SSD 4th CC

ARC 1033: Structure System and Design
Fourth Year, First Semester

4 hrs per week, 03 weeks
COL VIRENDRA KUMAR MALIK (Retd) (SECTION C&D)

Mob: 9999683982
Email: virendrakumarmalik@ansaluniversity.edu.in
Sushant School of Art and Architecture

Ansal University, Gurgaon
STRUCTURES
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ARC 1033: COL V K MALIK
STRUCTURES
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STRUCTURES
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STRUCTURES
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FORCES IN STRUCTURES
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STRESS AND STRAIN
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STRESS AND STRAIN
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STRESS AND STRAIN
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STRESS AND STRAIN
ELEMENTS WHICH CARRY PURELY AXIAL LOAD ARE SUBJECTED TO AXIAL

STRESS WHOSE INTENSITY IS CONSTANT ACROSS ALL CROSS-
SECTIONAL PLANES.
(B) PURE BENDING-TYPE LOAD (I.E. LOAD WHICH IS NORMAL TO THE AXIS
OF THE ELEMENT) CAUSES BENDING STRESS TO OCCUR ON ALL CROSS-
SECTIONAL PLANES. THE MAGNITUDE OF THIS VARIES WITHIN EACH
CROSS SECTION FROM A MAXIMUM COMPRESSIVE STRESS AT ONE
EXTREMITY TO A MAXIMUM TENSILE STRESS AT THE OTHER.
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STRESS AND STRAIN
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LOADS AND STRUCTURAL

ELEMENTS.
(A) LOAD COINCIDENT WITH PRINCIPAL AXIS; AXIAL INTERNAL FORCE.
(B) LOAD PERPENDICULAR TO THE PRINCIPAL AXIS; BENDING-TYPE
INTERNAL FORCE.
(C) LOAD INCLINED TO THE PRINCIPAL AXIS; COMBINED AXIAL AND
BENDING-TYPE INTERNAL FORCE.
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SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
THE ACTION OF EXTERNAL FORCES ON A STRUCTURE
A COMPRESSION / COMPRESSIVE FORCE WILL CAUSE A MEMBER OF STRUCTURE
TO BE SQUASHED.
A TENSION / TENSILE FORCE CAUSE A MEMBER OF STRUCTURE TO BE

STRETCHED.
A TORSION / TORSIONAL FORCE CAUSE A MEMBER TO BE TWISTED.
A SHEAR FORCE CAUSE A MEMBER TO SLIDE/TILT TO A SIDE.
A BENDING FORCE IS A COMPLEX FORCE STATE ASSOCIATED WITH THE BOWING

OF A MEMBER SUCH AS BEAM. IT CAUSES FIBER ON ONE FACE OF THE
MEMBER TO ELONGATE AND HENCE BE IN TENSION AND FIBERS ON THE
OPPOSITE FACE TO COMPRESS
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The shear force at any location is the amount

by which the external forces acting on the
element, to one side of that location, do not
balance when they are resolved perpendicular
to the axis of the element.
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The bending moment at a location in an

element is the amount by which the moments
of the external forces acting to one side of the
location, about any point in their plane, do
not balance.
Shear force and bending moment occur in
structural elements which are bent by the
action of the applied load.
Beams and slabs are examples of such
elements.
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The shapes of bending moment, shear force

and axial thrust diagrams are of great
significance for the eventual shapes of
structural elements because they indicate the
locations of the parts where greatest strength
will be required.
Bending moment is normally large in the
vicinity of mid-span and near rigid joints.
Shear force is highest near support joints.
Axial thrust is usually constant along the
length of structural elements.
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(Subject) (-led by)
END CONDITIONS
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RELEVANT CODES
BIS CODE : INDIAN STANDARD FOR STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
IS: 800-1984 CODE FOR PRACTICE FOR GENERAL CONSTRUCTION IN STEEL.
SP 38 HANDBOOK FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS.
SP:7 HAND BOOK FOR NATIONAL BUILDING CODE.(GROUP2, CHAPTER 6)
SP:16 HANDBOOK FOR CONCTRETE STRUCTURES.
IS: 456 CODE OF PRACTICE FOR PLAIN & RCC STRUCTURES.
IS: 875 -1987(2ND REV) CODE OF PRACTICE FOR DESIGN LOADS FOR BUILDINGS &
(PART 1) STRUCTURES.
(PART 2) DEAD LOADS
(PART 3) IMPOSED LOADS.
(PART 4) WIND LOADS.
(PART 5)
SNOW LOADS.
SPECIAL LOADS & LOAD COMBINATIONS.
IS: 1893 CRITERIA FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN OF STRUCTURES.
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TYPE OF CEMENT, CONCRETE AND STEEL
CEMENT :
ALL THREE GRADES OF OPC VIZ. 33, 43 & 53, LOW HEAT PORTLAND
CEMENT AND SULPHATE RESISTING PORTLAND CEMENT HAVE BEEN
INCLUDED UNDER VARIOUS TYPES OF CEMENT. IN THE MANUFACTURING
OF CONCRETE, THE CODE ALSO PERMITS OTHER COMBINATION OF
PORTLAND CEMENT WITH MINERAL ADMIXTURES .
MINERAL ADMIXTURES :
THE MINERAL ADMIXTURES, WHICH MAY BE USED AS PART
REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT, LISTED IN THE CODE ARE POZZOLANAS
(SUCH AS FLY ASH, SILICA FUME, RICE HUSK ASH AND METAKAOLINE) AND
GROUND GRANULATED BLAST FURNACE
SLAG.
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TYPE OF CONCRETE AND STEEL
GRADE OF CONCRETE
I) HIGHER GRADE OF CONCRETE UP TO M 80 HAS BEEN PERMITTED
(EARLIER REVISION WAS PERMITTING MAXIMUM GRADE M 40). THIS
IS A PROGRESSIVE PROVISION IN LINE WITH RECENT TREND FOR
USING HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE IN INDIA AND ABROAD.
HOWEVER, THE CODE HAS CAUTIONED THAT FOR HIGH STRENGTH
CONCRETE (COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH GREATER THAN M 55), THE
DESIGN PARAMETERS GIVEN IN THIS STANDARD MAY NOT BE
APPLICABLE AND THE VALUES MAY BE OBTAINED FROM SPECIALIST
LITERATURES AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS.
II) THE GRADES OF CONCRETE HAVE BEEN CLASSIFIED IN FOLLOWING

THREE GROUPS:
A) ORDINARY GRADE M 10 TO M 20
B) STANDARD CONCRETE M 25 TO M 55
C) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE M 60 TO M 80
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TYPE OF CONCRETE AND STEEL
GRADE OF CONCRETE
III) THE MINIMUM GRADE OF CONCRETE FOR PLAIN AND REINFORCED

CONCRETE IN VARIOUS EXPOSURES CONDITIONS HAVE BEEN REVISED AS
UNDER:-
EXPOSURE CONDITION
GRADE OF PLAIN CEMENT REINFORCED CEMENT
CONCRETE CONCRETE CONCRETE
MILD - M 20
MODERATE M 15 M 25
SEVERE M 20 M 30
VERY SEVERE M 20 M 35
EXTREME M 25 M 40
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TUTORIAL
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PURPOSE
THE PURPOSE OF BUILDING STRUCTURE
support structure
ordering system
space maker
form giver
The richness of structures can only be suggested by the wealth of building

structure types, ranging from the long-span stadium to the massive
building block to the slender tower, from structures above or below ground
or in water to structures in outer space. They range from simple
symmetrical to complex asymmetrical forms, from boxes to terraced and
inverted stepped buildings, from low-rise to high-rise buildings, and so on.
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STRUCTURE AS SUPPORT
Building STRUCTURE as support (local and global scale)
Structure holds the building up so it does not collapse or deform excessively;

it makes the building and spaces within the building possible. Structure gives
support to the material and therefore is necessary.
BUILDING and STRUCTURE are inseparable and intimately related to each

other. The external loads that act on buildings cause internal forces in building
support structures. The forces flow along the structure members to the
ground, requiring foundations as transition structures to the comparatively
weak soil. The members must be strong and stiff enough to resist the internal
forces. In other words, BUILDING SUPPORT STRUCTURES have to provide the
necessary STRENGTH and STIFFNESS to resist the vertical forces of
gravity and the lateral forces due to wind and earthquakes to guide them
safely to the ground. In addition to strength and stiffness, STABILITY is a
necessity for structures to maintain their shape. SAFETY is a basic

requirement of building design!
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Example of support structure:
study of wall trusses in context
of various building types
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Sculpture: Running Torso, 1995,
Santiago Calatrava
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STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
Bulk active structures redirect external forces primarily through the bulk and
continuity of its material such as beams and columns.
Vector active structures redirect external forces primarily through the

composition of tension and compression members such as truss.
Surface active structures redirect external forces primarily along the continuity
of a surface, such as plate or shell structure.
Form active structures redirect external forces primarily through the form of its
material, such as an arch or cable system.
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STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
Every building consists of the load-bearing structure and the non-load-

bearing portion.
The main load bearing structure, in turn, is subdivided into:

Gravity structure consisting of floor/roof framing, slabs, trusses, columns,
walls, foundations
Lateral force-resisting structure consisting of walls, frames, trusses,
diaphragms, foundations
Support structures may be classified as,
Horizontal-span structure systems:

floor and roof structure
enclosure structures
Vertical building structure systems:

walls, frames cores, etc.
tall buildings
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HORIZONTAL SPAN BUILDING STRUCTURES: rigid systems
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STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
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VERTICAL SPAN BUILDING STRUCTURES SYSTEMS
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EXAMPLES OF VERTICAL SPAN BUILDING STRUCTUES
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STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR
STRUCTURE Behavior
LOADS: gravity, lateral loads (wind, seismic)

external vs. internal forces (force flow along members)
PROPERTIES OF FORCES
FORCE FLOW: -- path to the ground where foundations make the

transition possible to the weak soil -- stresses (intensity of
force flow, blood pressure) depend on: member shape,
material, size, structure, connections
RESPONSE OF STRUCTURE TO LOADING
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COMMON BUILDING LOADS
Common
building loads
on global and local scale
Gravity loads
Beam loads
Column loads
Floor loads
Roof loads
Lateral Loads
Wind load
Earthquake loads
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VERTICAL GRAVITY FORCE FLOW
FORCE FLOW
Vertical gravity force flow
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FORCE FLOW
FORCE FLOW
Vertical gravity force

flow
Horizontal gravity force

flow
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SUB STRUCTURES
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
POINT: COLUMN FOOTING
LINE: FOUNDATION WALL
AND FOOTING
PLANE: MAT FOUNDATION-
THICK ,HEAVY REINFORCED
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
CAISSONS
PILES: END PILE,
FRICTION PILES
UNDER REAMED PILES/
KNUCKLE PILES
BARRETTE PILE
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SUPER STRUCTURES
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
IT IS THE PROCESS OF DETERMINING
THE ABLITY OF A STRUCTURE OR ANY
OF ITS CONSTITUTENT MEMBERS ,
EITHER EXISTING OR ASSUMED TO
SAFELY CARRY A GIVEN SET OF LOADS
WITHOUT MATERIAL DISTRESS, GIVEN
THE ARRANGEMENT, SHAPE AND
DIMENSIONS OF THE MEMBERS, THE
TYPE OF CONNECTIONS.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
IT IS THE PROCESS OF ARRANGING,
INTERCONNECTING, SIZING AND
PORPORTIONING THE MEMBERS OF A
STRUCTURAL SYSTEM IN ORDER TO
SAFELY CARRY A GIVEN SET OF LOADS.
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STRUCTURAL PLANNING
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STRUCTURE AS GEOMETRY
STRUCTURE
as GEOMETRY:
- ordering system
- form giver
- art
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BUILDING SHAPES AND FORMS
BUILDING SHAPES and forms: there is no limit to building shapes ranging from boxy to compound
hybrid to organic and crystalline shapes. Most conventional buildings are derived from the rectangle,
triangle, circle, trapezoid, cruciform, pinwheel, letter shapes and other linked figures usually composed of
rectangles.
Traditional architecture shapes from the basic geometrical solids the prism, pyramid, cylinder, cone,
and sphere. Odd-shaped buildings may have irregular plans that may change with height so that the floors
are not repetitive anymore.
The modernists invented an almost inexhaustible number of new building shapes through transformation
and arrangement of basic building shapes, through analogies with biology, the human body,
crystallography, machines, tinker toys, flow forms, and so on.
Classical architecture, in contrast, lets the faade appear as a decorative element with symbolic
meaning.
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STRUCTURAL PATTERNS
SPANNING OPTIONS
ONE WAY > 1.5:1
RULE: FLOOR SLAB SPAN/28
ROOF SLAB: SPAN/35
4100MM
TWO WAY: SLAB
PERIMETER/180 SCALE AND GRAIN
SUPPORT OPTIONS 4100MM
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STRUCTURAL PATTERNS
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STRUCTURAL PATTERNS : REGULAR GRIDS
RECTANGULAR GRIDS RADIAL GRIDS
SQUARE GRIDS TARTAN GRIDS
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STRUCTURAL PATTERNS : MODIFYING GRIDS
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STRUCTURAL PATTERNS : MODIFYING GRIDS
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BUILDING SHELL
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BUILDING SHELL
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TYPE OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
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STRUCTURE AS ORDERING SYSTEM
STRUCTURE as ordering system, it functions as a spatial and dimensional

organizer besides identifying assembly or construction systems.
geometry vs. composition, dimensional coordination (grids, surface
subdivision, mathematics, etc.):
Beijing Jian Wai SOHO Beijing, Riken Yamamoto

Langen Foundation, Hombroich, Germany, 2004, Ando
Buckminster Fuller geodesic dome, US Expo Montreal, 1967
tree houses, Rotterdam, Piet Blom
capsule tower, Tokyo, 1972, Kurokawa
Daniel Libeskind, city edge
bus shelter, Aachen, Germany, 1996, Peter Eisenman
CCTV Headquarters and TVCC Building, Beijing, Rem Koolhaas
National Swimming Center in Beijing, 2007, Arup, space frame cells
Beijing Olympic Stadium, called the nest, Herzog and De Meuron, Arup Eng
Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, 1997, Frank Gehry
Fisher Center, Bard College, NY, Frank Gehry
UFA Palace Dresden (German Architecture Price 1999), COOP Himmelblau
Phare Tower, La Dfense, Paris, 2006, Thom Mayne (Morphosis, LA)
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STRUCTURE AS FORM GIVER
STRUCTURE as form giver: it defines the spatial configuration and

reflects other meanings and is part of esthetics:
Roman aqueduct, Segovia, Spain

la Grande Arch, Paris, Fainsilber & P. Rice
TU Munich, Germany
Integrated urban buildings, Linkstr. Potsdamer Platz), Richard Rogers, Berlin,
1998
Mercedes-Benz Museum, Stuttgart, 2006, Ben van Berkel & Caroline Bos,
Werner Sobek Ingenieure
Phaeno Science Center, 2005, Wolfsburg, Zaha Hadid
BMW Welt Munich, 2007, Coop Himmelblau
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EXAMPLE FORM GIVER
Mercedes-Benz
Museum,
Stuttgart, 2006,
Ben van Berkel
& Caroline Bos,
Werner Sobek
Ingenieure
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EXAMPLE
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EXAMPLE
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STRUCTURE AS ART
STRUCTURE as art
The experimentation with structures is also reflected by the constructivist art of
modernism and was first articulated particularly by the dreams of designers
such as the pioneers Antoine Pevsner and Naum Gabo at the early part of this
century in Russia, and later by Alexander Calder's kinetic art and Kenneth
Snelson's tensegrity sculptures.
Flamingo Sculpture, Chicago, 1974, Calder, in front of Mies van der Rohe
Building
Calder in the National Gallery of Art, East Wing, Washington, 1978, I.M. Pei
Experiments with structure, Russian Constructivism (3 slides)
Kenneth Snelson's tensegrity tower, double-layer tensegrity dome
Stradelhofen Station, Zurich, 1990, Santiago Calatrava, (2 slides)
Earth sculpture, MUDAM, Luxembourg, 2007
Shizuoka Press & Broadcasting Center, Tokyo, 1967, K. Tange
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STRUCTURE AS ART
Apartment Tower, Malm, Sweden, 2003, Santiago Calatrava; based in form on the sculpture
turning torso
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STRUCTURE AS ART
Palau de les Arts, Valencia Opera House, 2005, Santiago

Calatrava
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LATERAL STABILTY : WIND AND SEISMIC
WEIGHT IS LIABILTY IN SEISMIC DESIGN BUT USED

WELL IN RESISTING WIND FORCES TO RESIST
SLIDING AND OVERTURNING.
VORTICES AND EDDIES ARE
CIRCULAR AIR CURRENTS
GENERATED BY WINDS IN
LOW PRESSURE AREAS.
EDDIES ARE SLOW MOVING
WHILE VORTICES ARE HIGH
VELOCITY CURRENTS
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WIND AND SEISMIC
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BASE ISOLATION SYSTEM
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ENERGY DISSIPATING DEVICES
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LATERAL LOAD SOLUTIONS
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STRUCTURAL FORCES
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LONG SPAN STRUCTURES
Long span structures are today widely applied

mainly for sport buildings as:
Stadia
Sport halls
Olympic swimming pools
Ice tracks and skating rinks
Indoor athletics
The state of the art trend on widespan

enclosures: the lightweight structures - from
compression to tension.
Space structures
single layer grids
double and multi layer grids
single and double curvature space frames
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TYPE OF LONG SPAN STRUCTURES
Cable structures
cable stayed roofs
suspended roofs
cable trusses
singleand multilayer nets
Membrane structures
prestressed anticlastic membranes
pneumatic membranes
Hybrid structures Convertible roofs

tensegrity systems overlapping sliding system
beam-cable systems pivoted system
folding system
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TRUSS
A truss is essentially a triangulated

system of (usually) straight interconnected
structural elements; it is sometimes also
referred to as an open web girder.
The individual elements are connected at
nodes; the connections are often
assumed to be nominally pinned. The
external forces applied to the system and
the reactions at the supports are generally
applied at the nodes.
When all the members and applied forces
are in a same plane, the system is a plane
or 2D truss.
The principal force in each element in a
truss is axial tension or compression.
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SOME BASIC BRACING TYPES:
DIAGONAL BRACING X- BRACING V- BRACING
K- BRACING
INVERTED V- BRACING
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LATERAL LOAD SOLUTIONS
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PYRAMIDAL LEANING
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TWISTED FREEFORM
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DYNAMIC FORM AERODYNAMIC FORM
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TORDO TWISTER
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AL BIDDA
TOWER, DOHA
INFINITY TOWER,
DUBAI
TURNING TORSO,
MALNO
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LONG SPAN STRUCTURES
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TYPE OF LONG SPAN STRUCTURES
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SURFACE ACTIVE SYSTEM
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FOLDED PLATES
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Hanger at Orly airport factory at Philadelphia UNESCO Congress hall
Miami marine stadium Florida Cross laminate timber panel
Fibre reinforced composite Folded plate steel roof in palm spring

Diamond fold
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Ferry terminal yokohama Riverside
Riverside museum
Narrow plate
Stiff diaphragm
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Den Helder station
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TYPE OF FOLDED STRUCTURES
Types of Folded Structure

Based on geometric shape folded structures
can be divided into:
Folded plate surfaces structures

Folded plate frames structures
Spatial folded plate structures
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APPLICATION OF FOLDED STRUCTURES
The Application of Folded

Miami Marine Stadium,
Structures
Church of Notre Dame

de Royan, France
Florida
As Roof Structure As Wall Structure

Mezzanine ceiling called
Foundation Pit With

Larsen Planks
Securing The
"Kielsteg"
As Floor Structure As Steel Sheet Piles
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FORM ACTIVE STRUCTURES
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ARC1519 : COL V K MALIK
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CONCRETE
CONCRETE.
Concrete is a construction material
that consists, in its most common
form, of Portland cement,
construction aggregate (generally
gravel and sand) and water.
Concrete does not solidify from
drying after mixing and placement;
the water reacts with the cement in a
chemical process known as
hydration. This water is absorbed by
the cement, which hardens, bonding
the other components together and
eventually creating a stone-like
material.
Concrete is used more than any
other man made material on the
planet. It is used to make
pavements, building structures,
foundations, motorways/roads,
overpasses, parking structures,
brick/block walls and footings for
gates, fences and poles.
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ADMIXTURES
Accelerators speed up the hydration
(hardening) of the concrete.
Retarders slow the hydration of
concrete.
Air-entrainers add and distribute tiny
air bubbles in the concrete, which
will reduce damage during freeze-
thaw cycles.
Plasticizers can be used to increase
the workability of plastic or "fresh"
concrete, allowing it be placed more
easily, with less consolidating effort.
Superplasticisers allow a properly
designed concrete to flow in place
even around congested reinforcing
bars, see self consolidating concrete
described below. Alternatively, they
can be used to reduce the water
content of a concrete (water
reducers) while maintaining
workability. This improves its
strength and durability
characteristics.
Pigments can be used to change the
colour of concrete, for aesthetics.
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ADDITIONS
ADDITIONS
Additions are very fine inorganic materials that
usually have pozzolanic or latent hydraulic
properties. They are added at the concrete mixer
to improve the properties of concrete. The term is
not used when the materials are added at the
factory as constituents of blended cements.
Fly ash: A by product of coal fired elgenerating
plants, it is used to partially replace Portland
cement (by up to 60% by mass). The properties
of fly ash depend on the type of coal burnt. In
general, silicious fly ash is pozzolanic, while
calcareous fly ash has latent hydraulic properties.
Ground granulated blast furnace slag (ggbs): A
by product of steel production, is used to partially
replace Portland cement (by up to 80% by mass).
It has latent hydraulic properties.
Silica fume: A byproduct of the production of
silicon and ferrosilicon alloys. Silica fume is
similar to fly ash, but has a particle size 100
times smaller. This results in a higher surface to
volume ratio and a much faster pozzolanic
reaction. Silica fume is used to increase strength
and durability of concrete, but generally requires
the use of superplasticizers for workability
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TYPES OF CONCRETE
TYPES OF CONCRETE
HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETE
High-strength concrete is concrete with a compressive strength
generally greater than 6,000 pounds/square inch (40 MPa). High-
strength concrete is made by lowering the water-cement (w/c)
ratio to 0.35 or lower. Often silica fume is added to prevent the
formation of free calcium hydroxide crystals in the cement matrix,
which might reduce the strength at the cement-aggregate bond.
Low w/c ratios and the use of silica fume make concrete mixes
significantly less workable, which is particularly likely to be a
problem in high-strength concrete applications where dense
rebar cages are likely to be used. To compensate for the reduced
workability, superplasticizers are commonly added to high-
strength mixtures. Aggregate must be selected carefully for high-
strength mixes, as weaker aggregates may not be strong enough
to resist the loads imposed on the concrete and cause failure to
start in the aggregate rather than in the matrix or at a void, as
normally occurs in regular concrete.
SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE
During the 1980s a number of countries including Japan,
Sweden and France developed a range of concretes that were
self-compacting. These self-compacting concretes (SCCs) are
characterised by their extreme fluidity, behaving more like a thick
fluid that is self-leveling, as opposed to the traditional concrete
that needs consolidating, normally by vibration or packing.
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SHOTCRETE CONCRETE
SHOTCRETE
Shotcrete uses compressed air to shoot
(cast) concrete onto (or into) a frame or
structure. Shotcrete is frequently used
against vertical soil or rock surfaces, as it
eliminates the need for formwork. It is
sometimes used for rock support,
especially in tunnelling. Today there are
two application methods for shotcrete: the
dry-mix and the wet-mix procedure. In dry-
mix the dry mixture of cement and
aggregates is filled into the machine and
conveyed with compressed air through the
hoses. The water needed for the hydration
is added at the nozzle. In wet-mix, the
mixes are prepared with all necessary
water for hydration. The mixes are pumped
through the hoses. At the nozzle
compressed air is added for spraying. For
both methods additives such as
accelerators and fiber reinforcement may
be used.
The term Gunite is occasionally used for
shotcrete, but properly refers only to dry-
mix shotcrete, and once was a proprietary
name.
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PERVIOUS CONCRETE
PERVIOUS CONCRETE
With pervious or "no fines" concrete,
carefully controlled amounts of water
and cementitious materials are used
to create a paste that forms a thick
coating around aggregate particles. A
pervious concrete mixture contains
little or no sand (fines), creating a
substantial void content. Using
sufficient paste to coat and bind the
aggregate particles together creates
a system of highly permeable,
interconnected voids that drains
quickly. Typically, between 15% and
25% voids are achieved in the
hardened concrete, and flow rates for
water through pervious concrete are
typically around 480 in./hr (0.34 cm/s,
which is 5 gal/ft/ min or 200
L/m/min), although they can be
much higher. Both the low mortar
content and high porosity also reduce
strength compared to conventional
concrete mixtures, but sufficient
strength for many applications is
readily achieved.
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VARIOUS CONCRETE
CELLULAR CONCRETE
Aerated concrete produced by the addition of an
air entraining agent to the concrete (or a
lightweight aggregate like vermiculite ) is
sometimes called Cellular concrete or aerated
autoclaved concrete.
ROLLER-COMPACTED CONCRETE
Roller-compacted concrete, sometimes called
rollcrete, is a low-cement-content stiff concrete
placed using techniques borrowed from
earthmoving and paving work. The concrete is
placed on the surface to be covered, and is
compacted in place using large heavy rollers
typically used in earthwork. The concrete mix
achieves a high density and cures over time into a
strong monolithic block. Roller-compacted
concrete is typically used for concrete pavement,
but has also been used to build concrete dams, as
the low cement content causes less heat to be
generated while curing than typical for
conventionally placed massive concrete pours.
ASPHALT CONCRETE
Strictly speaking, asphalt is a form of concrete as
well, with bituminous materials replacing Portland
cement as the binder.
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VARIOUS CONCRETE
FERROCEMENT
The term ferrocement, also referred
to as ferro concrete or reinforced
concrete, is most commonly applied
to a mixture of Portland cement and
sand applied over layers of woven or
expanded steel mesh and closely
spaced small-diameter steel
rods rebar. It can be used to form
relatively thin, compound curved
sheets to make hulls for boats, shell
roofs, water tanks, etc. It has been
used in a wide range of other
applications including sculpture and
prefabricated building components.
The term has been applied by
extension to other composite
materials including some containing
no cement and no ferrous material.
These are better referred to by terms
describing their actual contents.
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Fiber Concrete
FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE
(FRC) is concrete containing fibrous
material which increases its structural
integrity.
It contains short discrete fibers that are
uniformly distributed and randomly
oriented.
Fibers include steel fibers, glass
fibers, synthetic fibers and natural
fibers each of which lend varying
properties to the concrete. In addition,
the character of fiber-reinforced concrete
changes with varying concretes, fiber
materials, geometries, distribution,
orientation, and densities.
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Polymer Concrete
Polymer concrete is part of
group of concretes that
use polymers to
supplement or
replace cement as a binder.
The types include polymer-
impregnated concrete,
polymer concrete, and
polymer-Portland-
cement concrete. Polymers
in concrete have been
overseen by Committee
548 of the American
Concrete Institute since
1971
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b. Air Entrained
Concrete
The concrete prepared by mixing
aluminum in it is called air
entrained, cellular or aerated
concrete. In this concrete bubbles
of hydrogen gas are liberated
which forms cell and make the
concrete cellular.
USES: This concrete is used for lining
walls and roofs for heat and sound
insulation purpose.
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c. Light Weight Concrete
The concrete prepared by using coke
breeze, cinder or slag as coarse
aggregate is called light weight
concrete. The concrete is light in
weight and posses heat insulating
properties.
USES
This concrete is used in making precast
structural units for partition and wall
lining.
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COMPOSITES
-Composite materials are engineered Composites can be classified

materials made from two or more by their matrix material
constituent materials that remain separate which include:
and distinct while forming a single -Metal matrix composites
component (MMCs)
-Generally, one material forms a continuous
-Ceramic matrix
matrix while the other provides the
composites (CMCs)
reinforcement
- The two materials must be chemically inert -Polymer matrix
with respect to each other so no interaction composites (PMCs) or
occurs upon heating until one of the sometimes referred to as
components melts, an exception to this organic matrix composites
condition is a small degree of inter diffusion (OMCs)
at the reinforcement-matrix interface to
increase bonding
A steel safety shell holds together a
variety of different parts and panels
mostly made of plastics, including
polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl butyral
(PVB), polycarbonate (PC), and
polyethylene terephthalate (PET). As on
most cars, the "rubber" tires are actually
composites made from rubber and
numerous other materials, such as silica.
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METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES
MMC - Metal Matrix Composites Metal-matrix composites (MMCs)

-The matrix is relatively soft and typically use silicon carbide fibers
flexible. embedded in a matrix made from an
alloy of aluminum and magnesium,
-The reinforcement must have high
but other matrix materials such as
strength and stiffness
titanium , copper, and iron are
-Since the load must be transferred increasingly being used. Typical
from the matrix to the reinforcement, applications of MMCs include
the reinforcement-matrix bond must be bicycles, golf clubs, and missile
strong. guidance systems; an MMC made
MMC use: from siliconcarbide fibers in a
-Two types of particulates ( dispersion titanium matrix is currently being
strengthened alloys and regular developed for use as the skin
particulate composites) (fuselage material) of the US
-Or long fiber reinforcements National Aerospace Plane.
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PMC AND CMC
PMC - Polymer Matrix CMC Ceramic Matrix Composites

Composites -The matrix is relatively hard and brittle
-The matrix is relatively soft and -The reinforcement must have high
flexible tensile strength to arrest crack growth
-The reinforcement must have -The reinforcement must be free to pull
high strength and stiffness out as a crack extends, so the
-Since the load must be reinforcement-matrix bond must be
transferred from matrix to relatively weak
reinforcement, the reinforcement-
matrix bond must be strong. Ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs) are
Polymer matrix composites the third major type and examples
(PMCs), of which GRP is the best- include silicon carbide fibers fixed in a
known example, use ceramic matrix made from a borosilicate glass.
fibers in a plastic matrix. The ceramic matrix makes them
particularly suitable for use in lightweight,
high-temperature components, such as
parts for airplane jet engines .
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FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES
Fiber reinforced One of the oldest and best-known composites,

composites provide glass-fiber reinforced plastic (GRP), combines
improved strength, glass fibers (which are strong but brittle) with
fatigue resistance,
Youngs modulus and plastic (which is flexible) to make a composite
strength to weight ratio material that is tough but not brittle.
over the constituent Composites are typically used in place of metals
materials. because they are equally strong but much
This is achieved by lighter.
incorporating strong, stiff,
yet brittle fibers into a Most composites consist of fibers of one
more ductile matrix. material tightly bound into another material
Generally speaking the called a matrix. The matrix binds the fibers
fiber supplies the strength together somewhat like an adhesive and makes
and stiffness while the them more resistant to external damage,
matrix binds the fibers
together and provides a whereas the fibers make the matrix stronger and
means of transferring the stiffer and help it resist cracks and fractures.
load between fibers Fibers and matrix are usually (but not always)
The matrix also provides made from different types of materials. The
protection for the fibers fibers are typically glass, carbon, silicon carbide,
or asbestos, while the matrix is usually plastic,
metal, or a ceramic material (though materials
such as concrete may also be used).
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FIBRE ORIENTATION
-As can be seen from this

plot, the strength of the
composite increases as
the fiber length increases
(this is a chopped E-
glass-epoxy composite)
-Maximum strength is obtained

when long fibers are oriented
parallel to the applied load
-The effect of fiber orientation
and strength can be seen in
the plot
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TYPE OF FIBRES
GLASS FIBRE
Some commonly used fibers
for polymer matrix composites: Due to the relatively inexpensive cost glass
fibers are the most commonly used
-Glass fibers
reinforcement
-Carbon fibers
There are a variety of types of glass, they
-Aramid fibers are all compounds of silica with a variety of
metallic oxides
Some commonly used fibers
for metal matrix composites: Designation: Property or Characteristic:
-Boron fibers E, electrical low electrical conductivity
-Carbon fibers S, strength high strength
-Oxide ceramic and non-oxide
ceramic fibers C, chemical high chemical durability
M, modulus high stiffness
A, alkali high alkali or soda lime glass
D, dielectric low dielectric constant
-The most commonly used glass is E-glass,
this is the most popular because of its cost
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CARBON AND ARAMID FIBRES
CARBON FIBERS ARAMID FIBERS

-Carbon fibers have gained a lot of -Aramid fibers are also becoming
popularity in the last two decades more and more common
due to the price reduction
-They have the highest level of
Carbon fiber composites are five specific strength of all the common
times stronger than 1020 steel yet fibers
five times lighter. In comparison to
6061 aluminum, carbon fiber
composites are seven times -They are commonly used when a
stronger and two times stiffer yet degree of impact resistance is
still 1.5 times lighter required such as in ballistic armour
-Initially used exclusively by the -The most common type of aramid is

aerospace industry they are Kevlar
becoming more and more common
in fields such as automotive, civil
infrastructure, and paper
production
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COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE FORMS OF REINFORCEMENT
Random mat and woven fabric

Above Left: Roving
(glass fibers)
Above Right: Filaments Filament: a single thread like
fiber
Right: Close up of a roving
Roving: a bundle of filaments
wound to form a large strand
Chopped strand mat:
assembled from chopped
filaments bound with a binder
Carbon fiber Continuous filament random
woven fabric mat: assembled from
continuous filaments bound
with a binder
Many varieties of woven
fabrics: woven from rovings
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EPOXY COATED REINFORCEMENT
EPOXY COATED REINFORCEMENT

RICE HUSK CONCRETE
PLASTIC BRICKS
POLYMER MEMBRANE
ETFE: ETHYLENE TETRA FLUORO ETHYLENE
PTFE: POLY TETRA FLUORO ETHYLENE Zeinth museum
Teflon Coated Fiberglass

(PTFE
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TYPES SANDWICHED POLYMERS
TYPES OF FOAMS
PU: POLY URETHANE RABIN CENTRE
EPS: EXPANDED POLY STYRENE
XPS: EXTRUDED POLYSTYRENE
The board can be sheet

metal, plywood, cement or
oriented strand board
(OSB) and the foam either
expanded polystyrene foam
(EPS), extruded polystyrene
foam (XPS), polyurethane
foam (PUR) or
polyisocyanurate foam
(PIR).
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EXAMPLES
Fiber Reinforced Polymers or FRPs:

Classified by type of fiber:
Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)
Carbon-fiber reinforced plastic or CFRP
Glass-fiber reinforced plastic or GFRP
Classified by matrix:
Thermoplastic Composites
short fiber thermoplastics
long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics
glass mat thermoplastics
continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics
Thermoset Composites
Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fiber in a graphite matrix)
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EXAMPLES
Metal matrix composites or MMC:

White cast iron
Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix)
Metal-intermetallic laminate
Ceramic matrix composites:
Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)
Cermet (ceramic and metal)
Concrete
Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites
Asphalt concrete
Mastic asphalt
Mastic roller hybrid
Dental composite
Syntactic foam
Mother of Pearl : calcium carbonate-biopolymer
Chobham armour : cremaic armaid composite
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EXAMPLES
Engineered wood
Plywood
laminates
Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene
matrix)
Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles
Formica (plastic)
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FORMICA AND CORIAN PRODUCTS
Formica is a brand of composite materials

manufactured by the Formica Corporation based in
Cincinnati, Ohio, United States. In common use,
the term refers to the company's classic product, a
heat resistant, wipe-clean, plastic laminate of
paper or fabric with melamine resin.
Formica was invented in 1912 by Daniel J.
O'Conor and Herbert A. Faber, then working at
Westinghouse. They originally conceived it as an
electrical insulator as a substitute "for mica", hence
the name they chose when they left Westinghouse
to set up their own company in 1913.
In its early years, Formica manufactured insulation
along with other products such as phenolic
composite gears, developing its classic range of
surfacing laminates from the late 1920s. During
World War II it manufactured plastic-impregnated
wooden airplane propellers. Post-war, engineering
uses declined, ceasing in 1970 in favour of
decorative laminates.
In the last quarter of the 20th century, after a
management buyout from its then owners
American Cyanamid, it diversified with products
such as solid surfacing, metal laminates and
flooring materials.
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USE OF GLASS IN STRUCTURES
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SAFETY GLASS
It is made by fusing two to three
flat sheets of glass and in
between them alternate thin
layer of vinyl plastic is introduced.
It is heated where both the layers
merge together and glass is
toughened.
It is used as wind shield in

automobiles and airplanes. On
breaking it pieces does not fly
apart because of the presence of
the plastic layer in between the
glass layers.
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SHEET GLASS PLATE GLASS
Sheet glass is made by blowing. Molten glass is rolled into plate glass
It is available within 2 to 6 mm with thicknesses varying from6 to
thicknesses. It is mainly used as 25mm. It is also suitable for glazing
door and window panels and for works, as table tops, windows, train
all kinds of glazing works. carriages, buses, cars, the
windscreens and superior quality
mirrors.
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STRUCTURAL GLASS FAADE:

STRONG BACK SYSTEM
GLASS FIN SYSTEM
PLANNER TRUSS
MAST TRUSS SYSTEM
CABLE TRUSS SYSTEM
GRID SHELLS
CABLE NET SYSTEM
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PIN FUSE JOINT FOR EARTH QUAKES
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INTRODUCTION
A pre stressed concrete structure is different from a conventional reinforced concrete
structure due to the application of an initial load on the structure prior to its use. The initial
load or pre stress is applied to enable the structure to counteract the stresses arising
during its service period.
The pre stressing of a structure is not the only instance of pre stressing. The concept of pre
stressing existed before the applications in concrete.
Two examples of pre stressing before the development of pre stressed concrete are provided
1.Force-fitting of metal bands on wooden barrels
The metal bands induce a state of initial hoop compression, to counteract the hoop tension
caused by filling of liquid in the barrels.
2.Pre-tensioning the spokes in a bicycle wheel

The pre-tension of a spoke in a bicycle wheel is applied to such an extent that there will
always be a residual tension in the spoke.
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PRESTRESSING
The tensile strength of unreinforced concrete is equal to about 10%

of its compressive strength. Reinforced concrete is thus designed
assuming the concrete to be cracked and unable to carry any
tensile force. Pre stressing gives crack-free construction by placing
the concrete in compression before the application of service loads.
For concrete, internal stresses are induced (usually, by means of
tensioned steel) for the following reasons
The tensile strength of concrete is only about 8% to 14% of its
compressive strength.
Cracks tend to develop at early stages of loading in flexural
members such as beams and slabs.
To prevent such cracks, compressive force can be suitably applied
in the perpendicular direction.
Pre stressing enhances the bending, shear and torsional
capacities of the flexural members.
In pipes and liquid storage tanks, the hoop tensile stresses can be
effectively counteracted by circular pre stressing.
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EXAMPLES
Consider a row of books or blocks set up as a beam.Fig.2(a).
This "beam" is able to resist compression at the top but is unable to resist any tension
forces at the bottom as the "beam" is now like a badly cracked concrete member.
If it is temporarily supported and a tensile force is applied, the "beam will fail by the
books dropping out along the discontinuities. Fig.2(b).
For the beam then to function properly a compression force must be applied Fig.2(c).
The beam is then "pre stressed" with forces acting in an opposite direction to those
induced by loading.
The effect of the longitudinal pre stressing force is thus to produce pre-compression in
the beam before external downward loads are applied. The application of the external
downward load merely reduces the proportion of pre compression acting in the tensile
zone of the beam.
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DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT
In the ancient period, stones and bricks were extensively used. These materials are strong in
compression, but weak in tension.
For Tension : Bamboo and coir ropes
: Subsequently even iron and steel were used to resist tension
For Tension and Compression : Wood and structural steel members
IN RCC : Concrete resists compression and steel tension | PASSIVE COMBINATION

IN PRE STRESSED CONCRETE : Both concrete and steel are combined in such a way that they
resist compression and tension both. | ACTIVE COMBINATION
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WIRES AND STRANDS
The development of pre stressed concrete was influenced by the invention of high strength
steel. It is an alloy of iron, carbon, manganese and optional materials.
Wires
A pre stressing wire is a single unit made of steel. The nominal diameters of the wires are
2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.0 and 8.0 mm. The different types of wires are as follows :
1)Plain wire: No indentations on the surface.

2) Indented wire: There are circular or elliptical indentations on the surface.
Strands
A few wires are spun together in a helical form to form a pre stressing strand. The different
types of strands are as follows :
1) Two-wire strand: Two wires are spun together to form the strand.
2) Three-wire strand: Three wires are spun together to form the strand.
3) Seven-wire strand: In this type of strand, six wires are spun around a central wire. The
central wire is larger than the other wires.
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TENDONS
Tendons
A group of strands or wires are placed together to form a pre stressing tendon. The
tendons are used in post-tensioned members. The following figure shows the cross
section of a typical tendon. The strands are placed in a duct which may be filled with
grout after the post-tensioning operation is completed
Cross-section of a typical tendon
Cables
A group of tendons form a pre stressing cable. The cables are used
in bridges.
Bars
A tendon can be made up of a single steel bar. The diameter of a bar is much larger
than that of a wire. Bars are available in the following sizes: 10, 12, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28
and 32 mm.
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HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE
High Performance Concrete
With the advancement of concrete technology, high performance concrete is getting
popular in pre stressed applications. The attributes of high performance concrete are as
follows:
1) High strength
2) Minimum shrinkage and creep
3) High durability
4) Easy to cast
5) Cost effective.
Some special types of high performance concrete are as follows :
1) High strength concrete

2) High workability concrete
3) Self-compacting concrete
4) Reactive powder concrete
5) High volume fly ash concrete
6) Fiber reinforced concrete
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SOURCE OF PRESTRESSING FORCE
Based on Source of Pre stressing Force
Hydraulic Pre stressing

This is the simplest type of pre stressing, producing large pre stressing forces. The hydraulic
jack used for the tensioning of tendons, comprises of calibrated pressure gauges which
directly indicate the magnitude of force developed during the tensioning.
Mechanical Pre stressing

In this type of pre stressing, the devices includes weights with or without lever transmission,
geared transmission in conjunction with pulley blocks, screw jacks with or without gear
drives and wire-winding machines. This type of pre stressing is adopted for mass scale
production.
Electrical Pre stressing

In this type of pre stressing, the steel wires are electrically heated and anchored before
placing concrete in the moulds. This type of pre stressing is also known as thermo-electric
pre stressing.
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EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL PRE STRESSING
Based on External or Internal Pre stressing
External Pre stressing
o When the pre stressing is achieved by elements located outside the concrete, it is called
external pre stressing.
o The tendons can lie outside the member (for example in I-girders or walls) or inside the
hollow space of a box girder.
o This technique is adopted in bridges and strengthening of buildings
External pre stressing of a box girder (VSL Internal pre stressing of a box girder
International Ltd.) (Cochin Port Trust, Kerala)
Internal Pre stressing

o When the pre stressing is achieved by elements located inside the concrete member
(commonly, by embedded tendons), it is called internal pre stressing.
o Most of the applications of pre stressing are internal pre stressing.
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PRE TENSIONING AND POST TENSIONING
Pre-tensioning
The tension is applied to the tendons before casting of the concrete. The pre-compression is
transmitted from steel to concrete through bond over the transmission length near the
ends. The following figure shows manufactured pre-tensioned electric poles.
Pre-tensioned electric poles Post-tensioning of a box girder

(The Concrete Products and Construction (Courtesy: Cochin Port Trust, Kerala)
Company, COPCO, Chennai)
Post-tensioning
The tension is applied to the tendons (located in a duct) after hardening of the concrete.
The pre-compression is transmitted from steel to concrete by the anchorage device (at
the end blocks). The following figure shows a post-tensioned box girder of a bridge.
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LINEAR AND CIRCULAR PRESTRESSING
Linear Pre stressing
When the pre stressed members are straight or flat, in the direction of pre stressing, the
pre stressing is called linear pre stressing. For example, pre stressing of beams, piles,
poles and slabs. The profile of the pre stressing tendon may be curved. The following
figure shows linearly pre stressed railway sleepers.
Linearly pre stressed railway sleepers Circularly pre stressed containment structure, Kaiga
(The Concrete Products and Construction Company, Atomic Power Station, Karnataka
COPCO, Chennai)
Circular Pre stressing

When the pre stressed members are curved, in the direction of pre stressing, the pre
stressing is called circular pre stressing. For example, circumferential pre stressing of
tanks, silos, pipes and similar structures. The following figure shows the containment
structure for a nuclear reactor which is circularly pre stressed
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PRE TENSIONING
o Pre-tensioning is the application, before casting, of a tensile force to high tensile steel
tendons around which the concrete is to be cast.
o When the placed concrete has developed sufficient compressive strength a compressive
force is imparted to it by releasing the tendons, so that the concrete member is in a
permanent state of pre stress.
The various stages of the pre-tensioning operation are summarized as follows.

1)Anchoring of tendons against the end
abutments
2) Placing of jacks
3) Applying tension to the tendons
4) Casting of concrete
5) Cutting of the tendons.
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PRE TENSIONING
Advantages of Pre-tensioning
The relative advantages of pre-tensioning as compared to post-tensioning are as follows:
Pre-tensioning is suitable for precast members produced in bulk.

In pre-tensioning large anchorage device is not present.
Disadvantages of Pre-tensioning
The relative disadvantages are as follows :
A pre stressing bed is required for the pre-tensioning operation.

There is a waiting period in the pre stressing bed, before the concrete attains sufficient
strength.
There should be good bond between concrete and steel over the transmission length.
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EXAMPLE
Manufacturing of Pre-tensioned Railway Sleepers
1.The steel strands are stretched in a stress bench that can be moved on rollers. The
stress bench can hold four moulds in a line. [a]
2.The anchoring device holds the strands at one end of the stress
Bench. [b]
3.In the other end, two hydraulic jacks push a plate where the
strands are anchored.[c] and [d]
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4.Meanwhile the coarse and fine aggregates are batched, mixed with cement, water and
additives in a concrete mixer. [e] and [f]
5.The stress bench is moved beneath the concrete mixer. The concrete is poured
through a hopper and the moulds are vibrated. [g] and [h]
6.After the finishing of the surface, the stress bench is placed in a steam curing chamber
for a few hours till the concrete attains a minimum strength. [i]
7.The stress bench is taken out from the chamber and the strands are cut. The sleepers
are removed from the moulds and stacked for curing in water. After the complete
curing, the sleepers are ready for dispatching.[j] , [k] , [l] and [m]
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POST TENSIONING
Post-tensioning
o Post-tensioning is the application of a compressive force to the concrete at some point in time
after casting.
o When the concrete has gained strength a state of pre stress is induced by tensioning steel
tendons passed through ducts cast into the concrete, and locking the stressed tendons with
mechanical anchors. The tendons are then normally grouted in place.
The various stages of the post-tensioning

operation are summarized as follows.
1) Casting of concrete.
2) Placement of the tendons.
3) Placement of the anchorage block
and jack.
4) Applying tension to the tendons.
5) Seating of the wedges.
6) Cutting of the tendons.
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POST TENSIONING
Advantages of Post-tensioning
The relative advantages of post-tensioning as compared to pre-tensioning are as follows:
Post-tensioning is suitable for heavy cast-in-place members.

The waiting period in the casting bed is less.
The transfer of pre stress is independent of transmission length.
Disadvantage of Post-tensioning
The relative disadvantage of post-tensioning as compared to pre-tensioning is the requirement

of anchorage device and grouting equipment.
25-11-2016 311
EXAMPLES
Manufacturing of Post-tensioned Bridge Girders
1.The fabricated steel reinforcement with the ducts for the tendons placed inside.[a]
2. After the concrete is cast and cured to gain sufficient strength, the tendons are passed
through the ducts[b]
3.The tendons are anchored at one end and stretched at the other end by a hydraulic
jack. [c]
25-11-2016 312
EXAMPLES
4.The fabricated steel reinforcement with the ducts for the tendons placed inside. The
top flange will be constructed later. [a]
5.The second photo shows the formwork in the pre-casting yard. The formwork for the
inner sides of the webs and the flanges is yet to be placed.[b]
6.A girder is being post-tensioned after adequate curing. [c]
7.The next photo shows a crane on a barge that transports a girder to the bridge site.
The completed bridge can be seen in the last photo. [d] and [e]
25-11-2016 313
CONNECTIONS
25-11-2016 314
ADVANTAGES OF PRE STRESSING
Advantages of Pre stressing
The pre stressing of concrete has several advantages as compared to traditional reinforced
concrete (RC) without pre stressing. A fully pre stressed concrete member is usually
subjected to compression during service life. This rectifies several deficiencies of concrete.
The following text broadly mentions the advantages of a pre stressed concrete member
with an equivalent RC member. For each effect, the benefits are listed.
1) Section remains uncracked under service loads
-- Reduction of steel corrosion
Increase in durability.
-- Full section is utilized
Higher moment of inertia (higher stiffness)
Less deformations (improved serviceability).
-- Increase in shear capacity.
-- Suitable for use in pressure vessels, liquid retaining structures.
-- Improved performance (resilience) under dynamic and fatigue loading.
2) High span-to-depth ratios

Larger spans possible with pre stressing (bridges, buildings with large column-free spaces)
Typical values of span-to-depth ratios in slabs are given below.
25-11-2016 315
ADVANTAGES
For the same span, less depth compared to RC member.
Reduction in self weight
More aesthetic appeal due to slender sections
More economical sections.
3) Suitable for precast construction The advantages of precast construction are as follows.
Rapid construction
Better quality control
Reduced maintenance
Suitable for repetitive construction
Multiple use of formwork
Reduction of formwork
Availability of standard shapes.
Limitations of Pre stressing
Although pre stressing has advantages, some
aspects need to be carefully addressed.
Pre stressing needs skilled technology. Hence, it
is not as common as reinforced concrete.
The use of high strength materials is costly.
There is additional cost in auxiliary equipments.
There is need for quality control and inspection
25-11-2016 316
EXAMPLES
25-11-2016 317

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ARC 1033: Structure System and Design

Fourth Year, First Semester

COL VIRENDRA KUMAR MALIK (Retd) (SECTION C&D)

Sushant School of Art and Architecture

ELEMENTS WHICH CARRY PURELY AXIAL LOAD ARE SUBJECTED TO AXIAL

BASIC RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LOADS AND STRUCTURAL

A TENSION / TENSILE FORCE CAUSE A MEMBER OF STRUCTURE TO BE

A TORSION / TORSIONAL FORCE CAUSE A MEMBER TO BE TWISTED.

A SHEAR FORCE CAUSE A MEMBER TO SLIDE/TILT TO A SIDE.

A BENDING FORCE IS A COMPLEX FORCE STATE ASSOCIATED WITH THE BOWING

The shear force at any location is the amount

The bending moment at a location in an

The shapes of bending moment, shear force

SP 38 HANDBOOK FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS.

SP:7 HAND BOOK FOR NATIONAL BUILDING CODE.(GROUP2, CHAPTER 6)

SP:16 HANDBOOK FOR CONCTRETE STRUCTURES.

IS: 456 CODE OF PRACTICE FOR PLAIN & RCC STRUCTURES.

IS: 1893 CRITERIA FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN OF STRUCTURES.

II) THE GRADES OF CONCRETE HAVE BEEN CLASSIFIED IN FOLLOWING

III) THE MINIMUM GRADE OF CONCRETE FOR PLAIN AND REINFORCED

THE PURPOSE OF BUILDING STRUCTURE

The richness of structures can only be suggested by the wealth of building

Building STRUCTURE as support (local and global scale)

Structure holds the building up so it does not collapse or deform excessively;

BUILDING and STRUCTURE are inseparable and intimately related to each

necessity for structures to maintain their shape. SAFETY is a basic

Vector active structures redirect external forces primarily through the

Every building consists of the load-bearing structure and the non-load-

The main load bearing structure, in turn, is subdivided into:

Support structures may be classified as,

Horizontal-span structure systems:

Vertical building structure systems:

LOADS: gravity, lateral loads (wind, seismic)

FORCE FLOW: -- path to the ground where foundations make the

RESPONSE OF STRUCTURE TO LOADING

Vertical gravity force flow

Vertical gravity force

Horizontal gravity force

RECTANGULAR GRIDS RADIAL GRIDS

SQUARE GRIDS TARTAN GRIDS

STRUCTURE as ordering system, it functions as a spatial and dimensional

Beijing Jian Wai SOHO Beijing, Riken Yamamoto

STRUCTURE as form giver: it defines the spatial configuration and

Roman aqueduct, Segovia, Spain

Palau de les Arts, Valencia Opera House, 2005, Santiago

WEIGHT IS LIABILTY IN SEISMIC DESIGN BUT USED

Long span structures are today widely applied

The state of the art trend on widespan

Hybrid structures Convertible roofs

A truss is essentially a triangulated

DIAGONAL BRACING X- BRACING V- BRACING

Miami marine stadium Florida Cross laminate timber panel

Fibre reinforced composite Folded plate steel roof in palm spring

Types of Folded Structure

Folded plate surfaces structures

The Application of Folded

Church of Notre Dame

As Roof Structure As Wall Structure

Foundation Pit With

As Floor Structure As Steel Sheet Piles

ARC 1519: COL V K MALIK

ARC 1519: COL V K MALIK

-Composite materials are engineered Composites can be classified