Viewpoint: perspectives on modern mining

2010: issue 7
a publication of Caterpillar Global Mining

A publication of Caterpillar Global Mining

IMPROVING EFFICIENCY UNDERGROUND:

A CHALLENGE WORTH TACKLING
Underground mines are one of the most challenging environments for operators and their equipment. Many
plunge to great depths with demanding conditions that affect equipment performance. Even the process of
getting machines down to work adds a great deal of logistics and costs.
Despite their challenging environments, underground miners are always on the lookout for ways to improve
loading and haulage performance to lower cost per ton.
Unlike our surface counterparts, who can look out over the pit or use GPS tracking to monitor performance,
our fleets are truly out of sight, says Caterpillar underground efficiency expert Larry Widdifield. Evaluating
performance takes talent to extract information about the fleet and operator performance. But it can be done
and its definitely worth doing.
Loading and haulage are large contributors to cost per ton, and theyre impacted by a number of factors
including mine design, application, product quality and maintenance. Aside from the environment in which
machines operate, almost all of these factors can be managed and improved to lower cost per ton. Even simple
improvements can have a significant impact.
I like things that are almost free and easy to implement, Widdifield says. Small changes in operations add
up to big benefits. Things like operator efficiency, cycle times and payload have the greatest impact on cost per
tonand theyre easy to evaluate, change and manage.

EVALUATE OPERATIONS

The only real way to find areas to improve is to look at what youre already doing, says Widdifield. You need
to see where you are before you can make any changes. Pay attention. Look at whats happening around you.
Document issues you see and develop an action plan to make improvements.
The goal is to confirm youre getting the maximum out of your equipment; set and achieve new benchmarks
for safety, efficiency and profitability; and set new goals for more performancewhether thats one more
bucket or one more truck load per shift.

2010 Caterpillar Inc. www.cat.com/viewpoint

 Viewpoint: perspectives on modern mining
a publication of Caterpillar Global Mining

Areas to evaluate include:

Machine / system sizing and selection. Is the loader matched to the truck?
Is the LHD the right size for the job?
Material density for body and bucket selection.
Operating techniques. Are operators properly trained? Are they working efficiently?
Haul road design and maintenance.
Payload targets / accuracy. Do you know the payload in the truck? Is the loader bucket full?
Blasting. Is the muck blasted properly, so operators can single-pass load their bucket in less than 12 seconds?
Speed. Are trucks traveling as fast as they can?

Conduct a production study

Conducting a production study is one way to evaluate operations. Production studies measure the following:
LoadingTime when the bucket first contacts the pile to when the operator puts the machine in reverse
HaulTravel from loading area to dumping area
DumpTime to get rid of the load
ReturnTravel from the dump area back to the load area
Total TimeSum of all the above (a full cycle)

Go into the mine and conduct a one- to two-hour production study,
Widdifield suggests. It doesnt matter if you sit on a rock with a stop watch,
ride in the truck with an operator, or use technology to evaluate performance.
A production study in your operation will give you tons per hour in the actual
environment.
Performance is influenced by both the operator and the machine. The operator-influenced time can be a
result of the operators training, a different approach to the muck pile, or a different digging characteristic of
his loader. Dumping is affected by his approach to the truck, load placement, or the loader and truck match.
Machine-influenced time is a result of how the loader accelerates and how its hydraulics and powertrain are
matched.
Now we can focus on where to approach improvements, says Widdifield. We either work
on training or machine selection.
Caterpillar has developed practical benchmarking data to enable underground mines to get the most out of
their Cat equipment and to provide guidance on assessing haul road design and maintenance that supports
sound industry practice.
A high-level overview is included below; to receive a copy of A Reference Guide to Mining Machine
Applications, please contact your dealer and reference media number AEXQ0030-02.

OPTIMIZING UNDERGROUND MINING TRUCK PERFORMANCE

Truck exchange time is a key to improving underground truck performance. Truck exchange time is the elapsed
time from when a loaded truck receives its last loading pass until the next truck receives its first loading pass.
Obviously, the shorter that cycle is, the greater the opportunity for more cycles per shift. The best practices

2010 Caterpillar Inc. www.cat.com/viewpoint

 Viewpoint: perspectives on modern mining
a publication of Caterpillar Global Mining

target is 42 seconds per cycle. Its important to match the truck fleet to the size of the loader to ensure the
maximum output for that area is achieved.
Dont forget that your fleet is as fast as your slowest truck, says Widdifield. It doesnt matter if youve got
a new, faster truck or a more skilled operator. The slowest truck in the fleet is the one the rest of those trucks
will be waiting behind. You also want to make sure the loader has an adequate fleet of trucks so hes not sitting
there with no one to load.

Ensure proper positioning

Have the loader operator spot the truck.
Ensure the truck doesnt have to turn around once it is loaded.
Position the truck away from overhead services.
Position for fastest cycle times (wheel loaders work best with a truck positioned 45 degrees to the face).
Keep rear tires away from loose rocks and out of depressions.

Ensure proper payload placement and management

Proper load placement is critical to improving underground operations. The load should be centered over
the hoist cylinders or on the body arrow, as well on the center line of the body. Ensure enough freeboard to
minimize spillage from the sides through corners and from the rear of the body on grades.
Target your payload based on the manufacturers recommended specification for front and rear axle weight
distribution. Establish a load placement pattern of first bucket back, then front, then center. And be aware of
carry-back. Theres no sense documenting that a truck left with 40 tons if hes returning with 5 tons stuck in
the corners, says Widdifield.
Caterpillar has identified an optimal load management policy called 10/10/20. The rule states, No more than
10 percent of payloads may exceed 1.1 times the trucks target payload and no single payload shall ever exceed
1.2 times the maximum target payload.
Another way to look at it is that no more than 10 percent of loads may exceed 10 percent over target payload
and no loads may exceed 20 percent over target payload, explains Widdifield.
Proper payload management is not only important to the health of your equipment, it is also important to the
health and safety of your employees, he says. Thats why it is important to adhere to the 10/10/20 rule. When
you exceed target payload plus 20 percent you have exceeded the steering and braking certification of the truck.

Evaluating a chute loading site

Some underground mines install chutes designed to load trucks quickly. Its important to provide adequate
entry and exit areas and provide the operator a way to control the chute. If he has to get out of the truck, walk
up a set of stairs and activate the chute, he is losing valuable time, says Widdifield.
Favorable conditions for chutes include a stable, level floor with an easy entry under the chute. The chute size
and discharge should be matched to the truck size and drop height should be minimized. Material should be
well shot. Unfavorable conditions include an uneven, debris-littered floor; poor feed control; and tight access.
Make sure the truck has adequate clearance at the entrance and under the chute, says Widdifield. The exit
from the chute should give the operator good visibility for oncoming traffic. The operator should also be able to
see his payload.

Consider the dump area

The dump site is an area where trucks can lose valuable time. Remember, trucks dont like to wait while the
hopper empties or the guy on the rock breaker gets rid of a piece of oversized material, Widdifield points out.
Dont waste time due to bunching. Spread your fleet out in the mine. Send more trucks to the farthest loader.

2010 Caterpillar Inc. www.cat.com/viewpoint

 Viewpoint: perspectives on modern mining
a publication of Caterpillar Global Mining

OPTIMIZING LHD LOADER PERFORMANCE

The optimum cycle time for LHD loaders is 28 to 42 seconds, with an average of 35 seconds. The most efficient
pass match is three to four passes.

Evaluate operator technique

Caterpillar recommends watching loader operators for proper technique:
Enter the pile straight on with bucket floor parallel to draw point.
Keep frame straight while digging.
Lift the bucket slightly while crowding the material.
Ensure lift arms are horizontal when the bucket is full.
Stay in the face for 12 seconds or less.
Operate the machine in first gear, at full throttle.
Maintain proper bucket kick-out settings.
Keep spillage to a minimum.
Keep the floor clean and smooth; clean the floor while approaching face when necessary with minimum
floor contact.
The bucket should always be equipped with Ground Engaging Tools (GET) that suit the material being dug.
Never operate a worn GET or bare cutting edge.

Provide optimal site conditions

LHDs perform best in areas where floors are level, dry, smooth and firm. Sufficient crossfall and drainage will
minimize tire damage. Additional considerations include well-fragmented materials that minimize crowding
time, particularly in the toe-area of the cut; a lower face profile; and the ability to work multiple faces. LHDs
will not perform as well in poor underfoot conditions, tight load areas, and when moving poorly shot material.

EVALUATING HAUL ROADS

Haul roads have a profound impact on underground machine performanceand theyre an area where
small improvements can have a big impact on cycle time. The three key factors in the design of underground
haul roads are material quality, design and maintenance. Grade should be smooth and constant with rolling
resistance kept to a minimum.
Rolling resistance affects productivity because it doesnt allow equipment to travel at the optimum speed
for maximum productivity. The chart below shows how an increase in tire penetration can increase rolling
resistance:

Rolling Resistance
Hard, well-maintained road 1.5%
Well-maintained road with flex 3%
25 mm/1 in tire penetration 4%
50 mm/2 in tire penetration 5%
100 mm/4 in tire penetration 8%
200 mm/8 in tire penetration 14%

2010 Caterpillar Inc. www.cat.com/viewpoint

 Viewpoint: perspectives on modern mining
a publication of Caterpillar Global Mining

Each increase in rolling resistance has a direct impact on the speed of travel, Widdifield says. Sometimes
rolling resistance causes a varying load on the engine. So not only wont we obtain our desired speedwere
also wearing out the transmission.

FOLLOWING BEST PRACTICES

Improving loading and haulage efficiency is the easiest way to lower cost per ton. By following best practices
for operator performance, cycle times and payloadand ensuring good haul road design and maintenance
underground mines can experience greater profitability.
The challenges we face are great, Widdifield says. But dont use that as an excuse not to get out and look for
improvements. The conditions of your operation drive your costs and affect your productivity. Find the right
issues and work on them. There are some huge gains to be had for very little investment.

Haul Road design and maintenance

Design considerations: Grade

Maintain smooth grade
and transitions
Maintain consistent percentage
Remember a 15 percent nominal grade with
18 percent lifts may prevent the truck from up-shifting
Design considerations:
Single cross slope
Flats
- Apply minimum slope to maintain drainage
- Avoid areas where drainage cross flow is required; a small bore
hole may be required
- Use constant cross fall only when conditions are extremely dry
Grades
- Minimal cross-slope required
Maintenance considerations
Begin at face; end at dump
Truck should travel at a reasonable and constant speed
Where trucks slow down, evaluate the cause and repair
Remove and repair wet / soft spots

2010 Caterpillar Inc. www.cat.com/viewpoint