergent. For example n is
n=1
convergent, but not absolutely convergent.

P sin(n)
using absolute convergence show that the series n2 is convergent.
n=1
 7

in using comparison test between two positive series, if the Bigger series converges,
then the smaller series converges. If the smaller series diverges, then the bigger
series diverges.

P sin(4n)
(important)To determine convergence of the series 4n , we cannot use com-
n=1

P 1 sin(4n)
parison test directly to compare the series with 4n , because 4n is not positive
n=1
for all n. instead we use a combination of absolute convergence and comparison

test as follows | sin(4n) 1 1
| sin(4n)
P P
4n | < 4n , since 4n converges, we must have 4n |
n=1 n=1
converges by comparison test. Hence the given series converges absolutely,
hence must also converge.

Use comparison test, or a combination of absolute convergence and comparison

P sin(4n )
test, if required, to determine if the following series converge. 4n absolutely
n=1

P cos2 n
P 2+(1)n P 1+sin(n)
Converges, n2 +1 Absolutely C.,
n n
Absolutely C., 10n Abso-
n=1 n=1 n=1

sin2 n
P
lutely C., n3 Absolutely C.
n=1

(1)n1 bn be an alternating se-
P
Alternating Series Test Let bn > 0 and
n=1
ries. Then if the sequence of absolute values {bn } is eventually decreasing, that
is decreasing for n > N , for some number N, and lim bn = 0. Then the alter-
n
nating series converges. If lim bn 6= 0, Then by TOD the alternating series
n
diverges. If the sequence {bn } is not eventually decreasing then the alternating
series Test is inconclusive.

(1)n1 1n C,
P
Using the AST determine if the following series converges.
n=1

1
(1)n1 ln(n+4) (1)n1 3n1 (1)n1 nn3 +2 C, (1)n1 cos(/n)
P P P P
C, 2n+1 D,
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1
2

(1)n1 enn C, (1)n1 8nn C, (1)n1 arctan n
P P P
D, n2 C.
n=1 n=1 n=1

To check that the sequence {bn } is eventually decreasing, we have two methods. in

(1)n1 n1 .
P
first case it might be obvious that, it is so. for example in the case
n=1
in these cases it is enough to just say so. If it is not obvious for example in
2
(1)n1 n3n+1 . we use the first derivative test in the interval (1, ) as fol-
P
n=1
x2 x(2x3 )
lows. Let f (x) = x3 +1 . Then f 0 (x) =in the interval (1, ) the factor
(x3 +1)2 .

x/(x + 1) > 0, but (2 x ) < 0 for x > 2. hence for x > 3 2, f 0 (x) < 0. hence
3 2 3 3

the sequence {bn = f (n)} is decreasing for n 2.

8

2
Prove that the sequences { enn }, { 2nn }, are eventually decreasing.

(1)n1 bn
P
(Very Important) Alternating Series Estimation Theorem Let
n=1
be an alternating series which satisfies the conditions of the alternating series Test,

(1)n1 bn . Let sn be the partial sum upto
P
and hence converges. Let s =
n=1
and including the nth term (1)n1 bn , Then the error in approximating s by

(1)n1 n1 . Then |s(11/2+1/3)|
P
sn =|ssn | bn+1 . For example let s =
n=1
1/4.

Using the ASET, for each of the following series find n such that, |s sn | .001.

(1)n1 n1 , (1)n1 ln1n , (1)n1 8nn , (1)n1 n16 , (1)n1 3n1n! .
P P P P P
n=1 n=2 n=1 n=1 n=1

Ratio Test is generally easier to apply than the alternating series Test. for example
2
(1)n1 enn , (1)n1 8nn , checking that the {bn } is eventually
P P
in the cases
n=1 n=1
decreasing is cumbersome, while the ratio test is straight forward.

(n+1)!
while applying ratio test, we have to simplify ratios like n! = 12n(n+1)
12n =
(2n)! 12(2n) 1 (2n+1)! (2n+1)!
n + 1, (2(n+1))! = 12(2n)(2n+1)(2n+2) = (2n+1)(2n+2) , (2(n+1)+1)! = (2n+3)! =
12(2n+1) 1
12(2n+1)(2n+2)(2n+3) = (2n+2)(2n+3)

P
Given a series an , an = the term we get when we substitute n into the formula
n=1

P (1)n (1)3
of the series. For example in the series x2n+1 (2n + 1)!, a3 = x2.3+1 (2.3 + 1)!.
n=0
see that a3 is the 4th term from the start.

an , to apply ratio test to this series, we first find | aan+1
P
Given a series n
| and
n=1
simplify it. . Then we take its lim | aan+1
n
|. If lim | aan+1
n
| < 1, the series con-
n n
verges absolutely. If lim | aan+1
n
| > 1, the series diverges. If lim | aan+1
n
| = 1,
n n
then the Ratio test is inconclusive. When it is inconclusive, we should try
AST, LCT, CT, if the series has negative terms then try a combination
of absolute convergence and comparison test, IT, in that order.

3

nn
(1)n 3nn Absolutely C.,
P P
Apply ratio test to the following series. n! D(is a
n=1 n=1
2
(1)n n13 inconclusive, n
(1)n 10
P P
hard question, dont worry if you cant do this), n
n=1 n=1

1 (3)n n! k
k 23k Abso-
P P P P
Absolutely C., 3n n! Absolutely C., n3 D, 100n D,
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1
n

10n
(1)n 2n4 n!
(2)n (2n)!
P P P
lutely C., D, (n+1)42n+1 Absolutely C., Absolutely
n=1 n=1 n=1
 9

P n
C., 1+n2 Inconclusive
n=1

A power series is a function which is represented as a series. the series has a variable
x in it. for some values of x, the power series converges, while for the remaining
values of x,the power series diverges. The set of values of x for which the power
series converges is always an interval of one of the following types ( ),( ], [ ], [ ).
It is called the interval of convergence. often denoted by IOC. the interval of
convergence is also the domain of the function represented by the given
power series. the radius of this interval is called the radius of convergence. often
denoted by R. the center of this interval is called the center of convergence. often
denoted by a. Every power series converges in its center. So the interval of
convergence is never empty. the interval of convergence is always symmetric
about the center. Suppose the interval of convergence is (1, 2], then the center
is (2 + 1)/2 = 3/2, while the radius is (2 1)/2 = 1/2. the power in the word
power series comes from the fact that the terms of the series contain a power of
x a, where a is the center of the power series.

A power series converges absolutely in every open interval inside the interval of

P (x1)n
convergence. For example the power series n has interval of convergence
n=0
[0, 2). It converges absolutely in (0, 2). but at the boundary point 0, it doesnot
converge absolutely. Outside the interval of convergence, a power series diverges.
by the way the center of C. of this series is 1, and the radius of C. of this series is
1.

cn (x a)n , be a power series. then there are three types of radius of con-
P
Let
n=0
vergence. if the IOC is [a, a]. the radius is 0. in this case the power series converges

n!(x 1)n has IOC=[1, 1]. if the interval is
P
only at its center. for example
n=0
of the type (a R, a + R], [a R, a + R], [a R, a + R), (a R, a + R), for some

(x 1)n , which has IOC=(0, 2),
P
nonzero finite R, for example for the series
n=0
hence has radius=1. The third type is when the IOC=(, ), in which case we

P (x1)n
say the radius of convergence is for example in the case n! .
n=0

Find the radius of convergence, and the interval of convergence of the following

n (1)n xn
x n(x)n
P P P
power series. n+1
,R=1, IOC=[-1,1), n+1 R=1, IOC=(-1,1],
n=0 n=0 n=0

P (x)n P (10x)n
R=1, IOC=(-1,1), n! R= IOC=(, ), n3 R=1/10,IOC=[-1/10,1/10],
n=0 n=1

P (1)n n2 xn P (1)n x2n P (2n)!xn
2n R=2,IOC= (-2,2), (2n)! R= IOC=(, ), 2n R=0
n=1 n=0 n=0

P (1)n (x3)n P (3x2)n P n!(2x1)n
IOC=[0,0], 2n+1 R=1 IOC=(2,4], n3n R=1 IOC=[-1/3,5/3), 2
n=0 n=0 n=0
10

xn
P
R=0 IOC=[1/2,1/2], 135(2n1) R= IOC=(, ).
n=1

cn 5n converges
P
Very Important for exam {c0 , c1 , . . .} is a sequence such that
n=0

cn (1)n 8n diverges. what can you say about the convergence of the fol-
P
but
n=0

cn (1)n Absolutely C., cn 6n
P P P
lowing series ? cn Absolutely C., may or
n=0 n=0 n=0

cn (1)n 10n Diverges, cn 3n Absolutely C., cn (1)n 7n
P P P
maynot converge,
n=0 n=0 n=0

cn xn . Absolutely C. for x in (5, 5), Diverges for
P
may or maynot converge,
n=0
|x| > 8. converges at x = 5, diverges at x = 8.