CONTENTS

Page

Regulations 1
Flying control systems 4
Primary flying controls 8
Control system components 14
Tabs 28
Balancing of controls 37
Ailerons 43
1' Tailplanes-,
Fnreplanesn --

Spoilers I I

Flaps I
Slats/slots
vortex generators
wing fenbes I
I
Saw tooth leading edge I
Fixed spoilers .
Canard configuration 1
Delta a g e d aircraft 1
Butterfly tailplarie
Jntegrd @st-locks . -

Control position indication

Flying control rigging
Rigging equipment
 REGULATIONS

This section might be more easily understood if you read (and understand) the
rest of this book first and read the book 'PFCUs and Autopilots'. Even if you do
read it now it is worth a second read after completion of the two books.

Requirements are published to cover all aspects of airframe design in EASA

Certification Specifications CS 25 (large aircraft) and EASA CS 23 (srnaI1
aircraft).Here we will concentrate on the control systems of large aircraft.

Control Surfaces

M u s t meet the airborne and ground gust loads specified for the airframe. Must
be fitted with control stops and hinges and must have a factor of safety of 6.67
of the ultimate bearing strength.

I '
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For the lateral, longitudinal, ditectional cbntrol of the
control systems - the support structure mqst have a factor
the control surface maximum r k m e n t lbad.
I_ - --__
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The sy;stLmmust operate easili, smoothljr &d be positive
control $tops fitted and should bd design&@ 40 prevent
objects. t I
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I t shoulcl-be-so designed as to:mirilmjse-the possibility of incorrect assembly
and must be capable of continued operation if:

I) A single failure of a hydraulic, mechanical or structural element

occurs.
2) Dual electrical or hydraulic systems fail.
3) R jam occurs in the system.
4) The system experiences a run-away powered flight control.

With the system operating at 80% specific limit load and on 100% powered
load there should be:

a) No jamming.
b) No excessive deflection.
c) No excessive friction.
Struct u r d deflection should not affect the system adversely.

Minimum and maximum forces are specified for the pilot's input and minimum
forces specified when pilots are operating in opposition on duaI control
systems,

moodullIA-2
Rotary Control Joints

Must have a factor of safety of 3.3with a push/pull rod system and a factor of
safety of 2.0 with a cable system.

Cable System

Cables used on aileron, elevator and rudder must not be smaller than 0.125"
(3.17mm) diameter.

Tensions must be kept reasonably constant.

Pulleys must be fitted with guards to prevent cable displacement or fouling.

A cable m u s t not change direction more than 3" after passing through a
fairlead.
I - --

of t h e cable system m u s t have access for inspection.

~~ekified-m.rts
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G u s t Lo'cks '
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Must bd
, , fitted to a specificatioi andprovision made that they:

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not possible.

Trim Systems

M u s t meet minimum input force standards with loadings specified for:

a) Trirntabs.
b) Balance tabs,
c) Servo tabs.

They must operate in the correct sense and be designed to prevent abrupt
changes of aircraft trim. Flight deck indications must be provided and the tab
must be irreversible unless it is a balance tab.

Stability Augmentation

(This is Active Stability as fitted to some systems of some aircraft). Can be de-
activated or overridden by the pilot without affecting safe control of the aircraft.
It must be provided with a failure warning system.
Configuration (Config) Warning

An aural warning is provided if, during the take-off run,the aircraft is not
correctly configured. The configuration to include:

1 Flap position,
2) Slat position.
3) Spoiler position.
4) Wheel brake configuration.
5) Tailplane position (tailplane/stabiliser not in the green area).

The warning to be cancelled by either:

a) Changing the incorrectly selected system.

b) Abandoning take-off.
c) Aircraft rotation.
d) Pilot de-activation.

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Wing Flaps and High Lift ~ e v i c d s1

Minimum loads are speciiied wi(h factois

landing conditions. I -.
.
Lf for take-

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Lift ani drag devices must be skl ctabldby

9
they a f designed
~ t o be used on1the ground *here provision n h s t be made to
prevent inadverteht flight operatidn. I
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Flight deck'indication must be-pro~ided'withwarnings of asynirnetrical

-
operation of a symmetrical system reg flgps and slats).

Wing flaps must have a synchronising system strong enough to prevent

asymmetric operation occurring with one side completely jammed and the
other side under full operating power.

blank
 FLYING CONTROL SYSTEMS

In order to allow the pilot to control the aircraft in the air flying control systems
are fitted. These consist of moveable surfaces fitted to the trailing edges of the
fin (rudder),tailpIane (elevators) and mainplanes (ailerons). These are called
Primary Flying Controls and are connected via a control system to the pilot's
controls in the cockpit or flight deck. The controls must be instinctive and
work in the correct sense.

Other flying controls include; tabs, moveable tailplanes, spoilers and rarely,
moveable outer wings similar to moveable tailplanes.

Note. In some books tailplanes are called stabilisers.

Instinctive

The,flying controls are said to-be instinctive. This means that when the pilot
pushes the control column f o r w a d t h e aircraft dives or pitches nose down;
when bd/she pulls the control column back the aircraft climbs or pitches nose
n pilot moves the control column, or hand wheel left the aircraft
up. ~ h k the
rolls to fhe left; when he/she &oves the control column, or hand wheel right
the aircraft rolls to the right. $hen the pilot pushes his/her left foot forward on
the rudder bar the aircraft tuds to -the.left;when the right foot is pushed
fonvaid the aircraft turns right. a

Sense:

The control surfaces should move 5 the correct relationship to the control
column or rudder bar. This is called correct SENSE (see Table 1).

Elevators

Hinged t o the trailing edge of the tailplane and connected to the control
column. Movement of the elevator gives longitudinal control about the lateral
axis. May be interconnected with the tailplane.

Rudder

Hinged to the trailing edge of the fin and connected to the rudder bar.
Movement of the rudder gives directional control about the vertical axis.
 Ailerons

Hinged surfaces on the trailing edges of the mainplanes. Movement of the

ailerons gives lateral control about the longitudinal axis.

On many civil aircraft are interconnected with the spoilers. May also be split
into inboard and outboard ailerons with the inboard only operating at high
speed.

CONTROL Arrows show the pilot puling

the control column backwards
COLUMN and the elevator moving up to
cause the alrcran to climb.

/-\ -
CONTROL CABLES
PIVOT

'

-
\
PIVOT,'
4 I
.-

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-..\ - -ELEVATOR
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COGRPIT CONT;ROE 1 CONTROL SURFACE I 1 EFFECT
M ~ V- E M Eu M T ~ V E M E N ~ i j
Control col~imnpulled Elevator hove& up, ~irflod hits]the control
surfat -midproduces a
downward force, this is
transferred to the tailplane
causing t h e taiI to go dawn
I and the nose to go up.
Control column pushed 1 Elevator moves down. Similar to the above but in
forward. the opposite direction.
Control column or handwheel Ailerons. Left one up. Right The up going aileron (ont h e
moved to the left. one down. down going wing) experiences
a down force, which pushes
the wing down. The down
I I I going aileron experiences an I
I I I upward force therefore 1
pushing the right wing up.
Control column or handwheel Ailerons. Ri&t one up. Left Similar to the above but in
I to the right.
- I one down. - I the opposite
- direction. 1
Rudder pedals. Right foot I Rudder to the right. 1 The airflow pushes on t h e 1
forward. rudder producing a force to
the left, this pushes the tail to
the left and the nose of t h e
aircraft to the right.
Rudder pedals. Left foot Rudder to the left. Similar to the above but in
I forward. I t h e opposite direction. 1

-5-
rnoodull l A-6
 -
Arrows show pilot's right faot forward
and rudder movement to the right and
RUDDER BAR aircraft flying right. CONTROL RUDDER
CABLES
<
1
PIVOT 41

1 1 \
S + PIVOT

Fig. 2 A SIMPLE RUDDER CONTROL SYSTEM

SHOWING CORRECT SENSE

Arrows show conhol column movement to the

left with the leil (port) alleron moving up and the
right (starboard)alleron moving down and the

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CONTROL atrcrafl banking keft. RIGHT
COLUMN AILERON

-
1-
CONT~OL~
CABLES .
\:
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Fig. 3 A SIMPLEAICERQN CONTROL SYSTEM

SHOWING CORRECT SENSE
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A Typical Large ,Commercial ~ i r c r a f -t Introduction
, - .

The following is a brief description of the flying controls and lift augmentation/
drag systems of a typical large aircraft. For more detailed information you
should refer to other sections within this book and refer to t h e book in this
series 'PFCUs and Autopilots'. Of course, for specific information on an
aircraft's control system you should refer to the aircraft's AMM.

Elevator

Hydraulically powered and controlled by a dual cable control system from the
flight deck. The system may have all er any of the following: artificial feel,
autopilot servo, stj ck shaker/ stick push, disconnect detents and cable tension
regulators.

Tailplane

Usually trimable using a hydraulic or electric motor with standard trim and
Mach trim inputs. May have elevator inputs.
Rudder

Hydraulically powered and controlled by a cable system from the flight deck.
Usually fitted with yaw dampers, artificial feel, cable tension regulators,
autopilot servos and may have speed related range limiting devices.

Ailerons

May be organised to droop for take-off and landing (called flaperons [flaps and
ailerons] on the B777)to provide more lift and are interconnected with the
spoilers (asymmetric operation) to provide better roll control. Are powered
hydraulically a d operated by cables from the flight deck. Will usually have
autopilot input, artificial feel and cable tension regulators.

All the above controls wiIl normally have automatic provision to give indication
on the flight deck of their position and warning systems in the event of major
component failure (Powered Flying Con.@ol Units PFCUs etc)., . ---
--
,--- . , -

Spoilers I
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~ ~ d r a u l i k apowered
ll~ t o opera the flight or ground mode( ~esi&eklto
create drhg and dump lift when,operated: .._ _-
I I I 0 -

Slats
, ,
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Fitted to thii leading edge of the rnainpl[mes, are usually hy&hlically powered
and symmZScZlly operated to create lift and increase the 'stdifig angle.

Leading Edge or Kruegar Flaps

Often used at locations inboard of the inboard engines and may be

pneumatically powered. Symmetrically operated t o give the same affect as
slats.

Flaps

Usually of the Fowler variable area type. Are symmetrically operated to

increase lift (andincrease drag).
 RUDDER

STARBOARD (RIGHT1AILERON

OUYBOARD FLAP

GROUND SPOILER

FLIGHT SPOILERS

-
1 GRWWD SPOILER

w LWMWG EDGE
FLAPS i

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I PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS
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control Surface f i e o r y
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a
The control surface is said t o work by combination of two theories - the mean
camber line theory and the force theory.

a) M e a n Camber Line Theory

When the control surface moves it alters the Mean Camber Line of the
main surface to which it is attached. This alters the lift on that surPace
and it is caused to move up or down in the airflow.

NEW MEAN CAMBER

UNE WITH CONTROL
SURFACE DEFLECTED EXTRA LIFT FORCE

CONTROL
SURFACE
2
1

AEROFOlt

Fig. 5 MEAN CAMBER LINE THEORY

-8-
moodull IA-9
b) Force Theory

When the surface moves into the airflow it experiences an aerodynamic

loading, if it is held in that position then a component of this load (thc
vertical component) is transmitted to the main swface of the aircraft
which will move in that direction. The horizontal component is drag.

D W G FORCE
EFFECTIVE CONTROL \
FORCE ON AIRCRAFT

\TOTAL

Fig. 6 FORCE THEORY USING VECTORS

1 \ '
Movemerit of the pilot's control$ i i transmit'fed to the contrdl surfaces by a
system of rods or cables,or a conibinatioh df both. Chains dvir sprockets a r e
I
also used. The system must tranqpit the/'c&trol surface lo<di,ngback to the
. .
pilot (onhon-powered systems)'II ,.
.-/'
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On some aircraft, such as the 320 and $77, transmission o:f cont/rol signals
4
to the (pdwered) control surfaces l1s via a cbquterised fly-bb-+ire system. The
flight deck contrbi movement istrwsducq'd ihto an electricdl dimd, sent to a
computer, digitiskd, processed h a the resuit is an analoguk $&trical signal
sent to s i g d a hydraulically p .d -~ k ~ d to" move
. F ~ the
~ aohtrbl
~I surface. More
A I

of this latcr in module 1 1.

O n some aircraft a fly-by-light system is used (also computerised).

These systems are covered in t h e book PFCUs and Autopilots.

There are two basic types of mechanical systems:

a) Rod System

Light alloy push-pull rods, supported by idling links, bell cranks, roller
bearings or graphite impregnated bushes, form a simple rigid link system
which is free from backlash. Changes in direction of the control run are
obtained by the use of bell crank levers or torque tubes. The rods provide
both a push and pull input. Not often used as a complete system, but
push / pull rods are used in cabIe systems. Figure 7 shows an example a
rod system - it's not a civil aircraft but it does show that the system is
used on some aircraft.
 ARTIFICIAL PEEL

COMf ROL

FEEL UNIT

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r - ~ g'7.
--
r ; --"~ -
I

~ A---------
A-
r ur. pruanj,----
- - --- --
ruhb
ma---

KUU ~ ~ W K E ~ Y L
(ENGLISH ELECTREC LIGHTNING)
; !

b) ,Cable System (figures 8, 9 & 10)

I i
~bn-corrodibleextra fle$blehgh tensile steel cables; tensioned to
ieQrninate lag, farm an efcective continuous loop over pulleys and
!quadrants so as to provide1 a pull iri either direction. Each length of cable
]has end fiitings swaged in position, some of which are drilled and tapped
'to'accommodate turnbuckles used t o tension the cable sun.
- - -- - .. - .

On long straight runs tie rods may replace cables. The cables are
supported on pulleys and fair-leads and pulleys are used to change the
direction of the cable run.These pulleys and fair-leads must be kept
clean to reduce system static friction. The cable systcms are usually
duplicated with 'port and starboard' systems interconnected via
'disconnect' rods that will disconnect should one side jam.

Cable systems are used on most aircraft.

For more details on cables the reader is referred t o J A R (EASA) modules

6 a n d 7.

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 AILERON SERVO Wes
1. The system I r nrm-pcwered servo tab operated.
2, rhsarmwsshwfhe movementc4 the systam Iar a bank
to the IM lcorrecl sense), m t h each servo lab movlng In
the opposlte dlrectlon l o 11% respect& conlrol surface.
8. Study the syalem and nMe Ihe rorlowlng'
(a) CaMe lenslm icglualors.
(b] Auto pllot servo <onel.
(c) The dctenl strut
1 d ) ~ h balance
e cables.
{e) Ttwdtsconnwt devke.
(f) 7 he Catlm pressure reals.

DISCONNECT

CABCETEHSWN

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+)

Fig. 8 EXAMP~EOF A ' \ C ~ L OPERAT

E D:
AILERON CONTROL S*~SITEM- BAe 14'6i i
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Figure8showsthe aileron system of the--BAe146. The ailerons kre operated
via servo tabs (see later sections in this book). The system is cable operated
and shows a commanded role to the left (left servo tab down - right aileron up).
[If you are not sure about this read on, and after studying the section on tabs
you may care to re-read this section again.1

The cables are routed from cable tension regulators via pulleys, pressure seals,
gearing and push /pull rods to the ailerons. Because the ailerons are senro tab
operated there is no need to fit powered flying control units - and therefore no
need to have artificial feel.

There is one autopilot servo.

There is an interconnect or balance cable ensuring that when one aileron goes
up the other goes down.

There is a detent strut fitted between the pilot's and co-pilot's controls so that if
one side jams the other side can still be moved. Control is not so effective but
there is still some lateral control.
 PRIMARY STOPS

DATUM a ARTIFlClAL
P E L SWllNQ STRUT

TRIM EeARBOR

1
DAMPERS

hte-ma fdluwlng testumm:

1. Thcwmrrable r a w d mwsment u m h a stepped
z;G=p:G ,:
:& a =:. * 2 : ~ *k:>-:
Increases so the range aI rmnrarnerrt ~CCFESSFS.
2. The prrrnary and secondary stops.
3. 7lw1arrows ind~calrngthe mrrrct senSC*rlM Ihe
rtghr Toot forward the n ~ l l d mows
~r right
4. TIIP d~rpllcatedyaw dnrnpar*.
6. Thc rlupHcatcd PFCUs,

CONNECTKmS

Fig. 9 RUDDER CABLE SYSTEM -W e 14'6

Figure 9 shows t h e rudder system for the same aircraft - again cable operated
using cable tension regulators, pulleys and thc cables passing through
pressure bulkhead seals.

The system is power operated using duplicated PFCUs and duplicate yaw
dampers.

Note the primary and secondary stops with a mechanism (Qpot) to reduce the
range of movement as the speed increases.

Figure 10 shows the elevator cable system as fitted to a Boeing aircraft.

Note the triplication of the PFCUs and autopilot servos. Thesc arc all fed from
three: separate hydraulic systems and can work individually if necessary - but
with reduced authority.

Take a few moments and study the drawing - make sure you understand how
it works.
 Note:
1. Three PFCUs per elevator with a separate
hydraulic supply f o r each.
CONTROL COLUMN 2. The overload device at each PFCU input.
OVERRIDE 3. The control column override.
f
STALL WARNING 4. The stick nudger operated by the stall
MODULE warning module.
5. The stick shakers also operated by the
ANGLE OF ATTACK
FLAPISL4T POSITION stall warning rnodulc.
8. T h m N P servos each powered by a
separate hydraulic system.
7. The artificialfeel controlled by the feel
computer.
AUTOMATIC FLIGHT
)
CONTROL COMPUTER ( 8 )
I 1

Ill 1 - 1 W-H- DYNAMICQ PRESSURElNPUT (2)

STAWLER POSITION IYPCrr (2)

A W I L O T PITCH
CONTROL SERVO (3)

WWER CONTROL W V E IMERCONNECT

ACTUATORS(5) CABLE
AFT QUADRANT OVERRIDE
SnCK NUDGER
OVERRIDE MECH#JIISM
SLAVE CABLE .<#..--"-'-'

. . .. .
-

Most aircraft have a combination system of pushlpull rods and cables. The
push/pulI rods are used for the shorter runs (under the flight deck, in the
tailplane etc) and cables are used for the longer mns - down the fuselage,
along the wings etc.

Advantages of Cable Systems

The overall advantages of a cable system over a rod system a r e that they have a
better strength/weight ratio and are less expensive.

However, the structure of an aircraft is continually changing its length due to

temperature changes and since the expansion rate of aluminium alloy (a= 23 x
10-6) in the structure of the aircraft is nearly twice that of the steel (a.;: 1 5 x 10-
6) in the cables, cable tensions can vary considerably. (a= coefficient of linear
expansion).
QUESTION: Explain what would happen to the tension of n cable system
running dong the fuseIage without any automatic adjustment
when the aircraft increases altitude? (10 mins)

ANSWER: As t h e aircraft climbs so the ambient temperature reduces (as

low as -56°C if it climbs high enough). This will cause the
fuselage (and the rest of the structure) to contract in length
quicker than the cables, so the pulley hinge points get closer and
the cable tension reduces.

To overcome this problem requires cither very high tensions at ground level
settings (aswas used on some older aircraft) or the u s e of a tension regulator
in the cable system.

Most aircraft systems are now regulated by means of Cable Tension Regulators,
which give a retativeIy constant system tension irrespective of changes in
temperature resulting in much lower rigged tensions (more of this later).
- -..- -
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I CONTR~L'SYSTEMCOMPONENTS
i
These' include: I .. .

- --

Cables.
PushJpul.1rods.
BeIlcranks. :

,
I

Torque tubes.
Turnbuclcles.
-.

Cable connectors.
Fairleads.
Bulkhead seals.
Pulleys.
Cable tension regulators.
Quadrants.
Powered flying control units.
Artificial feel units.
Position traducers.
Position indicators.
Warning systems.
Autopilot servos.
Computers.
Stick shakers.
Stick nudgers.

This book will not cover d l the items in the list as some of them a r e in module
7 and in t h e books in this series on Avionic Systems m d Powered Flying
Control Systems - but together d l are covered.
Flight deck controls usually consist of a control column or control wheel and
rudder pedals. Where there are twin controls (pilot and co-pilot) they are
interconnected with a spring link Jdetent or automatic disconnect link so that if
one side jams the other can be operated.

On small aircraft disconnect/ spring links are not usually fitted.

On larger aircraft the control column is fitted with a 'stick shaker'. This is a
small electrical motor driving an out-of-balance wheel. When the aircraft
approaches the stalling angle the motor is operated to cause the stick to shake
and warn the pilot (with aural warnings as well). The warning signal comes
from an angle of attack vane fitted on the side of the fuselage.

On some aircraft a stick nudger may be fitted t o push the control column
forward when the aircraft approaches the stalling angle. The pilot can overcome
this if he / she wishes.

The rudder pedals are fitted with._an_adjustment mechanism-to-allow for

n t s11it the 1 ~ Im@h
~ d j i i s t m ~tn 3 pilnt. I-.
nf ench inrlivirl~~al
' :
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The handwheel may have contrbls fitted t b ii such as:

,I ,,
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a) ' Parking brake. , , I .

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b) Auto pilot switch . ., i

, ,-'
Intercom switch 1 ,
c)
1
\ ...,'
',, ',,
d) Elevator/tailplane tfih switch1 i i! !,

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control.
. -
Co~umn -,
..
..

.-- --
.
-. , I
, -.. .. . L . .-

Usually fitted with a chain, sprocket and cable system to transmit aileron
control inputs to the system and is connected under the floor to the elevator
control system.

On some aircraft (eg the A320) the control column has been replaced by a side
stick fitted to the left hand console (for the captain) and the right hand console
for the co-pilot. This is connected to the fly-by-wire transducers.

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- 15 -
moodull 1A-16
 AUf 0 PILOT CUTOUT & GO
AROUND BUTTON

AUTO PILOTIFLIGHT
DIRECTOR SYNC BUTT

INTERCOM SWlTC

OP SPROCKET

ELEVATOR
CABLES
TORQUE TUBE

/
/
I , 'AILERON CABLES

Fig. $1 CONTROL COLUMN

--.

Rudder 'Pedals I

May be bf the simple htdder bar' type or each pedal supported on separate
lever'mechanisms. The foot pedals are adjustable to cater for different leg
lengths and &e usually fitted S t h wheeI brake control foot motors.

RUDDER BAR ADJUSTER

SECONDARY
CONTROL STOPS

CABLES TO /
RUDDERCONTROL
SYSTEM

Fig. 12 RUDDER BAR

Detent or Disconnect Strut (Torque Limiter on the L- 1011)

Fitted on some aircraft where duplicate controls run from the flight deck to the
control surfaces. It is fitted between the pilot's and co-piIotYscontrols so that
should a jam occur on one system the other system can be operated normally -
after the detent strut has "broken out'. These break-out struts vary in design
but the following description is typical.

Figure 13 shows the detent s t r u t from the BAe 146 aileron control system. I t is
located under the flight deck floor and connects the pilot's control column to
the co-pilot's control column. Effectively it is a rigid link as the rollers are
forced into the detent grove by the action of the spring collet.

SLIDER

CaMTROC COLUMN
SmocnET LEVER

Fig. 13 THE DETENT STRUT OF THE BAe 146

If one side of the control system becomes jammed and the other side is
operated then [at a break out load of 35 lb force) the link 'breaks out'. This
allows one side of the system to be operated even though the other side is
jammed.

During this operation the inner shaft is allowed to slide in and out of the outer
shaft as the rollers have been forced out of their detent positions.

The break out of the strut operates a microswitch on the strut that releases the
disconnect device on the aileron balance /interconnecting cable circuit, allowing
movement of either aileron.

Stick Shaker

This may be initiated by a:

--a)._
_ Leading edge stall warning vane.
' b ) Rotating angle of-attack probe.
Ic) Trailing angle of attack vane.
1 I
Theseiday operate the stick sh&r and Stick pusher directly v i a a micro
switch (A),or v i a the DADC (~istal
Air Data Computer) (b)and (c).
-.
' i
The stick shaker is an electric mbtor driving an out-of-balancewheel attached
t o the,cpntrol column, or closejby on the system. When it is switched on, just
before the stalling angle (12" to 1,4"with a "clean" wing), t h e out-of-balance
I
wheel1 causes the control column:to shake, warning the pilot of an impending
-
stall.--- -
.. -. ..- - . --

Stick Pusher

If the pilot ignores the stick shaker and the angle of attack increases still
further, then the stick pusher system is activated.

This system operates a device, which is connected to the elevator control

system. This gives a positive push to the control column and causes the
aircraft to pitch nose down when the system is activated. It c a n be overridden
by the pilot, if necessary, by the operation of a switch, which on the pneumatic
system releases the pressure in the supply line to the jack. Even if this f d s
the system is so arranged that the pilot can manually overcome the force of the
jack,if necessary, by pulling on the control column. When not supplied with
pressure the jack moves freely when the controls are moved.

The pneumatic system i s supplied with air pressure from a tapping on the jet
engine via the pneumatic system (typically 40psi).

- 18-
rnooduli1A-19
The system usually has the following inputs:
t
Airspeed switch. Increases speed of operation with reduced
airspeed.
* Stick shaker relay, which receives the signal from the angle of
attack indicator probe.
v
Flap and slat position. The deployment of these will affect the
stalling angle.

Figure 14 shows the stall warning system for the BAe 146. Note the following
inputs /outputs:
* Weight on wheels (squat)switch.
* Flap position.
* Test.
* Power supplies.
* Airspeed.
* - Fail.
, , , .... ,
I I
, 8

. --, ,

I '
A& AIRFLOW SmlSOR VANE
POSlTlON
..p-.2

FAIL I------
-SIGNAL---- - - -
SUMMlNG UNIT - QOA SIGNAL

AIRSPEED TRANSDUCER
ONE CHANNEL SHOWN
THERE ARE TWO CHANNaS
PER SYSTEM
AIRSPEED TRANSDUCER

AOA AIRFLOW SENSOR VANE

POSITION
SIGNAL VANE EXCITATION
WARM SUMMlNG
AOA SIGNAL

FLAP INPUT

Fig. 14 STALL WARNING CIRCUIT - BAe 146

- 19 -
rnoodulll A-20
Control Stops

Usualtlly adjustable and fitted to the front and rear of each system and will
control the range of movement of the system. Primary control stops are fitted to
the control surface end of the system while secondary control stops are fitted to
the cockpit or flight-deck end of the system. On some aircraft the range of
movement is progressively reduced as the speed of the aircraft is increased -
the BAe 146 rudder system for example. This is achieved by automatic
moveable control stops or Iimiters that are controlled by either a computer
(having airspeed data) or from an airspeed module (see figure 9).

Fig. 15
I--
CONTROL STOPS
I

, I I
i
chains knd Sprockets I

cables hay go around a pulley or be connected to the pulley end fittings. The
cable may terninate at a chain fitting - usually a turnbuckle - and the chain
passed around a sprocket. This provides a positive drive to the sprocket.
Chains may be of the 'non-reversible type', which means that they are so
designed that they cannot be put on the sprocket the wrong way round.

1 %' EKwULL CHAIN

NSlON ROD TYPE

NN ECTED TO

Fig. 16 SPROCKET & CHAW DETAIL

Wsh/ Pull Rod Support

Push/pull rods may be supported on idling links or various types of bearings.

Remember to keep the bearings clean and dry at all times. To change the
direction of the run a bell crank lever, torque tube or pulley is used.

PUSHIPULL ROD END DETAIL

PUSHIPULL
INSPECTION HOLE

RoLLER RACE (9) GRAPHWE LOCKNUT

IMPREGNATED
BUSH ADJUSTABLE END FITTING

Fig. 1 7 PUSW/PULL'RODS-=-SUPPORTS
& END-FI'l"rXNGS
-, . -
, ' , ,
', \,
, I
I , ,

! '

-9
I

- --'

, .

I
. ..
-' LA..

I - .. . .,

Fig, 18 BELL C W K LEVER

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE , SUPPORT

STRUCTURE
-
BBlNG STRIP

SUPPORT CLIP

Fig. 19 FAIRLEADS
Cable Support

Cables can be supported by pulleys and special quadrants where they can
change angular direction - without limit. Where little or no change in direction
is required various types of fairleads c a n be used. Fairleads are usually made
of composite material and must not be lubricated.

Pulleys

Made from fibre, plastic or metal and are used to give a more abrupt change of
direction of the cable run. Guards are usualIy fitted to retain the cable on the
pulley and often a cover t o keep out unwanted small items, which might foul
their operation.

SUPPORT BRACKET

'

,K, .
PULLEY
SUPPCF??

\
fE

. -

--. ... . .. .
Fig. 20 CABLE PULLEYS & GUARD PINS

QUADRANT
QUADRANT
PIVOT
AIRCRAFT

CABLE I
CABLE 2 ATTACHMENT
ATTACHMENT /

Fig. 21 CABLE QUADRANTS

- 22 -
moodul13 A-23
Turnbuckles

These may vary in design and commonly may be of the Barrel Rod type or the
Tension Rod type. I n general they all have a left hand thread at one end and a
right hand thread at the other. When the centre part is rotated - holding the
two cable ends to prevent them rotating - then the cable tension will either be
increase or decreased. It is important that, after adjustment and prior to wire
locking that the threads are in safeq.

For the barrel type turnbuckle that means that all the threads must be buried
in the barrel. For the tension rod type the threads must be screwed in deep
enough into the fork ends so that a piece of locking wire will not pass through
the inspection hole. The wire should be the same size as the inspection hole
and should not come out the other side.

BARREL
LOCKING WlRE

FORK END

I I
, ' I I

. BARREL ROD.+J!PE TURNBUCKLE

~ i g22 I I

L O ~ K I N G RE TYPE I i

Fig. 23 BARREL ROD TYPE TURNBUCKLE LOCKING CLIP TYPE -

THREAD RIGHT HAND THREAD LEFT HAND THREAD
INSPECTION HOLE
\ TENSION ROD /

FORK END
/
LOCKNUTS LOCKING WIRE

Fig. 24 TENSION ROD TYPE TURNBUCKLE

Note the various locking methods (figures 2 2 , 23 and 24). Some barrel rod
types are locked with locking wire in a figure-of-eight fashion, others have a
special Iocking clip. The tension rod type is locked with lock-nuts and locking
wire.

Cable Connectors

These are fitted to some cable systems at positions where the cables need to be
disconnected. Each half of the connector is keyed in such a way that it can
onIy be fitted back to its mating half. The connectors allow for quick cable
disconnect and re-connect without the possibility of connecting two wrong
cables together. They usually do not provide for any cable tension adjustment.

Torque Tubes

Used to change linear motion into rotary motion - or vice-versa.

.--
..

cable\Tension Regulators :
The dajority of modern aircrdt now use cable-operated systems for their flying
contrdd. This is due, in a large part; to the development of an efficient Cablc
1 7
Tensiori Regulator. : I
I
Cable tension regulators are mechanical devices and can be made in many
configurations, for example, quadrants, bell crank levers, pulleys etc . For the
purpose of a brief description, we will consider the quadrant type.
--- - -.

QUADRANT \ TEMPERATURE SCALE

Should be withln 5 degees
-
of actual temperature but
check AMM.

Fig. 25 CABLE TENSION REGULATOR

This consists of a pair of spring-loaded quadrants with a pointer scale for
recording the cable tensions. The cables are inserted through slots in the
recessed ends of the V grooved quadrants and the cable ends are secured at
the cable anchorages in each quadrant.

W h e n the cables are tightened equally (aswith the fuselage getting Ionger as
the aircraft descends) the quadrants rotate about the centre shaft and the links
pull the crosshead freely along the locking shaft, compressing the springs and,
ie effect tensioning the cables - or at least keeping the tensions correct.

When the aircraft climbs the fuselage contracts and the cables tend to slacken,
but the springs react against the crosshead and push the crosshead back
along the shaft, thus tightening the cables - or at least keeping them at the
correct tension.

- I 8 ! - i I - I '
1
CABLE TENSIONS: KEPT CONSTANT AS , CABI$ T E N S ~ N SKEPT CONST~NTAS
FUSELAGE TEMFERATURE DECREASES ' - FUSEIAGE GETS WARMER &'INCREASES
'aFUSELAGE GETS SHORTER - IN.LENGTH - -~
I

-
NO PlLOf 1NPUT CROSSHEAD MOVES
FREELY ON LOCKING SHAFF WlTH
SPRINGS MAINTAINING CABLE TENSIONS

PILOT INPUT - CROSSHEAD

TILTS AND LOCKS ON
LOCKING SHAFT & THE
uNrr BEHAVES AS A PULLEY

fig. 26 CABLE TENSION REGULATOR - OPERATION

W h e n a control load is applied by the pilot only one link will tend to move,
tilting the crosshead on its locking shaft (by a very small amount) and locking
it to the shaft, preventing movement of one quadrant relative to the other with
the whole system now acting as a pulley. Both quadrants are, therefore, locked
together and operate as a solid pulley until the control load is released.

Each tension regulator incorporates a scale and pointer, which provides a

visual tension indication. When rigging a regulated cable system therefore, a
tensiometer is not required, the cables being tensioned until the correct
reading is obtained on t h e regulator scde. The correct reading depends on the
ambient temperature and must be obtained from a special graph provided for
each regulator in the aircraft.

Pressure Bulkheads

On pressurised aircraft the control run will have to pass out of the pressurised
area to the un-pressurised side of the cabin or pressure hull.
-
--
I
-
--Ll-- "-
mi
I nus p vsrl/ pull rods,
\ - , ' I
it~~-+
L--L---
LUULB a- -l Al ~
L ~ V L illlist
a t:ii-~iigIi
~ ~ seals :G L ~ p
preveht #undueair leakage. The pressure bulkhead seal. must allow freedom of
moveLent, be sclf-aligning, require little or no maintenance - and provide a
good air seal.
# I
I
:
I
I
I

I TOBULKMEAD
I . PRESSURE SIDE
I I

-
- - . - - -. - -

Fig, 27 BELLOWS TYPE SEAL

One such device consists of a rubber or polymer bellows, which moves with the
control. This arrangement is used with control systems using twin cabIes (one
up and one down), as the cabin pressure acting on the bellows causes a load
on the control which must be balanced by an equal and opposite load on the
other cable.

This type of seal is self aIigning and completely airtight but does impose a load
into the system - particularly on the pulley bearings o n the pressure side of the
bulkhead.
 Fig. 28 GLAND TYPE SEAL

Alternative methods for control rods or cables include some form of gland
assembly. Several types have been developed all of which rely on packing rings
or silicon rubber composite t o provide the airtight joint. Remember, they
should be kept clean and not lubricated.

Improved-sealing is affectedif-the movement through the bulkhead is rotary

rather than linear (figure29).~ h e - ~ p i &rrangernent
~al ill6stred-consists of a
rubber seal, clipped to and rot&img with the control tube. ~ k pressure
r acting
i
I
. P
on the splayed outer end of the rhbber seal !forms an airtight j int.
I I '

The seBJ ;slides on a smooth rubbing plate fixed to the bulkhead.

--.

PRESSURE

Fig. 29 ROTATING SEAL

Powered Controls

The control surfaces of many modern aircraft are subjected to high

aerodynamic loads due to the airspeed and/or the size of the control surface.
These loads are often greater than the pilot can comfortably overcome and the
system must be powered.
I t is usual to power the control surfaces hydraulically, using hydraulic
pressure from the aircraft's hydraulic system to operate a jack the control vaIve
of which is moved by the pilot via t h e control system.

However, to ensure that the surface moves only when, and as far as the pilot
wants it to, a feedback from the jack to the control valve must be incorporated.
(Negative feed back) :).

The basic jack and control valve are incorporated in one unit called a Powered
Flying Control Unit (PFCU or PCUJ, and may contain the autopilot servo.

The usual type of PFCU feeds off an aircraft hydraulic system but there are
other types which are self-contained hydraulic systems requiring only electrical
power to drive their pump motors,

For more information on PFCUs see the book in this series entitled Powered
Flylng Controls and Autopilots.

-
FCC:S-J-Gtc;ns
I

when'a control system is fully Powered the pilot loses all sense of feel, since
the work is done hydraulically. As feel is essential for the pilot to fly the aircraft
properl-$ under adequate contrbl, it must be provided artificially.
I ,
I .. .-

The simplest form, a spring bok in the control run, supplies a constant feel
force iriespective,of air load variations,and 'is therefore not completely
satisfactory - but it is chcap. i
-. .
Another system measures dynamic pressbre (q)and therefore surface loading,
and varies the feel force accordingly. Feel force thereforc increases as speed
increases and vice versa and decreases with altitude and vice versa. I t is known
as a 'Q Feel System'. (Again, see the book in this series 'PFCUs and
Autopilots 7.

TABS

These are ancillay surfaces attached to the rear of the primary flying control
surfaces.

A control surface may have several different types of tab fitted to it and in some
cases more than one function may be built into one tab.Tabs can be fitted to
non-powered systems and tabs (balance & anti-balance) may be fitted t o same
powered flying control systems,

In general, tabs are designed so that if moved in one direction they produce an
aerodynamic force, which causes the main control surface to be moved in the
opposite direction. Different tabs, however, have different functions.
Fixed Tab

This is adjustable only on t h e ground by the maintenance engineer. I t may be

fitted to non-powered controls and is used to correct for inherent flying faults.
I t may be an actual tab as shown in figure 30 or may be a metal strip riveted to
the trailing edge of the control surface. The tab, as shown, is adjusted by
removing the flxing plate, repositioning the tab and refitting the plate. The
metal strip type tab is bent into a new position usually using a special bending
tool.

PUSHIPULL CONTROL SURFACE

CONTROL ROO \

/ TAB
LOCKING PLATE

, I
i 1
. F T X ETAB
~ i k 30 ~
. >

I
1
I '
, ;
I . ,

The tab is moved in the opposite direction to that which we

I 1
surfack to move, eg to correct for an inhereht nose down flying a t t i t ~ d ethe
e~evatdrneeds to be raised whidh means thdtab on the elevbt* i s adjusted
do~ n d a i - d. s i1 i1
, i
The pilot will report any tendency for the ,aircraft to fly in a-p&cular attitude.
The criiineeiiiill consult the ~ M *M -d;if not stated in thk AM^, work out
which way the tab is to be moved to correct the fault. The tab is repositioned
and on the next flight the pilot checks on the flying characteristics of the
aircraft - if necessary the tab will have to be adjusted again.

Controllable Trim Tab

This is moved by the pilot during flight to allow the aircraft to be trimmed to fly
straight and level, although it is sometimes used to trim the aircraft into a
climb or a descent path.

The tab may be manually operated using cables, chains and screwjacks, or it
may be electrically Aperated with an electric actuator controlled from the flight
deck. Fitted to non-powered controls.

QUESTION: Why should the pilot need to trim the aircraft into straight and
level flight during ffight? (5 rnins)
ANSWER: The trim of the aircraft might change due to fuel usage, or one
engine (multi-engined aircraft) shut down. To save fatiguc on the
pilot the aircraft can be trimmed into an attitude where the pilot
has t o put little or no input into t h e system to keep his aircraft
flying on the correct course and altitude.

PUSHIPULL ROD TO FUGHT

DECK FLYINS; CONTROLS
A

-
v \
PUSHIPULL ROD TO FLIGHT
DECK TRIMMING CONTROLS

Fig. 31 CONTROLLABLE TRIM TAB

E3alarice Tab I I
! I

This askists the pilot to move his/ her contr'ols on a non-powered system, or
relieve (he load on a powered system.. It is automatic in operation.
: I !
*I I I I---
The tab1 is fixed by a rod t o the, niainplane, tailplane or fm. When the control
surfakcis maved.by the pilot the tab is caused to move in the opposite
direc~ion.The airflow hitting the tab willcause a force to be created in the
direction that the control surface is being moved.

~ h i s f ~ s < ((Ghilst
f) small) is 3TS6me distance (d) from the control surface
hinge line - thus a turning moment is creatcd (f x d) which is significant
enough to assist the pilot to move his / her controls.

CHED TO MAIN SURFACE

May be adjusted by engineer

Fig* 32 BALANCE TAB

QUESTION: Could the balance tab also be used to function as another type
of tab and if so what? (5 rnins)
ANSWER: If the attachment rod is adjustable on the ground (which it
usually is) then the tab can be used as a fixed t a b as well as a
balance tab. If the length of the attachment rod can be adjusted
from the flight deck in the air then the tab can perfom the dual
function of a controllable trimming tab and a balance tab.

Anti-Balance Tab

To make the controls more effective and to give the pilot more feel an anti-
balance tab may be fitted.

I t is similar to a balance tab except that the linkage is so connected that the
tab moves in the same direction as the control surface - but further. It makes
the control surface more effective by giving the control surface itself a curved
mean camber line.
MAIN CONTROL SURFACE
-Not connected to any control system.
I --

---- Y I

1
-
>

1
$

,
1
\
: i
1 I
I '
\
I

- .
P u s H l P ~ ROD
u TO F L ~ H T
DECK FLYING CONTROLS I
,
-
' I

TAB
F&. 33 S E ~ V O
I . ' 1
I
I I I
I I
I
!
,

I t is interesting
- to note that the a h ~ i ~ b d m tab
c e fitted to thk Adder of the
Canadian de Havilland Dash S&i the same chord length ast l i k rudder itself -
presumably making for very effective directional control.

Servo Tab

This is similar to the bdance tab in principle but it is operated directly by the
pilot. The control surface is not connected to the control system in any way
but is free to move in any direction. Movement of the piIot's primary control
moves the tab, aerodynamic pressure on the tab will cause a turning moment
on the control surface, which will move in the opposite direction. Control,
however, is still instinctive (control column forward - aircraft descends etc).
Fitted to non-powered controls.

QUESTION: Which way would the tabs move on the ailerons to cause the
aircraft to roll to the right? (5 rnins) (Hint - in your mind move
the primary control surface first - the tabs move in the opposite
direction).

moodull l A-32
ANSWER: The sight hand tab will move down causing the right hand
aileron to move up and the right hand wing to move down. The
left hand tab will move up and its aileron will move down.

This type of tab works very well at reasonably high speed (all the primasy flight
controls on the Bristol Britannia are servo tabbed), but at low speed the system
has problems. When the tab moves into low airspeed it produces littJe force and
consequently poor control surface response - at high speed response is good.
To overcome this problem Spring Tabs were invented.

LINK

-
PIVOT

Ce

SPRING- --
J Any,directcontrol surface movement
; PILOT'S INPUT from the flight deck is wla the spring only.
I '
I I

F&. 34 SPRING TAB

i .:

This is similar t o the servo tab but it only operates at the higher airspeeds. At
the lower airspeeds the pilot operates the control surfaccs as normal.
.... . - .- .. . .

The control linkage is connected directly to the tab with a connectioi~to the
control surface via a torsion bar [shown as a spring in the drawing for case of
explanation).

At low airspeeds the loading on the control surface i s insufficient to overcome

the pressure of the spring/ torsion bar and the movement of the control system
moves the control surface directly through the spring/ torsion bar. A t high
airspeeds the aerodynamic loading on the control surface is sufficient to
overcome the force of the spring/torsien bar and the link moves. Movement of
the link compresses or extends the springJtorsion bar and moves the tab=The
tab in turn moves the contra1 surface - acting as a servo tab.

CONTROLLABLE TRIMMING TAB SYSTEM

These are operated by the pilot independentIy of the main controls and are not
fitted to powered flying controls. They are used to trim the aircraft to a
particular flight attitude, eg to trim it to fly straight and level or trim it to
descend.
They are operated from the flight deck and the system may be: mechanical
using cables and pulleys or it rnay be operated electrically (aswitch - often on
-
the control wheel operating an electric actuator at the tab end).

The cockpit controls are designed so thcir operation are 'instinctive' - ie

handwheel fonvard - nose trimmed down.

The tab may be combined with say a balance tab and may be fitted to the
rudder, elevator and,usually, one of the ailerons.

+ CHAIN

CABLE
\
FUGHT DECK
HAND-WHEEL

TAB

I
I

--
Direction .of.Movement I .A__-

The control run of the controllable trimming tabs is usually complicated and
because of the screwjack or other similar device, their operation may not be
readiIy understood. Therefore, it is advisable to re-check that the movement of
the cockpit control does result in t h e correct movement of the tab.

Elevator Trimming Tab

These are usually operated by a handwheel mounted in the vertical plane fore
and aft, so that when the top of the handwheel is moved fornard, that is, wheel
wound forward, the nose of the aircraft goes down and vice versa, Markings on
or near the handwheel, such as Wose up' and 'Nose downJindicate the
direction in which to turn the handwheel. [Note the mechanical trim wheel on
the centre pedestal of the Airbus A320).
 TABLE 2 ELEVATOR TAB MOVEMENT

AIRCRAFT FLYING PILOT'S ACTION TAB MOVEMENT SUBSEQUENT

FAULT PRIMARY CONTROL
SURFACE
MOVEMErn
Nose heavy Control wheel Down UP
reward
Tail heavy Control wheel UP Down

TAB
HANDWHEEL
MOVEMENT

I
a
, -,

.--

AFFECT IN FUGHT

Fig. 36 MOVE~ENTOF ELEVATOR TRIM TAB

I ,
I
I, '

Ailerdn ;TrimmingTab

This is-usually 'operated by a-hadwheel mounted vertically .yon a fore and aft
spindle. As the ailerons arc interconnected, a controllable trimming tab may be
fitted to one aileron onIy. Markings on or near the handwheel, such as, To
correct for port wing low' and To correct for starboard wing low' indicate the
direction in which to turn the handwheel.

TABLE 3 AILERON TAB MOVEMENT

AIRCRAFT FLYING PILOT'S ACTION TAB MOVEMENT

FAULT (RIGHT AILERONJ PRIMARY CONTROL
SURFACE
MOVEMENT -
Left wing low Wheel to the right Down Right up

Right wing low Wheel to the left UP Right

kfr down

- 34 -

moodull 1A-35
 HANDWHEEL MOVEMENT

AILERON
MOVEMENT
1
Fig. 37 MOVEMENT OF AILERON TRIM TAB
(FITTED TO THE LEFT WING)

Rudder Trimming Tab

These are usually operated by a handwheel mounted horizontally, though some

aircraft may have the handwheel mounted vertically on a fore and aft spindle.
Markings on or near the handwheel,-suchas 'Correct for VTW to port' and
'Correct for yaw to starboard' indicatethe direction in which to1:Ui-n t h e
handwheel. I ',
I
I I '
\

I
II l 1 I 'I

TABLE 4 RUDDER-TAB
- --- MOVEMENT ' ,
8 .

I
1
i
I --_-
A I R C V FLYING PILOT'S ACTION :TAB MOVEMENT
FAULT ' I I PRIMARY CONTROL
I
I ' I
I
4 MOVEMENT
Yaws left Wheel ctockwisc--- , Left , -, \ ,
~ i ~ h ?
Yaws right
-
Wheel anti-clochse - Right . - I k f- t

HANDWHEEL
MOVEMENT

AFFECT IN FLIGHT

Fig. 38 MOVEMENT OF RUDDER TRIM TAB

 SERVO TAB

/ TRIM TAB

'I-.
(
TRIMWHEEL
MOVEMEN-
,,

1
I
I
'

'
Fig. 39 AILERON TRIM SYSTEM OF THE BAe 146

~i 39 shows a typical system for operating the aileron trim tabs. Study the
drawihg and note how it works. ,

Electrically Operated Trim Tabs

Most of the electric him systems are an extension of the manual system with
provision to allow for manuaI trimming in the event of electric supply failure or
electric actuator failure. The actuator i s usually reversible and incorporates an
overload clutch that will slip in an emergency.

Cockpit control is usually through 'thumb' switches that return to the centre
off position when finger pressure is released. Pushing the switch one way will
cause the tab to move, say, down, while pushing it the other way will cause the
tab to move up. Again the system is instinctive. On some aircraft the three
axes or trim control are incorporated into one switch, eg switch forward - nose
down, switch tilted to the left - aircraft rolls left, switch turned to the left -
aircraft yaws left.

Operation of the switch will cause a voltage t o be supplied to the motor. The
motor will operate a reduction gearing or a screwjack to move the tab direct.
On smaller aircraft a dc motor of the permanent magnet type is used with
reversal being achieved by reversing the current in the m a t u r e . On larger
aircraft the motor is a split field motor.

BALANCING O F CONTROL SURFACES

Control surfaces are usually mass balanced and aerodynamically balanced.

M a s s balance is used to reduce the possibility of flutter and aerodynamic
balance is used to assist the piIot t o move the controls.

QUESTION: Canyouexplainwhatismeantbythe term 'Elutter'? (10mins)

ANSWER: Like all things aeronautical, 'flutter' is a cornpIex subject and it

comes in many forms. In general, however, it can be considered
as a form of vibration which is induced by aerodynamic forces
and is a function of the 'stiffness' of the structure and the
control system and the flying control surfaces. I n its mildest
-
I form it may no! be noticed, ,or may show upxs-increased wear in
control surface b~afings-. In its more severe form it can cause the
aircraft to disinteg?? in fright with explosive fdrce. Aerodynamic
I b
pressure variations can cads4 the structure/ ontrol sqistern to
flex in a syrnpathLticmode - .if this is sever t h e structlre can
I vibrate violently and -even'disintegrate. I
! I-
, F- - --

:
,
, ,
? \,

M a s s Balance I' ,
I
\
I I i
surfaces. -- .. --
I
I
I
I
I

---
/

- -
I
I
L
Flutter can be reduced, or even prevented, by the mass bal ci ng of the control

During the design stage the centre of gravit-y of the control surface (chord wise
and span wise) is calculated to be within certain limits.

This is usually achieved by the addition of carefully calculated weights (to be

technically correct - masses) placed forward of the hinge line. This is donc on
control surfaces whether they a r e powered or not, and the C of G must be
within a certain range in plan view and in end elevation, ie in two pIanes.

MASS BALANCE HINGE LINE

WEIGHT

Fig. 40 MASS BALANCE WEIGHT - CHORD WISE LOCATION

 TRAILING EDGE \
C OF O RANGE
u
-
I
n -MASS
BALANCE
WEIGHTS

3 -Fy-m- -- -HINGE LINE

LEADING EDGE / HINGE

Fig. 41 C of G RANGE IN PLAN VIEW

The range of the C of G in end elevation may be such as to make the control
surface nose or tail heavy or either depending on the actual C of G position.

r---
._
I.. >
--;
.
-
, ,
I :
I I

I
I ' Fig. 42 C of G R A N ~ -E NOSE'HEAVY CONTROL SURFACE
I

-
I -
Fig. 43 C of G'RANGE NOSE OR TAIL HEAVY

Fig, 44 C of G RANGE - TAIL HEAVY

Of course, the designer will decide where the C of G is to be and a range is
given to allow for minor repairs and paint finishes to be carried out without the
need to continuously adjust the mass balance weights.

The mass balance and total weight of the control surface will be checked in
accordance with the AMM where the equipment will be specified and the
calculations to be used will be shown.

QUESTION: Can you specify 2 or 3 occasions when control surfaces should

be weighed/ mass balance checked? (10 mins)
ANSWER: 1. A s laid down in the maintenance schedule.
2 . On fitment of a new or repIacement surface.
3. After repair of modification to the control surface.
4. After reported flutter.
5. After aircraft/ control surface re-spray.

The check may be done on the aircraft but the surface may have to be removed
and the check carried out on a bench (bench check).

The check may involve balancing the surface on its hinge line (using locally
made special brackets, if on a bench check) m d adding test weights to the
leading or trailing edge. The weights are added to bring the control surface
horizontal. Calculations are then carried out, using this information on how
much weight has to be added or removed to the mass balance weight. The
mass balance weight is adjusted and the control surface re-tested and the test
weights removed.

After adjudtment, the new b a h c e irlf0~mation(together with- the total wcight

of the 'surface)is recorded in the aifEiaft logbook. There may 4lsG be a record
plate on the control surface whicli will netdiamending.Thc ko'ntrol surface may
also be balanced in the spanwise plane - chkck the manual!
!
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QUESTION: W h a t are themassb35ficew,eightsmade of rfndhow can they
be adjusted? (15mins)

ANSWER:
iI I ! II
Mass balance should be dense (heavy) and cdn
I
I

b e madc of:
* Steel (density 7800 kg/1-123).
- *Lead(densitywl-1-300kgJm3). I

* Depleted Uranium (DU) (Densiw =I9000 kglrn3). M o s t of it

-
phased out now because of health concerns.
* Tungsten (density 19300 kg/rn3). Replacing DU.
Expensive.

Note: In general the more dense a material the less space it

requires in the structure for a given amount o f mass.

Adjustments will be carried out in accordance with the AMM,

but may involve the use of the following:
* Addition J removal of steel washers/ bolts.
* Addition/ removal of mass balance weights.
* Addition / removal of steel shims.
* Re-location of mass balance weights - fore 8t aft.
* Changing weights for different sizes.
* Machining of weights - only if allowed in the AMM, and
remember DO MOT cut or damage depleted uranium.
Aerodynamic Balance

The force, which is needed to move a flying control system in flight, depends
on: air density; aircraft velocity; control surface size and angle of deflection.

This can be calculated by the equation:

where F -
- force in Newtons
P = air density in kg per m3
V = velociiy in m/ s2
S - area in m2. This is related to control surface size
and amount of deflection.

(NOTE:The symbol 'ockmeans 'is proportional to')

On large/fast aircrart his force may become too much for the pilot to overcome
so the coitrols are powered m d / W aerodynamically
- balanced.

Aerodydarnic balance can be dchieved by:

!
;(a) Balancetabs.
--
, (b) Servo tabs.
I (G) Spring tabs. ' I

I (d) Pressure balance. '

I
Horn balance.
I I

(ej
I
( Inset hinges.
g) Balance panels.
-. - . --

Having already dealt with the tabs let us have a look at the rest,

Pressure Balance - With this system part of the control surface, in the lorm of
a beak, extends fornard of the hinge line into an enclosed area within the main
structure of the wing, tailplane or fin (figure 45). When the pilot moves the
control surface, say up, the air pressure increases above the surface and
decreases below it. This differential pressure is felt across the beak thus
assisting the pilot to move his/ her controls.

Sometimes the gap between the beak and the aircraft structure is sealed by a
flexible apron (Westland/ Irving Type) or hinged flap (balance panel system).

blank
 - SHROUD

CONTROL SURFACE
MOVEMENT

/ LOW PRESSURE
\ BEAK
SMALL GAP

Fig. 45 PRESSURE BALANCE CONTROL

Horn Balance - This is where part of the control surface extends forward of the
hinge line (figure 46). When the surface Is moved in one direction the horn
moves in the other direction, but out into the airflow, thus it experiences an
aerodynamic force, which helps the pilot to move his/her controls.--
The horn --.
I -
=zy a!sc hzuee t h e =ass b d ~ q c ~e r z i g ~ : :
I I I: I

A problek sometimes experiended with h4A balances is thdt &f'snatci'. When

I I the inlipe;position, as thelhorn prdtrbdes
the control surface is moved from,
a
into the airflow so it experiences sudden force causing the/ cbnt-rol to snatch.
i r---
.-
I

-xxh
I
%

ELEVATOR

Fig. 46 HORN BALANCE

Inset Hinge - On this control surface the complete leading edge extends
forward of the hinge line and the effect is similar to that of the horn balance.
Again this area houses the mass balance weights. Snatch may also be a
problem.
- -
- ,-- C
HINGE LINE
--.' -I
I-e

-- -- -
INSET
HINGE INSET HINGE

Fig. 47 INSET HINGE

Balancc Panel - Similar to the pressure balance control. The balance pancl, is
housed in a balance bay forward of the control surface (fippre 48). When the
mntro! surfclre is mnv~ldR pressure-difference is felt either side of thc control
surfabe which is allowed to pass:through the gap between control surface and
shroud and act on t h e balancd panel. This action assists control surface
movement.

~ i g u r k48 shows the elevator balance panel of the Boeing 737-400

I .
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-
Fig. 48 BALANCE PANEL EXAMPLE 737-400
 AILERONS

When operated, all control surfaces produce some drag and with most of them
this is not a major problem. Ailerons, however, are different. They can cause a
problem called adverse yaw.

W h e n the ailerons are moved the down going aileron tends to produce more
drag than the up going one. In a turn the down going aileron is on the u p going
wing. This wing is on the outside of the turn. If the down going aileron
produces too much drag then it may tend to turn the aircraft in the wrong
direction. To counteract this problem the aircraft may be fitted with:
* Frise Ailerons
* Differential Ailerons

* Aileron Upfloat

Frise Ailqrons
1 I
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These are designed so that the up' aileron)(ohthe inner win$ o f the turn)
produces more drag than the down goingiode, thus the airciqt is helped to
lurn in the correct direction. ~ d ~el e r o nhas a low set hingd sb that when it is
moved :upt h e leading edge of the GlEETn protrudes into the lairflow-and creates
drag. W h e n the aileron is moveti down it produces less dm$. I
I I

\ DFZAGCAUSEDBY
HINGE LINE AILERON NOSE

Fig, 49 THE FRTSE AILERON

Differential Ailerons

The aileron control system is designed so that the up going aileron moves
through a greater range of movement than the down going one. Thus the
aileron on the inside of the turn produces as much, if not more, drag than the
one on the outside of the turn - thus preventing adverse yaw.
 45OANOULAR RANGE OF
MOVEMENT UP & DOWN

CAB
ACTUAL LINEAR
RANGE
OF MOVEMENT

t I
PUSHIPULL ROD
TO AILERON

Fig. 50 DIFFERENTXAL AILERONS

With reference to figure 50 and assuming a 45" angular range of movement of

the pulley, it can be seen that the linear range of the push/puIl rod is greater
when it moves up than when it moves down. Thus the up going aileron (lower
wing) ;loyes through a greater range -and produces more drag than the down
going ;one.
1 , I
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C A U ~ O NSome
. people get confvsed with the word "differential" thinking that
it means that the ailerons move in opposite directions. All ailerons always
move in;opposite directions bqt dqferential
- ailerons have a different range of
movement - u p and down. j
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:
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I
Aileroh 'Upfloat
'. .
On some-smaller aircraft the -ailerons may be rigged into their "neutral' position
with a certain amount of 'upfloat'. I n other words the neutral position of both
ailerons is set above the trailing edge of the wing (refer to the AMM).This will
mean that the up going aileron will move even higher into the airflow - with an
increase in drag and the down going aileron will not move so far into the airflow
- producing less drag.

QUESTION: This last method is an inexpensive way of counteracting adverse

yaw, but it does have one disadvantage. Can you think what it
is? (2 mins).

ANSWER: You might have thought of several disadvantages, but one that
springs to mind is the continuous drag penalty. W h e n flying
straight and level both ailerons are high in the airflow and
creating drag - not a good idea.
 Another disadvantage is that they are both creating a slight
amount of 'negative lift', ((Onmost large aircraft both ailerons are
usually set down a small amount when the aircraft is in the
landing or take-off configuration. This increases the camber of
the mean camber line of that part of the wing and increases lift.
They still work in opposite directions of course.

Enhanced Roll Control

On many larger aircraft the aileron system is interconnected with the spoilers
to give better roll control. The spoilers are operated asymmetrically in
conjunction with the up going ailerons to increase drag (and reduce lift) on the
down going wing. The operation of the spoilers may be related to speed and/or
range of aileron movement.

Fig. 5 1 ASYMMETRIC SPOILER CONTROL - EXAMPLE

In some aircraft the operation of the asymmetric spoilers is by a direct link

between the aileron system and the spoiler selectors /actuators. In other
systems the spoilers are operated via a control modute/cornputer (figure 5 1).
With reference to figure 51 - note the inputs to the control module - roll -
speedbrake lever - feedback signal.

WARNING

I. Spoilers operate quickly and can cause serious injury.

2. They also have a fail-safe system which means that they will close
automatically if either hydraulic pressure or electrical power is removed.
(On some aircraft they will float upwards in flight if selected and the
hydraulic power has failed. This is caused by the reduced pressure above
the wing).

3. With the hydraulic system pressurised and the aircraft an the ground the
spoilers will operate automatically if reverse thrust is selected.

Enhanced Lift Facility

7 - ... - .
I

Zln some of t h e larger rnudcr r i +iciaft"-i-bot:iafieroils will a u t ~ r n z i i c d yszt

- ink
the ' d r ~ $position
~' for take-of4 and landing. This enhances the lift
characteristics for that part of khk wing because (in effect) the ailerons are
acting similar to flaps - whilst still allowing the pilot roll control via the
ailerons.
1 I ---
a
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8 8

~ i g u r52 t shows the location ok typical droop actuator - it also shows the
spring feel unit and the electritally operated trim system. As with most
powexed controls t h e trimming of the system is usually achieved by setting thc
s y s t e h to. a.'riew neutral' - exckpt with many elevator systems where thc
tail&ane is used as the trimming device.

Some aircraft such as delta wing aircraft (Concorde) are fitted with a set of
control sudaces at the trailing edge of the wing. Having no tailplane these
surfaces must do the job of elevators and ailerons - hcnce the term elevons.

W h e n the control column is pulled back all control surfaces rise (and vice
versa).

When the control handwheel is moved to the left - the left hand elevons rise
and the right ones fall (and vice versa).

When the pilot puts both roll and pitch inputs in simultaneously the system
'mixes the two signals'to give a combination of both, eg aircraft climbing and
banking to the left - control column back and to the left - all eIevons up but
those on the left move up further than those on the right.
Flaperons

Combine the function of a flap and an aileron. Fitted t o - t h e Boeing 777

(inboard aileron). Similar t o droop ailerons.

ROLL CONTROL TRANSDUC

-TRIM SCREWJACK

Fig. 52 TYPKCAL AILERON ELECTRIC TRIM SYSTEM

TAILPLANES

In some manuals called stabilisers or horizontal stabilisers - the vertical

stabiliser being the fin. The term stabilator is sometimes used for a slab
tailplane.

The tailplane is designed t o give the aircraft longitudinal stability about the
lateral axis (module 8), but may be used for pitch control as well.
Tailplanes may be:
* Fixed - with elevators. On small aircraft.
k
Variable Incidence PI). Also fitted with elevators. The tailplane
may be powered (electric or hydraulic) on some aircraft or
manually operated (screwjacks)on small aircraft.
x All Flying or Slab. Used as the primary flying control surface and
therefore has no elevators. Used in place of elevators and often
used in place of ailerons on fighter aircraft (Taile~ons).Will act
together as elevators and differentially as ailerons - or a
combination of both.

Variable Incidence Tailplane

Controllable trim tabs become less effective at higher speeds and totally
ineffective on fully powcr-operated systems. A variable incidence tailplane
overcomes these problems. "Phe complete ttarlplane pivots about a main hlnge
bearing and is usually moved byan electric or hydraulic actuator.

An instinctive switch in the flighi deck enables the pilot to increase or decrease
the tailplane incidence. The VI:tailplauleis more effective than a trim tab and
prodyes less drag. i
I 1

On small aircraft the tailplane ksmovkd Aanually.

I I
. --

All Flying -or-Slab Tailplane

This is similar to the VI tailplanc except that it does not have an elevator. The
tailplane is operated directly by the fore and aft movement of the control
column and on large aircraft it is fully powered. On small aircraft it is manually
operated and may be fitted with a trim tab. Trimming of the fully powered
tailplane is by setting t h e tailplane to a new neutral - similar to ordinary
powered control systems.

Advantages of this tailplane are :

(a) Less drag for the same control effect.

(b) More rigid and less liable to flutter,
(c) Simpler than an elevator and tab system.
(d) More effective control.

blank
 FRONT
SPAR
,mi
SPAR
\
TAILPLANE HINGE

Fig. 53 VARIABLE INCIDENCE TAILPLANE

T A I L P ~ PIVOT
E
ACTUATOR
Manually operated on small sitcrak
powered on large airwaft

Fig. 54 ALL-FLYING TAILPLANE

STOP NUT
/'
MAIN ACTUATOR I
-.
BALL H
I
-

MOTOR
\

CABLES TO
MANUAL FLIGHT
TORQUETUBE
1' 1
DECK TRIM
WHEELS :
\\ I
I
NUT I. hhachl trim R auto pllal Inputs are via
Ihe lrlm scrvomotar.
2. The ritain actuator operates the system
vla a blutch, gear train a gear box.
3 9 d n d a l opcralran 1s vla a hand wheel
In !he flight deckwhich disconnecls
-* I the metn actuator.
/
CABLE DRUM 8
DISCONNECT SWITCH
AlTACHM ENT TO
AIRFRAME

TRIM SERVOMOTOR
(AUTOMATICCONTROL SYSTEM]

Fig. 55 TYPICAL VI TAILPLANE TRIM SYSTEM

QUESTION: As a general knowledge question, can you think why tailerons

are not usually fitted to civil airliners? (5 rnins).

ANSWER: The twisting force would be too high on the fuselage because of
its length and high moment of inertia due to the engines being
placed out on the wings (for most civil aircraft).
 FOREPLANES

Not common, particularly an civil aircraft. These are similar to tailplanes in

effect but are fitted t o the front of the aircraft. Their main difference is that they
can be designed to help prevent the aircraft from stalling. As the aircraft
approaches the stall the foreplane stalls first and lowers the nose so preventing
the mainplanes stalling. They also make the aircraft more manoeuvrable,

Foreplanes can be VI with elevators or c a n be slab tailplanes.

SPOILERS

These may not be considered as primary flying controls but on some aircraft
they are connected to the aileron system and as such are part of the primary
flying control system. They are normally situated on top of the mainplanes
forward of the flaps. They may carry out more than one function but are
generally classified as: Symmetrical; Differential; Ground Effect and G u s t
Alleviation. When extended they-dump Iift and create drag.
I
An a i d a f t may have 6 or 7 spoilers per wing and they may have collective and
individual functions. They a r e pbwer operated.
I .I I

Thc sbdilers may be operated by direct mechanical connection to the flight

deck (fibre 57) or may be operated-viaa computer (figure 58).
I

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~~rnrhebical
' I Spoilers
-
~ ~ ~ r a t e d - - s ~ m m e t rin
i c flight
a ~ l y t o reduce the lift/drag ratio. This will incrcase
the rate of descent and reduce speed. Sometimes used on automatic landing
approach runs.

Differential Spoilers

Used in conjunction with the ailerons to give improved lateral control. When
the aileron is moved up: (a) passed a certain angle, and/or (b) the aircraft is
flying within a certain speed range, t h e spoilers extend on that wing. This
creates drag and dumps lift, hence increasing t h e desired turning effect,

Figure 56 shows the general layout of the control surfaces including the
spoilers and figure 57 shows the spoiler arrangement of the BAe 146. The
spoiler push/ pull rod operating system is connected to the aileron cable
control system at the first quadrant in the mainplane (cable quadrant). The
push/ pull rod connects the cable quadrant t o the Spoiler Cam Box. From the
spoiler cam box the pilot's input is feed to the servo valve of the spoiler
hydraulic actuator - via a spring strut.
.*
During downward movement of the aileron the cam foIZower in the cam box
moves in the non-effective portion of the cam track and the spoiler is not
selected. After the first (approximatcly) 5" of cockpit handwheel movement to
raise the aileron, the spoiler is selected to give a non-linear movement in
relation t o ailcron movement.

Ground Effect Spoilers

These extend automatically on landing to dump lift and increase drag. In terms
of getting the aircraft ta 'sit' firmly on the runway on landing they play an
important role together with the shock absorbers (oleos).

They operate when the aircraft is configured for landing with the weight switch*
operated on the landing gear; the throttles are in their correct (usually idle)
position; the spoiler selector in the 'arm' position; wheels are rotating (picked
up by the anti-skid transducer); bogie rotation micro switch operated; md u l t
showing close t o ground etc. Not all of these may be applicable to all aircraft so
- -----
check the AMM of the aircraft comcerned-..
r - ,-
8 i
* The weight switch may b{ called (amdngst 1I 1
other things):
I , I,

Weight On Wheels switch(W0W) - .~iibus.

Ground/Air sensor - ~oeing:-- - .
. -
squat switch. , I

Weight switch. \
i \
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IUBOWO AILERONS

Fig. 56 CONTROL SURFACES LOCATION -

 I
-
Fig. 57 ROLL CONTROL SPOILERS BAe 146

Example - A300 Ground Effect Spoilers

-.

Speed brakes and roll spoilers &re used when landing as ground effect spoilers.
Deflection angles being 50" for all surfaces.

They automatically extend when:

* They are selected.
~r
The aircraft is on the ground.
The ground effect spoilers are selected when the two following conditions a r e
fulfilled:
* Speed brake control lever pulled upwards (whenin t h e RET
position) or thrust reverser selected on one engine,
and
* both throttle levers in the idle position,

- 52 -
moodull 1A-53
The 'aircraft on ground signal' is sent when the following conditions are
fulfilled:
* Two main landing gear aft landing wheels speed is greater than
70kt.
or
+? For landing:

1. Boogie beam rotation.

2. Shock absorber compressed (signal sent 3 seconds after
touchdown).
3. Radio altitude lower than 5ft (1.5rn).

. . .. - .- -

GROUND EFFECT SPOLlER9

Fig. 58 A 3 2 0 GROUND EFFECT SPOILER LOGIC CIRCUIT

Automatic extension is achieved for an aborted take-off only when two main
landing gear aft wheels speed is higher than 70kt.

Ground effect spoilers will remain extended during bounces due to the ground
conditions logic circuit and as long as both throttles are in the idle position and
pre-selection order fulfilled.
Ground effect spoiler retraction is achieved:
* Either by pressing t h e SPEED BRAKE control lever down
(pre-selection cancelled).
or
* By pulling one throttle lever out of the idle position.

QUESTION: With reference to figure 58. Can you work through the logic
gates to check that the above text confirms the wiring diagram
logic. Remember an AND gate must have ALL the inputs positive
for there to be an output. A n OR gate will give an output if ANY
ONE input is positive.

ANSWER: If you have problems contact your tutor.

Gust- - Alleviation Spoilers

. -.- .
-.. I-
i
These, are fitted t o the A3 20 [and,6thEf aircraitj and operate automadcaiiy to
relievk in-flight gust loads. They hre a form;of active stability and give a more
stable +d comfortable flight ahd reducestructure fatigue.
!
When the aircraft is disturbed labout the longitudinal axis, gyros sense the
movement and send a signal to d computer. If the pilot has not commanded
this Aokcrnent the computer will know this (all the pilot's dontGl inputs being
sent to bne or more computer$ on the A320).
I b
I
The c&hputek will send a sign& to ahydraulic control valve to extend the
spohers-onthe .up going wing--thusdumping lift - preventing the upswing of
the wing and helping to keep the aircraft level.

This is a form of Active Stability as it relies on the use of computers and wros
and not on the aerodynamic design of the aircraft.

HIGH LIFT DEVICES

Strictly these are not classed as Primary Flying Controls but are included in
this section because they are moveable surfaces attached to the leading and
trailing edges of the mainplane. When extended they increase lift and drag.
Trailing edge devices a r e called flaps and leading edge devices are usually
called slats, slots and sometimes leading edge flaps.
FLAPS

When extended they increase the camber of the mean camber line of the
aerofoil. Thus they increase the amount of lift produced at any given airspeed.
M a n y flaps also extend rearward when they are lowered which also increases
the effective wing chord length and effective wing area.

Any protrusion into the airflow causes drag and flaps are no exception. In most
cases it is an unwanted by-product of their use, but on some occasions the
drag produced can be useful in slowing the speed of the aircraft.

I t is important that port (left) and starboard (right) flaps operate together
(s~~mrnetricdly). To this end they are connected together mechanically on most
aircraft, though on a few they may be inter-connected hydrauIically.

QUESTION:
-
.
What would happen if the flaps moved asymmetrically in flight?
In other words the f l a p c d ~one side of the Aircraft moved and
. -
I
the flaps on the dtEG siae d?d not. (5 mins). I
i ! ! \ I I
I
,
' 1 to rnokqinto
I
I 4
ANSWER: ' I
If one side flaps were the airflowmore t h k ;the
other side, there (prduld be more lift created oh &at wingithan on
I
the other. This w9ul-d c-aGse the aircraft t o roll. i'he roll might be
I
significant enough (depefiiing on the amoun61 of-flap akyrnme try)
to be uncorrectablel by the pilbt - unless he/ s'hd c a n get both
' I
flaps up before t d t d aircrafti control loss. (An Lifcrait [BEA
Elizabethan] crashed at ~ o n d d nLHR carryinel +ow horses
because of a 1inkage.failu-ein one side of the:flap system. The
aircraft rolled violentlyr cmshed into a line bf-parked aircraft
killing all the crew and the horses and writing off several other
passenger aircraft.

The flaps are operated:

(a) Manually- Being connected by rods and Ievers to a handle in the

cockpit, similar to a car handbrake (light aircraft).
(b) By electric actuators driving a common drive shaft.
(c) By a hydraulic jack or jacks (split and plain flaps usually) - with
mechanical interconnection.
(d) By hydraulic motors - the Fowler type flap - driving a common
driveshaft.

A simple hydraulic jack or actuator connected to a split or plain flap will be

capable of lowering or raising the flap, with the port and starboard flaps being
connected together by a mechanical linkage to prevent asymmetric operation.
When the flaps are power operated a feed-back system is used to cancel the
selection signal once the flaps have reached their selected position.

Where Fowler type flaps are used (most large aircraft) t h e rangc of movement is
such as to rcquire the use of a large jack arrangement, this wouId be too
heavy. In these cases it is common to operate the flaps using a drive shaft
system driven by an hydraulic motor. The motor might be in the centre of t h e
aircraft (orthere might be more than one motor) with a drive shaft running
along the rear of the port and starboard mainplane rear spars. At each flap
location t h e lateral drive is converted into a longitudinal drive by a gear box
arrangement. The flaps arc moved by a rotating screwjack arrangement (ball
screwjack), which moves them back and down d o n g guide tracks, which are
covered by fairings when the flaps are retracted.
RIGKT WNG
0mmIvE s
TORQUE LrPElfER
m R I KL
TORQUE LIMITER 1 aSSYMmRY
/BUAKE

Fig. 59 FLAP OPERATING SYSTEM BAe 146 -

Should asymmetry occur then detectors will operate a warning on the flight
dcck and automaticdly stop the operation of the flaps.

Figure 59 shows the flap operating system for the BAe 146. Note the common
drive shaft; duplicate drive chains to the lower gearboxes and the asymmetry
brakes.

For more detailed information on t h c operating systems (seIectoss, hydraulic

systems etc) you should refer to the book in this series entitled Hydraulics.
FLAP OPERATION - GENERAL

Take-off and Landing

A 'flap-less'take-off may be used on some aircraft such as the A300. This is

employed when the runway length exceeds 2000m (allowing for certain weight
and weather restrictions).

On somc aircraft there is a 'long runway' flap position and a 'short runway' flap
position.

For landing there may be 2 positions - one for approach and one for landing.

Flight Deck SeIector

On older aircraft this is marked in degrees. On newer aircraft i t is marked

LANDING APPROACH, FINAL APPROACH, etc.
,--
1- -

Flight Deck Indication

I
..
\
' .
! I - - -

i
I '
Flap posiiion will be indicated e h e r on gccl"ockwork'
gauge L bessyn s$stem,
moving cbil, synchro system etc!oi-shomMbna CRT screen.
I -.
... 1 1
I
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: i '>>,\ 1,\ '1.
Asymmetric ~rotection I I a ,

I ! 1 I
Any flap kyrnmetry (leading edie or trailing edge) will indude a violent roll.
Asymmetry-is -prevented hy having .the-port and starboard '$laps.(leading cdge or
trailing edge) mechanically connected (cables, push/puIl rods, drive shafts etc) .
O n some older system they may be hydraulically interconnected. This means
that both port and starboard flaps will move together.

Should the flap operating system suffer a mechanical breakdown then a

safeguard device is fitted to warn the pilot and stop the flaps moving.

Asymmetric detectors are usudly fitted to the outboard ends of the drivc
system (one port, one starboard) and monitor the revoIutions/rate of movement
of that side of the system. Their signals are sent to a comparator unit.

Should this show a discrepancy between the port and starboard flaps (outside
a specified tolerance) then the operating system is shut down and the pilot
warned. (Refer to the book in this series entitled Hydraulics).
Flap Load Relief

Should the flaps be lowered at excessive airspeeds then flap structural damage
will almost certainly result. The flaps will be damaged, the mechanism may
also suffer and any resulting debris may hit the fuselage, tailplane and may be
ingested into any rear-mounted engines.

Also the aircraft may suffer from lateral asymmetry as well as loss of flaps for
landing. This will result in a high-speed lading. Altogether a most unhappy
state of affairs.

With a simple hydraulic jack operated hinged type flap, provision for 'blaw-
back' can be incorporated into the hydraulic system. This is in the form of a
pressure relief valve in t h e flap hydraulic down line - called a 'blow-back\alvve.
This will allow the flaps to be blown back by the airflow (aerodynamic pressure)
if left down after take-off. If the flaps are lowered during flight (at speed) then
the relief system will prevent the flapsfrom going down too far and sustaining
damage.

t
I
I
1 SELECTOR VALVEI
I CONTROL UNIT
1

AIRSPEED UNIT
PILOT'S WARNING

Fig. 60 FLAP LOAD RELIEF SYSTEM

 1 FLAP MAIN TROLLEY

FLAP FULLY UP

MAIN TROLLEY T

FORWARD TROLLEY TRACK

\

- TAKE-OFF POSITION
LONG RUNWAYS

LANDING POSITION

Fig. 6 1 FOWLER TYPE FLAP POSITIONS -

With screwjack operated flaps (Fowler type) the aerodynamic loads on the flap
are not transmitted to the flap operating motors so the above solution will n o t
work.

For screwjack operated flap systems the airspeed i s sensed by the aircraft's
Pitot system. This data is sent to the Digital Air Data Computer (DADC). I t
may also be sent to a flap load relief unit (airspeed unit).
 If the flaps are selected down (or left down after take-off) and the airspeed is
high then an electric load relief actuator is signalled to operate from a
computer with air data sent to it from the DADC.(The signal may come from
an airspeed unit dedicated to the flap load relief system - refer figure 60). This
will change the geometry of the linkage between the flight-deck selector handle
and the flap selector valve. This will cause t h e flap selectar valve to move to the
retract position.

The flaps will retract (not necessarily fully up) and the pilot will get a warning.
The flight-deck selector handle usually stays in the position selected.

TYPES OF FLAP
. -P Fitted to simpler smaller aircraft and gives about a 50% increase in
lift for that section of the wing. Decreases t h e stalling angle to 12" and moves
the centre of lift rearwards so producing a nose down pitching moment.
(Remember the normal clean wing stalling angle is 15".)When lowered fully
produc&salarge amount of dr@. The- complete rear section of the wing moves
down ;oh a simple hinge system. Sometimes called a camber flap.
m 8
I '
I

I
F&. 62 PLAIN FLAP

Split Flm-Giqes a 60% increase in lift with a stalling angle of 1 4 O . The lower
rear section of the wing moves down. Gives a large amount of drag when fully
down and produces a nose down pitching moment.

The Zap flap is similar to the Split flap but the flap moves partly rearward
during lowering. The effects are the same but with a 90' increase in lift and a
stalling angle of 13".

Fig. 63 SPLIT FLAP

Slotted Flap. Gives a 65% increase in lift with an increase in the stalling angle
to 16" (which is good). The flap moves down and forms a slot between it and
the wing.

- 60 -

moodull l A-61
 This allows some air through the slot from the bottom of the wing t o the top of
the flap keeping the top side clean from eddy currents (boundary layer cuntrol),
making the flap more efficient and producing less drag than with t h e previous
flaps.

The double slotted flap is similar to the slotted flap except that there are two
slots in front of the flap. Gives 70% increase in lift with a stalling angle
increased to 18".Sometimes a triple slotted flap is used.

Fig. 64 SLOTTED FLAP

Fowler Flap. Produces 90%increase in lift (which is nearly double the amount
of lift for that part of the wing) with a stalling angle of 15".The flap moves
I down-and back t o effectively increase-the-wing area while producing a more
cambered mean camber line. Fro+uces-a nose down pitching rnornenr.
I
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-2 1
/--TRACKSYSTEM
[-
I -. ---.-
\,

I
6

I / Fig. 6 5 FOWnER FLAP

I

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Double slotted Fowler Flap. 1 ~ 6 %increase Ji'nlift with an inkrease of stalling
under the fla+-tors&ecpthe top
angle to 20". The double slot alI~w~s'~ii--f~orn
surface clean of any turbulence. Treble slotted flaps sometimes used.

-
The hinged Fowler flap produces even bct-ter results.

TRACK SYSTEM

Fig. 66 DOUBLE SLOTTED FOWLER FLAP

/
TRACK SYSTEM 0(

Fig. 67 HINGED FOWLER FLAP

Krue~erLeading E d ~ Flap.
e A leading edge flap which when hinged forward
increases lift by 50% and stalling angle to 2 5 O , A s is moves the centre of lift
fonvard it causes a nose up pitching moment. Often fitted to the inboard
sections of wings of large commercial aircraft.

SLIDES DOWN & FORWARD OR HINGES

DOWN FROM UNDERNEATH

Fig. 68 KRUEGER FLAP

SLATS/ SLOTS

On some aircraft t h e y are held in a Pxed position on the leading edge of the
aerofoil. On most aircraft they are moveable. The moveable slats are
intercmqected to prevent asymmetric -operation of the port and starboard
sectidns. i f asymrnerric operation w a s iu uccur irl lligiit i k i i a uident rij::
would ehsue - as would happen if the flaps were to operate asymmetrically.
Detectors are fitted t o stop thelsystem if this were to happen.
! I

M o s t slats/ slots will move the centre of lift forward and produce a nose up
pitchibg moment.
,. I .
I

TYPES OF SLATS/SLOTS I

Slotted.Win%-This is a fixed slot .&-the wing leading from the underside to the
top side just aft of the leading edge. At high angles of attack air from under the
wing rushes through the slot and sweeps the top of the wing clear of any
turbulent airflow (boundary layer control). Increases lift by 40% and increases
stalling angk to 20'. Somc extra drag at high speeds.

SLOT CUT THROUGH WlNG

/

Fig. 69 SLOTTED WING

Fixed Slat. This is similar in operation to the slotted wing and fitted t o some
small aircraft. Lift increases by 50% and stalling angle increased to 20".
Produces some drag.

- 62 -
moodull1A-63
 Fig. 70 FIXED SLAT

Moveable Slat. This may be automatic in operation or operated manually from

the cockpit, or operated electrically, or hydraulically. In automatic operation
the slat is spring loaded in the closed position. At high angles of attack the
negative pressure is felt by the slat causing it to pull out on a system of levers
fr'orn the wing. The slat then directs the airflow over the top of the wing to
sweep it clean of any turbulence.

When the angle of attack is decreased the negative pressure on the slat is
insufficicnt t o hold it out and the springs will pull it back flush fitting to the
wing,- i--- -- -_ - -
- -
. - - -. ,
I
The spring operated slat is normqly restiicied
,
to (some) s m ~ laircraft.
l '
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I

kd will be 'about 60% with anI increase

! I
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When operated the increase in i b angle
of attack to about 22". I
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SL~TM~VESFO~WARDONAPA~?OGRAPHLINKAGE
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--
- - - - .- -- --- I_ _ i

Fig. 71 MOVEABLE SLAT

On large aircraft the leading edge slats are selected out for take-off and landing
along with the flaps with the pitching moment being neutdised.

They may be wound out using hydraulic motors and are fitted with asymmetric
detectors that stop the movement immediately should asymmetric operation be
detected.

The flaps and slats are usually operated together to increase lift (for that part of
the wing) by up t o 120% and increase the stalling angle t o around 30".
 DRlVE ARM FULLY EXTENDED

P
L

IN TRANSIT

FOLDING HOSE RETRACTED PIISITION

Fig. 72 KRUEGER LEADING EDGE FLAP

MECHANISM

Fig. 73 TYPICAL SLAT OPERATING SYSTEM

VARTATIONS IN AERODYNAMIC DESIGN

Vortex Generators

These are small flat metal plates fitted to some aircraft t o mix high energy air
into the (sluggish)boundary layer ta give it more energy, They are usually
arranged on the top surface of the wing at a small angle to the relative airflow,
Usually they are all angled at t h e same angle but some aircraft may have each
alternate plates angled in the opposite direction.
They stick up higher than the boundary layer (about 2 in. 15Qrnrnl)and cause
t h e high energy free stream airflow to became turbulent and mix with thc low
energg boundary layer - thus giving it energy and making it become more
effective. They create form drag but reduce skin friction drag. They also tend to
wcaken t h e shock waves and hence reduce shock drag.

I RELATIVE AIRFLOW

-- \ I , >

I , 4 I
1 '

I -
h - 0

I r--
,
Wing Feqccs
I
I I
I I
These are flat metal plates (up tb !2 in [360h] high) and ftt+diparallel to thc
free stream flow. They are fitted tn-help-prevent spanwise mbvernent of the air
on swept-wing aircraft and may-bcfound -in front of control surfaces to increase
their effectiveness.

WING FENCE 1R

AILERON

Fig. 75 WING FENCE

-
- 65 -
moodull 1A-66
Saw Toath Leading Edge

Fitted to t h e leading edge of some swept wing aircraft. Sometimes called a Dog
Tooth, it brings the centre of pressure forward on the outer part of thc wing so
helping t o prevent the tip of the lower wing 'digging in' during a turn. I t also
encourages t h e boundary layer to move in t h e direction of the free stream flow.
I t also helps prevent airflow separation at the tip - which is always a problem
with highly swept wings.

SAW TOOTH

... ., ,- ...- . .
-. .- 1

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: I Fig 76 SAW TOOTH OR DOG TOOTH

i i . ,

Fig. 77 STALL WEDGE OR PUIED SPOILER

Stall Wedge or Fixed Spoiler

During the stall if the outer part of the wing stalled at the same time as (or
sooner than) the rest of the wing then there would be turbulent air over the
ailerons and the pilot would loose Iateral control. During a stall this can be
dangerous as a spin might result.

To prevent the outer part of the wing from stalling first, f&d spoilers are fitted
to the inboard leading edges of the wing t o cause that part t o stall before the
outer part of the wing - thus the pilot will still have some lateral control even
though the aircraft is in a stall.

Ca.nard Aircraft

Sometimes called a tail-first aircraft as the tailplane (stabiliser)is fitted in front

of the mainplane and called a foreplane. The first powered flight was a canard
configured--
aircraft and some modern high performance fighters are also built
-.
this way. I I
-- . --
I
The foreplane acts similar to a donventio~al;
tailplane in providing longitudinal
stability and control. They c a n as a slab!foreplane (no elivAtors) - i f both
1
move up (increased angle of attqck) then tl$ aircraft climbs yith thk control
column pulled back - and vice-vefsa.-Moved differentially t&y provide roll
-- .
control,.
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- - - - 2

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If they re fitted with elevators, \&n, with control coludn pulled back the
foreplane elevators move down (with a tailblane they move up):foreplane lift
increases and the aircraft climb&.'It the .control column is phshed forward then
the reve-r-se happens. - . - A + , i '1

I t has many disadvantages including poor aerodynamic stability, but one

advantage is that it may make the aircraft difficult to stall as the forepIane
stalls before the mainplane, automatically putting the nose of the aircraft down
before total lose of control occurs.

Delta Winged Aircraft

These may be divided into two categories, those with tailplanes and those
without.

Those with tailplanes have conventiona1 controls like other aircraft - flaps,
ailerons, eIevators, rudder etc. Those without a tailplane are different - they
have elevons.

Cancorde is typical of a delta-winged aircraft without a tailplane. It has one set

of control surfaces at the rear of the mainplane that do the job of both the
elevators and ailerons. They are called elevons.
 -
When the pilot pulls the control column back bath elevons move u p and the
aircraft climbs (and vice-versa) . When he/ she moves the handwheel to the right
the right-hand elevon moves up and the Ieft one moves down - and t h e aircraft
rolls right (and vice-versa).

If he/she pulls the control column back and moves the control wheel to the
right then both elevons move u p but the right-hand one moves up further than
the left-hand one - the aircraft will climb and roll to the right.

The pitch and roll conh-01s are put through a mixing unit, which sums
(mechanically) the two inputs t o give the requircd control surface response. On
a fly-bywire/ fly-by-light aircraft this function would be performed by a
computes. Figure 78 shows the principle of hew the mixing unit works.

ROLL INPW

BELL CRANK A

BELL CRANK &

PUSHIPULL RODS

SUMMING LINKS

Fig, 78 SUMMING LINK - ELEVON SYSTEM

When the pilot puts in a soll command input, bell crank A ratatcs about pivot
X I and causes bell crank B to pivot about X2. This will causc A 1 to movc down
or up with A2 moving in thc opposite direction - moving one elevon in one
direction and the other in the opposite direction. The summing links pivoting
about B 1 and B2 respectively.

When a pitch push /pull command is put in,the torque shaft is caused to
rotatc and move both 13 1 and B2 push/ pull rods in the same direction. (Each
push/ pull red connection to the torque shaft by means of a lever).

This movement will cause both elevons to move u p or down together, with the
summing links pivoting about A l and A 2 respectively.

If the pilot rnovcs both the pitch and soll controls together then both inputs will
be summed by the linkage to produce the required control surface movements.
Butterfly or Vee Tailplane

Some (usually smaller) aircraft are designed with a tailplane/ stabiliser with a
very high dihedral angle (dose to 4 5 O ) . This means that it can double as a
tailplane and as a fin for stability purposes and the control surfaces can double
as an elevator and a rudder (ruddervator).

Fig. 79 BUTTERFLY TAILPLANE

I
. ---

Figure 79 shows the butterfly tailplane o f ) ~French

e built ~aiobin.When the
ruddefiators are both moved up (lor dowd) tbgether they ac ab an elevator.
I

a rudder! I --
P
When one moves up and the ot&er-one.&es down then t h dffect id similar to
i 1 ., ,, -.

~yrnm&&cal movement of the *ddemator,s (far pitch contrdl) is caused by fore

and aft movemerit' of the control ~ o l u m nAsJImmetric
. opera$oh (for yaw
control) is caused by movement' of the rudder bar.
I-__ --
i 1
\ 7
r
- - .- I
I1-.
when the pilot puts a pitch &-djaw~o&mandin (control column and rudder
bar), then summing links similar to those already described will ensurc that
both ruddervators will be displaced in the same direction but one will move
further than the other - producing both a yaw and pitch change of the aircraft.

Its advantage is that there is less profile drag (there is no fin) and production
costs are reduced - lor the same reason.

Of course, the aerodynamic efficiency in terms of stability and control is not as

good as a conventional tailplane and fin assembly - but you can't have it both
ways.

INTEGRAL GUST LOCKS

Some aircraft are fitted with a flying control locking system so that the controls
can be locked for parking/ picketing/ mooring the aircraft.

- 69 -
moodull l A-70
Usually operated by a handle fitted in the flight deck and connected to
moveable locking pins by a cable system. When operated the pins are pushed
into the locked position by passing through holes in pulleys/quadrants which
lock the control system and prevent its movement due to wind laads.

The system is so designed that take-off is impossible (by regulation) with the
locks still in - sometimes by fitting the handle in such a position that the
throttles cannot be moved forward unless it is released.

CONTROL POSITION INDICATING SYSTEMS

O n large aircraft the position of the control surfaces are indicated t o t h e pilot
by an indicator gauge or a display on a CRT (Cathode Ray Tube). The
transducers can he a variable resistor (potentiometer) connected t o the flying
control surface - or linkage close to it. AS t h c surface moves the transducer
sends a dc voltage to thc gauging system dependant on the surface position.
This voltage can be used to move a moving coil instmrnent or a dc ratiometer
typC'iiis-tfnrnent,or it c a n besent to a-computer where itlis converted t o a
digitai signai and sent to a symb6i-gkiieraior io show a position dispiay url iile
CRT. , , I

For more information on instddentation you a r e advised to read the book in

this sbries entitled ~nstrument$. --
I - .
-

j I
1

I I
!
I
I
I FLYING CONTROL RIGGING
I t 1
I ' 1 :

The fliihg.contrbl systems havk be rigged from time to time, ie set up and
checked so-that they carry out their function correctly.

QUESTION: When would the controls be rigged? Try and think of at least 4
occasions. (5 mins).

ANSWER: 1. At the manufacturer's.

2. When stated in the AMM.
3. When a component in thc system is changed.
4. After a heavy landing or flight through turbulent air,
5. When any adjustment is carried out to the system.
6. If the pilot reported a fault with the system - eg lack of
range, high static friction etc.

The actual process of controI system rigging will vary from aircraft t o aircraft. It
wilI vary an whether the controIs arc manual or powered. It wiIl also vary nn
whether the system is operated by cables, push/ pull rods or by fly-by-wire.

I t is most important therefore t o refer to the AMM for the actual procedure to
be carried out.
The following paragraphs give a general outline concentrating on a manually
operated cable system. Some variations are included but most systems rigging
would be similar. The process is not too dissimilar to that used on trimming
systems.

The general procedure is:

Refer to the AMM.
Configure the aircraft for test.
Set t h e control system t o neutral.
Check cable tensions.
Carry out sense check.
Carry out freedom of movement check.
Carry out range of movement check.
Carry out any special checks.
Carry out a duplicate inspection.

Do r elate-this process to your ,ewn-aircraft. - .. y

.-
-+ -. r
I

The following paragraphs exparid ,on theXrn+nheadings above:and are a

general approach. ' )
,,

1
,
I m

1.
I 1 I &is may
Refer to the Aircraft Maintenance M k a l -With some1 tasks
f / i

not be the first thing to do -withsome control rig& i f a h i b s t certainly

$hould come first. I t may the *aft to be jackea-andin rigging
position -it may not. i I

2.
I

Configure the system. ~ h AMM

! I '
k wili sbecify, for powefed controls, that
--. -
..
.

hydrauLic..and electric power is--

to be 'onand certain ;systefns to be on -
I----

such as the Air Data Computer, Flight Management Computer etc. Pitot
static systems might have to be pressurised. I t will list the equipment to
be used.

Check flying control systems and associated systems for completeness

and s e ~ c e a b i l i t y .

On large aircraft place warning notices that controls are being moved
and check that servicing personnel are not working on or close to control
systems. Remember, when powered controls are moved under power they
can cause serious injury if anyone gets in t h e way.

3. Set the Control Systems to Neutral - This may mean slackening the
control cables and usually requires mechanical locks/ pins / devices to be
placed:

(a) On the pilots control.

(b) A t the control surface end.
(c) At intermediate links/ pulleys in the system.
 Check that each component in the system is in neutral:

(a) PFCUsandartificidfeel(iffitted).
(b) Flight deck indicators (if fitted).
(c) Trimming systems.
(d) Tabs and indicators.
(e) Chains and cables are equally placed around sprocket
wheels/ pulleys.
(f) Control surfaces align with trailing edge.

Note. O n some aircraft there may be upfloat or downfloat specified -

check the AMM.

4. Check Cable Tensions - This may be carried out using a tensiometer (see
following paragraphs) and adjusting the turnbuckles in the system. A n
alternative method is to read the tensions from the cable tension
regulator while adjusting the turnbuckles. In this case reference must
be made to the ambient temperature and a graph relating temperature to
'-He tension regulator readhg. Ensure that aircraft has settled to local
-.
-- .-
j ambient: temperarure.
I
I I

Visudly inspect the lay of kll cables that they are correct and not fouling
anything. Check that d l Iturnbuckles/adjusters are in safely. Remove all
:neutral setting pins/ devices-
--
and- re-check tensions and neutral settings.
. ..
I

/ ~ o t eItem
. 3 would not apply t o a push/ pull rod system-- but push
rod lengths may be adjusted.
' I
I

5. Carry Out Sense Check - This will require e l e c t r i d and hydraulic power
on-a-powesed system. Tl?e fight deck controls are moved and a check is
carried out at the control surface end to check that they move in the
correct sense. Check flight deck indicators at the same time.

Remember on some large aircraft the spoilers may move asymmetrically

when the ailerons are moved. On other aircraft the tailplane may move in
response to elevator movement. So when checking primary flying control
movement do check related systems operation. Check correct sense
under autopilot command.

6. Carry Out Freedom of Movement Check - I n general this requires the

control system to be pulled through its complete range of movement
using, say, a spring balance attached to the control column/rudder
pedals. The force required to operate the controls should not exceed that
value laid down in the AMM. If it does the system must be given a
complete visual examination and the cause ascertained and rectified.

If manual reversion is provided on a powered system, check the system

in manual as well as in power. Check the AMM on spring balance
readings related to artificial feel inputs.
7. Carry Out Range of Movement Check - In general the piIot's controls are
moved to their full range in both directions and the range of movement of
the control surface is measured. It may be measured linearly using a rule
or angularly using an inclinometer. If measurements are incorrect then
range of movement may be altered using (usually)the primary control
stops.

If appropriate, check controls in power and manual and in autopilot

mode.

Check correct indications on the flight deck.

Lock all system points where previous adjustments have been carried
out.

8. Special Checks - The manual will specify the checks to be carried out on
all the equipment fitted to the controls. The aircraft may have to be
configured so as to assimilate - ..
certain conditions, and checks carried out.-
--~e gp$cpriz?g:
c.1 tfie f ~ ! ! ~ ~a .9 , ~ ~ w , .
',
--
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, *
*
Stick shaker. '
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Stick push. I : m ,

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. * ~ e t e n/ tdiscohrject syste&s. 1 ,

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* Artificial feel. : '-
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* r-- -
Autopilot s e q o land system operation. -
. *
,

,
i
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;Yawdampers. I 1 '
, Tab systems, trim and ~
,
i
d trim.
~ h I

m
*
I I *. .. Alternative p@er suppies/ alternative operation.
Emergency sthid-by-syst&s. , . I I

. .*.....
8 .. .- .
.. ,
System coniputerJ-s-op4ration. i'--' !
* Flight deck indications/ warnings.

9. Carry Out a Duplicate Inspection - All the parts of a flying control system
are generally classed as VITAL POINTS (asdefined in BCARs section A
A5-3) and if disturbed will require a duplicate inspection. Duplicate
inspections are required by BCARs section A A6-2, which defines the
following:

(a) Control System - A system by which the flight path, attitude or

propulsive force of an aircraft is changed, including the flight,
engine and propeller controls, the related systems controls and the
associated operating mechanisms.

(b) Duplicate Inspection - A n inspection first made and certified by

one qualified person and subsequently made and certified by a
second qualified person.
 NOTES
I. A duplicate inspection may be limited to that part of the system
which has been disturbed.
2. A duplicate inspection must be carried out as soon as possible
after the first inspection and before the aircraft flies.
3. If the system is disturbed during or after the duplicate inspection
then the part disturbed shall be subject to another duplicate set of
inspections.
4. All the work done must be recorded together with part numbers
/ serial numbers of components replaced.
A CRS must be signed and entered/attached t o the aircraft log
book.

EQUIPMENT

TENSIOMmERS
-"
I
I -
- -- .-.
r nese are used z'or checking Lh?tenslurls oi cabit=sirl a i r crdi, cvrlir oi sy sic~rls,
including engine controls. They are normally used on unregulated systems
only. I
here are several types available and the type to be used may, o r may not be,
specified in the AMM. -- - I
I I ;
, I :. I
,
I

SME i y k e
1 I

The SME en sib meter is supplied.in various marks to suit different sizes of
cable-. Each tensiometer will.take fmo sizes of cable - with two scales and the
size being marked an each scale.

Note. I t is important that the correct mark of tensiometer is used otherwise

inaccuracies will result.

Instructions for Use

(a) Fit the instrument where there is a clear run or cable.

(b) Pull the pointer over to its stop.
(c) Pass the cable under the right hand fixed pulley, then over the centre
pulley then under t h e left hand flxed pulley.
(d) Ensure that the tensiometer hangs freely.
(e) Run the tensiometer back and for the along the cable a few inches then
tap the cable until the reading settles down. The tension is indicated in
Tbs on the appropriate scale.
 PIVOT

5 CVVT SCALE

20 C W SCALE
I
I
Fig. 80 s Bm~E8mimsIoMmm
Y
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Check \forAccuracy i '
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Before use, the position of the spring anchoq,agepin should ibo checked to see
that it has not moved outside it5 &raved circle. ~f movernent!has occurred the
b n .tensio6eter dhould be
pin should be restored t o its ~ r i ~ i n d - ~ o s i r iThe
checked at regular intervals by the manufacturer or at an approved standards
room.

The Pacific T5 Type

This tensiometer is suitable far various sizes of cables using tables to convert
the reading into tension v d u e s depending on cable size and using the correct
size riser.

Instructions for Use

(a) From the chart supplied find the correct riser to use for the size of cable.
Fit the riser.

(b) Check that brake is off. Move trigger away from case - this Iowers the
riser.
(c) Placethecableunderthetwosectorsandovertheriser.

[d) Close the trigger - this raises the riser.

(e) Note the reading on the gauge. (If t h e reading is to be held operate the
brake lever).

(f) Open the trigger and remove the tensiometer.

(g) Convert the dial reading to lbs tension by reference to a calibration chart.

BRAKE
SECTOR
LEVER SECTOR
\ RISER

L
Fig. 81 FITTING THE T5 TENSIOMETER TO A CABLE
SCALE

Note. Each tensiometer has its own calibration chart. Make sure the calibration
chart bears the same serial number as the tensiometer.

INCLINOMETERS

Used for checking the angular range of movement of control surfaces.

These are made by various manufacturers and may have a range of only 10
degrees or so or may have a range of 90 degrees plus. Accuracies range from l o
to 1 minute (60 minutes = 1 degree). They may be mechanical or electronic in
operation and the mechanical ones use a spirit level as the reference.

For more information on measuring angles refer to JARlEASA module 7 series

of books in this series.
CONTROL SURFACE RIGGING BOARDS

These are supplied by most aircraft manufacturers and fit onto the
mainplane / tailplanel s tructure and, using a scale, will indicate the range of
movement of the control surface/control component.

May be fitted with red warning flags t o ensure their removal after use.

RIGGING JIGS

Often supplied to fit onto the ~ o n t r o l sin the cockpit t o rig them into neutral.
The jig is attached to the cantto1 coIumn and the rudder pedals and a part of
the cockpit structure.

RIGGING PENS

h$ tbe r n a n ~ ~ f ~
Si-~ppli~rl ~ cr teir m h efi_ft?d..
into r n m p n n e t l t ~ 3 ~-q~-]a-rlrar?ts,
as
pulleys and idling links to l o ~ k ' + t r n ~ 3 o , fneutral
h~
warning flags to cnsure their repmvaI aft& hse.

- 77 -
rnoodulll A-78
CONTENTS

Page

The atmosphere
The ICAO standard atmosphere
Low speed flight
Definitions - 1
Aerodynamic lift
Definitions - 2
Lift augmentation
Aerodynamic drag
' -ThGF-f~-gr
f ~ r r qp I
-- -
[ -
Manoeuvres I

The axis
Stability I I
Dynamic stability I

Flutter -- --
.
s aircraft dcsignl- - - -
V ~ i a t i o n in
High sbecd flight I I
L
Transonic speed I

~ u ~ e r s o nspeed
ic) i
I .
I

Wing plan forms -

Kinetic "heating -
Stability and control at supersonic speed
Jet engine intakes
 THE ATMOSPHERE

The parameters of air (pressure, density and temperature) vary considerably

both with height and geographical location around the world. The air is made
up of approximately 2 1% oxygen (02) and 78% nitrogen (N)by volume, with the
remaining 1% being made up from other gases. The ratios of the gases vary
little with height although the moisture content drops with increase in altitude.

Because of these variations and to allow standardisation and calibration of

instruments and engine performance figures etc, a Standard Atmosphere has
been devised.

This allows engines to be test run in almost any ambient conditions and the
performance figures adjusted to standard atmospheric conditions - allowing
the performance ofone engine to directly compared to that of another.

Pitot-static operated instruments can be calibrated using the standard

atmosphere and they can be set for flight using t h e same parameters leg QNE
on the altimeter).
..
-. , -- -
- I -. -.. I-_
, -

THEICA~STANDARDATMOSPHORE
I
I 1
~t has bekn shown that the maih hariableb (pressure, tempeiat,ure and density)
of the standard atmosphere relate well-with actual average <dues - -
observed at
8

about latitude 40' N. This stand&717ttmosphere is regardedas a reference

basis fhr 'certain parameters in free air (excluding those dependent on water
vapaur) :).
I# I I I I I '
I
1 I I ' I I'

The standard-st he TCAO standard-atmosphere states that: ~ h k air is assumed

to be dry. The-pressure at sea-level is 1013.25rnb (rnillibw). The temperature is
15°C and the temperature lapse rate is 1.98"Cper lOOOft (feet) up to a height
of 36,000ft where the ternperature will remain constant at -56.S°C to 65,800ft.
The value of "g" (gravity) is given a uniform value of 9.8lm Jsec at sea level.

For heights above 65,800ft the ICAO law states that the temperature lapse rate
is approximately +0.303"C per 1 000ft t o -44.6"C at 105,000ft.

Effectively that means that the ternperature falls with altitude at a rate of about
2°C per 1000ft from 15°C at sea level to 36,000ft where it holds almost stoady
at -56°C until about 36,000ft where the temperature starts to rise.

Pressure. Measured in Pa or psi or mb). Starts at 1013mb (14.7psi) at sea level

and falls at a non-linear rate with altitude. Losing most of its value at the lower
altitudes so that at 18,00Oft., for example, the pressure is halved to 506mb.

These pressure readings are absolute pressure readings. If an ordinary

pressure gauge is open t o atmosphere it will read zero.
If it is used to check a tyre pressure of, say 30psi, it will read 30psi, but the
pressure in the tyre is in fact 30psi above atmospheric so the absolute pressure
in the @re is 30 + 14.7 = 44.7psi. The tyre pressure as measured by the gauge
is called gauge pressure. Its absolute pressure would be gauge pressure plus
atmospheric pressure = 44.7psi absolute.

Density. Defined as mass per unit volume (kmJm3). Starts at 1.2kg per cubic
metre at sea level, and falls at a similar rate to pressure. I t s rate of change is
non-linear which means the graph is a curve and the amount by which it drops
changes with height.

At a given height density can change depending on the temperature and the
relative humidity (RH). It the temperature drops density will increase and if t h e
RH increases the density will decrease. In the standard atmosphere the drop in
pressure with altitude offsets any tendency for the density to increase because
of the d r ~ in
p temperature.

Temperature. Starts at 15°C at sea lcvel and falls at a rate of about 2°C (1.987
actual) per 1000ft to 36,OOOK 11km). This is called the lapse rate which is
!kAe&f i $his altitr-~de(the gra:fih i s Y straight lin ej. T t remlain ~ steady a t 9 hmlt
.

minus 56°C to 65,000ftwhere ,it tp rise. I

I I

' I

~ u r n i d i bThe
. Relative ~ u m i d i t y(RH) fails with altitude. T ~ isSus<aily taken
as a $eicentage of the total rn&hurn humidity that the air 1w ill hold' af a
partidular temperature. (For air hiditioning purposes watkr ispray is added to
I--
the a+ {ntering the cabin at altitude to'c&nter , the effect ok thedry ambient air
I
- low N). I

RH is the amoint of moisture that is in a volume (m3) of aii compared to the

rnqimtirn ahount it will hold (ie!when i t i s saturated) - at 'thht,temperature.
-. -.. -.

The higher the humidity the less dense the air and as density is a function of
lift so lift decreases with an increase in humidity. This means that with some
airfields located in humid climates, large/ heavy aircraft may wait until nightfall
when the RH drops before taking off.

Absolute Humidity (AH) is the m o u n t of moisture in a cubic metre of air {ata

specific temperature) in grams per cubic metre. A similar measure to R3-I but
gives the value as a specific amount, eg 2.7gJm? Not such a helpful parameter
as RH.

When air is continuously cooled there comes a point when a temperature is

reached which causes any moisture present to condense out - this is called the
Dew Point. When dealing with breathing 0 2 , if it is considered contaminated its
moisture content c a n be checked by passing it at low pressure across a mirror
in a hygrometer. The mirror's temperature is gradually lowered and when the
dew point is reached dew forms on t h e mirror and an electrical connection
across the mirror causes a needle to move.

moodull 1 A-81
At this point the temperature of the mirror is noted (Dew Point temperature)
and from tables the moisture content of t h e oxygen can be established. This
value is compared to data supplied by the oxygen manufacturer (BOC for
example). There are also electronic instruments available for determining the
Dew Point of a gas.

Vapour trails or Contrails from high flying alrcraft are caused by moisture in
the atmosphere.

Most vapour trails come from the efflux of jet engines due to the condensation
of the moisture in the efflux as the hat gasses cool at altitude. When there are
no vapour trails t h e aircraft is flying through air with very little moisture in
and/or it is flying at a low enough altitude so that rapid cooling of the efflux
does not occur.

Vapaur trails from wing-tips are caused by the condensation of the moisture in
the air as it looses pressure (and cools) by spilling over the wing-tip from the
high pressure side on t h e bottom of the wing to the top low pressure side of the
wing. In some conditions they can be seen coming from the ends of flaps.
-8 - - -- --- ..
. m
L
' I 'I j
I L ~ W
SPEED
I
BLIGHT
!
!
I i I '
I j
DEFINITIONS

The follo&ing definitions should y-~emekbered:

I8 I8 ! I
\ \
~irspekd;The spebd of the aircfaft througb @e air. Not usu$ly the same as
ground speed, fhf example: If tfie Faircraft ii's flying through the1 air at 140kts
with a tail-wid of 30kts then i& ground
-.- - - spied will be 140 310 = 170kts. If the 4
aircraft turnsxound and fliesrinto_thewind then its ground speed is 140 - 30 = ..

1 1Okts. Hence the reason why aircraft always land into wind - the actual
landing speed is reduced by the amount of head wind.

NOTE.The knot (kt)is 1 nautical mile per hour and 1 nautical mile
statute miles. 1kt = 1.15mph = 1.85km/ h = 0.514rn/ s
- 1.15

Incompressible.Flow below sonic speed (the speed of sound - 762rnph at

sea level) is assumed to be incompressible. Not strictly true but close enough
for most practical purposes.A t supersonic speeds the air is compressible.
While supersonic speed is considered as Mach 1 and above, compressibility
effect starts t o make itself felt at about M0.7. BernouIIi (how air flows around
an object) assumes incompressible flow and therefore only applies to subsonic
speeds.

If the aircraft was to fly at speeds approaching the speed of sound (MCRITand
above) then shock waves would cause a large inarea= in drag (as well as
buffeting etc). This process starts in the transonic speed range.
Laminar Flow. Fluid flow in which the streamlines maintain a uniform parallel
separation with no turbulence. Shown as parallel straight lines on a flow
diagram. Generally considered to be a good condition which reduces drag.

Streamline. A n imaginary line marking the path of a particle of fluid from one
point to another especially in laminar flow. Usually shown as a line with an
arrow indicating direction of flow.

Turbulent Flow. Random motion of fluid with unpredictable fluctuations and

vortices. There are no streamlines present. Will cause considerable drag.

AERODYNAMIC LIFT

The Venturi Effect

When air passes through a tube which contracts to a throat, it can be shown
by a simple experiment (Bernoulli)that the air pressure (called the Static
Pressure) drops at the throat - where the air velocity is at its fastest.
8 --- 7-

If werey;esent t h e flow by drawing ~ ~ e a k l i nof

e sthe flo% ofGFrthiflhrough such
a ventuti we see that thc streahlines md,f4rced together wh&e the'speed is
1
greatesd and the pressure is lowest. ! / l 1
I
I
!
, I I 'I /I I
1
'
:
I
I

, I STREAMLINES
I I

I I
4 '

I AIRFLOW DlRECTlON

Fig. 1 AIRFLOW THROUGH A VENTURI

If the two sides of the venturi are free to move they will move together as the
pressure drops (asimple experiment c a n show this to be true). If we reverse the
venturi sides and we put the low pressure areas on the outside of the shape
then we have the makings of an aerofoil (figure 2 ) .

The Aerofoil

The wings of aircraft are of an aerofoil shape, as indeed are the tailplane
(stabiliser)and fin. Other aerodynamic components are also aerefoil shaped to
include propellers, flaps, slats, control surfaces, aerials (antenna) etc.
 HH;H VELOCCPl
AND
LOW PRESSURE AREAS

#
Fig. 2 SYMMETRICAL AEROFOIL

Figure 2 shows a symmetrical aerofoil. Not common for aircraft that fly below
the speed of sound, but some aircraft are in Iact fitted with these. The wings
arc attached to the fuselage at a small positive angle (angle of incidence) so
that they will create lift, but the more usual aerofoil for low speed aircraft is
asymmetric with a well rounded leading edge and a straighter or slightly
concave bottom surface (figure 3).

-
Ilt:
PI.*- "f"ii seGtion of tlie fiii qf z i ~iyidart
is ilS-uaiiy s,, rlllXlci~ic.i;ii-
i ill a Wcii
rounded leading edge. The chord liiie isset' in-line with the fuselage
longituaihd datum line, but some single engined propeller driven aircraft may
havc the fin set at a small angle, on the fuselage to help offset the effect of thc
rotating Slipstream from the prdpeller.
I

Some tailplancs have an aerofoil sektiCfi which give 'negative9lift. In .other

words the most cambered surface/is on thk bottom with the flitter surfacc on
the top: vsed to help balance the four forcks)actingon the aircraft. More of this
later. . : I . ' I

. - ' I.. ' ,

The top-surfaceofan asymmetric-aerofoil for the wings usually&as a good
convex tap camber with the bottom surface being nearly flat, or in some cases
having a slight concave surface (figure 3).

'11 1I .
NEQATWE

-
PRESSURE Ttm Unes am drswn BO ~ c 1 o r
Ilnaa and ars oblalcd by fitting
manoma!wbrbss !a each
pdni within 91saeroloil model
In a wlnd hmW.

AIRFLOW

POSITIVE
PRESSURE

43 I b
Fig.
l
3 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AROUND AN AEROFOIL
This type of aerofoil will produce a negative pressure on the top surface and a
positive pressure on the bottom surface, thus creating lift. M o s t of the lift is
created from the top surface with about a third being created from the bottom.
is
The Centre of Lift of the aerofoil about 1 J3rd chord distance from the leading
edge.

The total air reaction can be organised into its component vectors - lift and
drag. The lift vector always acts at right angles to the airflow (or free-stream
flow) and the drag vector always acts at right angles to the lift vector and in line
with the airflow (figure 4).

Fig. 4 ~ I F T A N D ' D ~ A GVECTORS

<.
i
1 .
I
I --

I
TWUNG
EDGE WAKE

Fig. 5 AIRFLOW AROUND AN AEROFOIL

Figure 4 shows how the lift and drag vectors are summed to give the Total Air
Reaction and figure 5 shows the airflow around t h e aerofoil.

W h e n an object moves through the air it sends out pressure waves forward into
the airstream. These pressure waves warn the oncoming air of the object's
approach, and as the air gets near to the object so the air will start to move out
of its way. This will cause Upwash in front of the aerafoil with most of the un-
coming air moving upwards. The air over the top surface will speed up
(Bernoulli) and the air under the bottom surface will slow down. This means a
drop in pressure o n the top surface and an increase in pressure under the
aerofoil.
As the air leaves at the trailing edge so will move down. This i s called
Downwash.

I t can be shown that the lift produced by an aerofoil is related to:

* I t s shape and angle of attack (CL)

* The air density (p)
* The air velocity (V)
* The pIan wing area (A)

Lift is calculated by:

where

CL This is found by experimentation and is related mainly to the

aerofoil shape. A higher Ct means greater lift. I t is just a number
which is called a coefficient.
- - -
p , is ihe air density j i:Zk~,rnzat s e a ieveij. The iower the-aititucie of
1 the aircraft the gr&ef i~fie~dknsity and the myre thP lift is
1I
created - dl other pkrimeters, bking fmed. ! I
V I s the air velocity. With an increase in speed more lift is cre:ated. In
I I fact the lift is related to the s@are of speed. S o if t h e speed is
doublcd the lift is irideased fobr-fold.
A Isrelatedtothewi~gp~~-~e~,IngeneralthegreaterthewingI ;
area the greater the1I lift. In some.equations this pay be designated
' ' ,(I I .
I
,I 8
I I
I t
I

The equation,%pV2is sometime; ddled-the dynamic quatioh h d is given the ..

designation- q:That is q = %p~ar -- - -

q is used in many other calculations including those related to Pitot static

instruments and the calculation of drag - as we shall see later.

Some Mere Definitions:

Angle of Attack [AoA). This is the angle between the chord line of an aerofoil
(mainplane, tailplane or fin) and the free-stream flow. In various manuals
(pilot's notes in particular) it is called the Alpha angle (a).
If a symmetrical
aerafoil is given a positive angle of attack the speed of the airflow over the top
surface increases - which produces suction, and the speed of the airflow under
the aerofoil decreases - and the pressure increases. Hence lift is produced.

For an asymmetric aerofoil lift can be generated at zero angle of attack and
' kven at small negative angles of attack. ex

-7-

moodulIIA-86
 ANGLE OF A n m (THEW)

Fig. 6 ANGLE OF A V A C K

This means that for a given airspeed lift increases with an increase in angle of
attack - but only up to the stalling angle, usually 15" for a 'clean' wing (flaps
up, slats in, spoilers in etc). This increased angle will also increase upwash and
downwash - and drag of course. More of this later.

Angle of Incidence. The angle the chord line makes with the longitudinal datum
line of the aircraft. Fixed for most aircraft wings but variable for many
tailplanes. The angle of incidence may change from root to tip on the wings. If
it increases from root to tip it is said t o Wash-in, if it decreases it is said to
Wash-out.
- - A -- .-..
I ..
cent& bf pressure. All the pr&~siif~diffeAnces
between the tap-and bottom
surfabes of the aerofoil c a n be bdded together to produce tLe i ~ o t a &ir: l Reaction
which chn be considered to act : a a p i n t c,hled the ~ e n t r ocf ~ r e s s u r &
(C of P).
I I ' lf 1 1
A s the gngle of attack increasds and fie&essure distribution changes, the
positibn of the C of P moves f o k d ~ d s u a l l yreaching a pqin<about I/- chord
length from the leading edge at the stal1ing:angle. After the stalling angle has
been p+ssed it mbves rapidly b-ackI t o about mid-chord position.
I
I I I

chordline. A'stdaight imaginary line joinini the centre of curvature of the

leading edgeof an aerofoil section to the trailing edge. I 1 _.

Downwash. An area behind the trailing edge of an aerofoil where the airflow
tends to movc downwards.

Fineness Ratio, The ratio between the maximum depth of the aerofoil and the
chord length. Thin' wings havc a high fineness ratio. 'Fat' wings have a low
fineness ratio.

Mean Aerodynamic Chord. Similar te the Mean Chord. I t is the chord 01 an

imaginary wing of constant aerofoil section producing the same forces (lift and
drag) as those produced by an actual wing.

Mean Camber Line. A n imaginary line drawn from the centre of curvature of
the leading edge to the trailing edge of an aerofoil, but equidistant from the top
and bottom surfaces. This i s the same as t h e chord Line on a symmetrical
aerofoil but will be curved on an asymmetric aerofoil and not the same as the
chord line.
 TURBULENT FLOW

LONG WAKE

Fig. 8 AEROFOIL STALLING

There is a Transition Point on the top of the aerofoil towards the rear where the
airflow changes from laminar to turbulent flow, and as t h e angle of attack
increases so this point will move forward.

A t approqirnately 15" angle qf-attac-k-(with a clean wing), !the airflow can no

longer r6ain laminar on the'-topsurface' *ofthe acmfoil h d it will break away
and &dome turbulent. This will destroy tGylift in this are4 +d the drag will
increase sharply. At this paintthe aerafd,l is said ta stall. The acraf+ilis no
longer 4ble to support the aircrakt weight (&though there is still some lift) m d
itwilllldoseheightrapidly. 1 - -- ... '
! ! I
I

I I

I
i i-- i L - -
The Artraft will descend with thk altipeteiwinding back q ~ i f i k lThe
~ ; pilot can
do ndthkng to prevent this andl rdcovery itivolves pushing t$e throttles forward
(more p h c r ) , &shing the contrcil column fhrward (puttingthe nose down to
get m'ork-airspeed and reduce the -angle of attack). I
-- -
'- .-- L A . - -
-- .. - -- --<

When the normal airflow p t t e r n around thc wing is re-cAtiblished the pilot
pulls back on the control column and raises the nose of the aircraft. This
process losses a lot of height and stall tests are carried out with sufficient
altitude to allow recovery.

Stalling is usually accompanied by buffeting (due to the turbulence) and

sometimes loss of control and possible engine pxoblems. Lose of control can be
caused by turbulent air passing over the ailerons and sometimes the elevators
(the turbulent air coming from the wings).

With rear mounted jet engines the turbulent air from the wings can sometimes
cause the engines to stall (turbulent air in the intakes causing the compressor
blade to stall). With stalled engines and ineffective elevators the aircraft is in
very serious trouble. This is called a Super Stall with the aircraft falling in a
nearly flat attitude with the pilot having few recovery options.
I

Increasing the angle of attack continuously (without increasing power) until the
aerofoil stalls is not the only way an aerofoil can be stalled. I t can be stalled by
gradually reducing the fonvard airspeed whilst holding the aircraft in straight
and level flight.
A s the speed (Indicated Air Speed IAS) deceases so the aircraft will fly slower
and to maintain height the angle of attack will gradually have to be increased.
At some point a n IAS will be reached where the wing is a t the stalling angle of
attack, the wing can no longer support the weight of the aircraft and the wing
stalls. This is sometimes called the stalling speed and is important when
calculating the landing speed of an aircraft. In general the lower the stalling
speed the better.

It is interesting to note that the IAS at stall is the same a t all altitudes.

Note that on most aircraft there are stall warning devices fitted in the flight
deck which include oral and visual warnings, devices that shake the control
column (stick shaker) a n d stick pushers (to put the nose of the aircraft down,
but the pilot can overcome this if helshe wishes) - all to warn of an
approaching a stall. More of this later in the module.

Remember, the angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the
relative airflow. Aircraft with powerful engines can climb a t almost any angle
relative to the horizontal, but the angle of attack must always be lower than 15"
---
for the wing to be in a n un-stalled-condition.
-

--
i 1
Wing Loading is the weight (mass) of the &?raft divided by thk gross wing
area. Gross wing area i s taken as the total wing area in plad vkw including any
part of the fuselage in-between the wings. The mass of the aircraft is taken as
the mass at that instant. Aircraft wytth a low wing loading (in general, light
--
I --
aircraft with large wing areas - gliders for example) have a lpw~r_stalling speed
which k e a n s lower landing speed's. I
I I
I
' I
Aircraft with high wing loading,swch a s fighters have high l$nding speeds and
high stalling speeds. - I --

- - -
- - -
--

The Lift Curve

Graph 1 shows the lift curve for an aerofoil. At about -4" (off the graph) there is
no lift and a s the angle of attack (AoA) increases so the lift increases until a t
about 15" the wing stalls and the total lift reduces - even if the AoA is further
increased.

The graph shows that some lift is created a t 0' AoA (for most asymmetric
aerofoils) with the lift coefficient starting a t about 0.02 and peaking a t 1.2.

At the point where the wing stalls the wing losses lift rapidly and the aircraft
looses height. Buffeting might occur due to turbulent air from the wings hitting
other parts of the aircraft such as the tailplane and control surfaces. One wing
might stall before the other making the aircraft roll whilst losing height.
5 L
 LIFT COEFFICIENT

ANGLE OF ATTACK "

-
GRAPH I ANGLE OF ATTACK (a)AGAINST LIFT COEFFICIENT (CL)

The pilot may have difficulty in controlling the aircraft. If the outer part of the
wingstalls before the inner p- r t -then
-. the -turbulent air from the stalled area of
- - - --
fie!wing&odd alieci tiie diCi-Oiis. lrlc FI.LUL
mi---- WVU~
-I-& 1-1 lU3L 1u.u
U I--- - ~ i ,---CLZI.J~~:--
i
L"LLLLU.L CL-
U U I L L ~ ~L L I ~
-, -. -.

stall @d this could lead to thd &craft apbroaching a spin

p ~ c a s dstate
t of affairs. ! I ii I
I
I '
i 1 1
To hdpi to prevent this a fixed barldl' 'stall spoiler' is fit+d to the leading
edge bf 'the inboard part of thelw~ngGisbme aircraft. This Lauses the inboard
part df ihe wing to stall before itfie outet\p&-t during the s t d ~ l ~ r o c e sso s,
helpi+gthe pilot ,to maintain roll:control &bing the stall.
,
' I
I I
I
I I 1 ,
I
i
I

This means that when the air=)+ stal1s.h is t h e inner that stalls and the
outer sections &ill have lamina air-flowing over them and-the ailerons are still
eff&tive-,- - -
-
-A
- . ". . . -
I __-<- . ..

On swept wing aircraft, if the outer wing (towards the wing tip) stalls before the
inner wing then this lose of lift may cause a nose up pitching moment. This is
because this part of the wing may be behind the aircraft centre of gravity on
the longitudinal axis and this lift element would be causing a nose down
couple. With it removed (asin an outer wing stall) the nose may pitch up
momentarily.

LIJV AUGMENTATION

Lift is increased for landing and take-off by the use of leading edge slats and
trailing edge flaps. The whole idea is to give the aerofoil a more curved mean
camber line. Birds can do this by changing the shape of their wings and t h e
feathers slide over each other similar to platelets. It is not really a practical
preposition to try and change the shape of a metal wing (although experiments
have been carried out). So the best way, so far, is to effectively "bend" the front
and rear part of the aerofoil down - to fit leading and trailing edge high lift
devices.
Lift can be increased in flight by:
* Increasing the airspeed - throttles/ thrust levers.
j:
Increasing the angle of attack - elevators, all-flying tailplanes, all-
flying foreplanes etc.
* Increasing the effective camber of the mean camber line - flaps and
leading edge devices.
* Increasing the stalling angle - some flaps and leading edge devices.
* Increasing the effective wing area - Fowler type flaps.
* Using the ailerons as flaps. Using the ailerons in a combined
roll/flap mode (called flaperons). Setting both port and starboard
ailerons partly down for take-off and landing, whilst the pilot still
h a s differential movement for roll control. Set automatically when
aircraft configured for landing/ take-off,

Lift augment~tiongenerally refers to leading and trailing edge devices, which

means flaps, slats etc.

--
A 'CieiCrl w i n g
Y TTT'

1- - -

Figure 9 shows a section of a 'clFan7wing, every thing rnovkable and attached

to the wing is either in or up - landing ge&, flaps, slats, spoileks etc. Notice the
Mean Camber Line (MCL).If we ,can make the MCL more cambered or make it
longer (bigger wing area) then lift will b? increased.
I :--
~
I

MEAN CAMBER LINE (MCL)

Fig. 9 A 'CLEAN' WING

Figure 10 shows that the Effective MCL (EMCL)becomes more cambered when
flaps are lowered, which means lift is increased - by about 60% in fact. The
stalling angle is not affected significantly. The drawing shows a split flap, but
the same is true for all types of flap with the Fowler type producing the best
EMCL.

--- _

Fig. 10 SPLIT FLAP

- 13 -
rnoodull l A-92
Figure 11 shows a Fowler type flap which not only goes down when selected
but also travels rearward (on tracks). This means that the wing area is
increased as well as the camber of the MCL. The increase in lift for this type of
flap is up to 90% - that means, nearly double the lift for that section of the
wing.

The double slotted Fowler uses an additional small slat type aerofoil in front of
the main flap to direct air over the top of the main flap to help to prevent it
from stalling - similar to a slat. This small slat allows higher pressure air from
the bottom of the flap to wash over the top surface washing any eddies and
stalling currents away. This means that this type of flap produces up to 100%
more lift with an increase in the stalling angle to 20°.

Fig.~ I r
O ---
E TYPE
R FLAP [ :
- --
-

, , . ,
I
- , ' I

-- ,
' : ,

, ..-- - - Fig. 12 D~~LE-.SLOTTED

FOWLER FLAP.

Some Fowlcr flaps have an additional hinged surface attached to the trailing
edge that moves down when the flaps are lowered, similar to a n additional
small plane flap - thus increasing t h e camber of the mean camber line still
further and increasing the lift.

Figure 13 shows a Krueger flap. I t is type of leading edge flap that is hinged
forward to increase the camber of the EMCL, and i t also increases the wing
area a little.

%.-**

Fig. 13 KRUEGER FLAP

Popular on the inboard sections of mainplanes of many large airliners, it
increases the lift by about 50% with an increase in the stalling angle to 25".

The slat in figure 14 increases the EMCL slightly as well as the wing area
(slightly) b u t its main advantage is that it controls the boundary layer on top of
the wing. At high angles of attack the air flows through the gap and is directed
along the top of the wing. This airflow 'sweeps' any turbulent air away and
holds the stall off until about 22". The lift increase is about 60%.

AIRFLOW SWEEPS TOP OF

AEROFOIL CLEAR OF TURBULENCE

Fig. 1 4 THE SLAT

- -
, I

On some &all aircraft the slats may-be f i e d (rare);on other smal1,aircraft

they may be automatic - sucked out a t high angles of attack against a spring.
On large aircraft they are powe(ed and selected by the pilot, often when the
flaps are selected via a single levei- in the flight deck. I
1 -
I I

They a r e fitted to most large aircrgt with the most cornrnoncdnfigtu-ation being
Krueger flaps on the inboard sehions of the wings and slat$ o n the outboard
sections. They are all selected d h e n flaps are selected (by the pilot).
I
1 1
1 I
On some older aikcraft the wing daybe pf the Slotted type (rare).The wing has
a slot initconnecting the bottom s u r g c e to the top surface. This allows air to
P-

pass through from the bottom-to the top. The action is iden6Ci.l to that of a
fixed slat in that, a t high AoA, the air passes through and is allowed to sweep
the top surface clean of turbulence thus putting off the stall to a much higher
angle.

On some experimental aircraft Blown Flaps are used. This entails inbuilt
compressors or tapings from the jet engine and ducting to blow air downwards
from the aerofoil trailing edge creating, in effect, a flap.

Combination of Slats and Flaps

When slats and flaps are deployed together, which they usually are, the
increase in lift is about 120% (well over double) and the stalling angle
increased to about 30" (again, double the normal stalling angle).
Symmetrical Operation of High Lift Devices

All trailing edge and leading edge lift devices must operate symmetrically (ie the
flaps/ slats on the right wing move at the same speed and the same distance as
the flaps/ slats on the left wing).

If a ~ y r n m e operation
~c was to occur then a violent roll would ensue - which
would be uncontrollable (it has happened, and it has caused fatalities).

The aircraft i s fitted with systems to prevent asymmetric operation such as a

common drive system for port and starboard flaps/slats and an asymmetric
detection system that will stop the systems immediately any asymmetry is
detected (and warn the pilot).

Landing/Take-off Configuration

Modern aircraft have computers to monitor the aircraft's configuration during

landing and take-off and if something is amiss, t o give a warning on the flight
t A exactly what is wr3iigXjfst3ms
deck- G s ,- - -- that are monitorEd-far
- correct
confi&i.ation can include: -\ , r--
b

\ \, I i
I1 **
I
nap/ slat positions. 1
Spoiler positions. I 1
.1 j
I
I 1 1
I1
I
I

8 * Auto aileron droo$. ' lc //

*
* 1
Landing gear do& Fd-lGCked.
Auto-brake set. I 1
I

i .
,

I1 :
I - -
I .

I * Engjne parameters set. r

' .
I
*I Erlgine bleed inhibit' (take-o,;f $mottles open).
I 1
I
' *' -- -Auto-throttle set,
I ! .- ,
-*- - -Weight switches:opesation.-- -- -

* Cabin doors shut (take-off).

* ILS (instrument Ianding system) monitored (landing) ,j.

.X Auto-land system monitored.

* Some aircraft can automatically receive airfield barometric and
visibility data.
* Radar a1timeter.
* Aircraft transponder (providing aircraft ident and altitude to ATC).
+ Ground mapping radar.
* Autopilot set.
* Auto-trim set.

I t is interesting to note that auto-trim (normally from the autopilot) operates in

fast mode when flaps are lowered (aircraft near t h e ground and speed is
important) and operate in slow mode when flapslslats are in and housed.
 AERODYNAMIC D W G

Any device moved into the airflow will cause drag and this applies to flaps and
slats, so they are designed to produce as little drag a s possible. But if flaps are
lowered to a large angle then they can be used to reduce the speed of the
aircraft, ie they are designed a t this angle to produce drag.

So when the pilot wants a s much lift as possible with a s little drag a s possible
then the flaps are only lowered a little. So for take-off the pilot moves the flap
lever (shaped like a flap so it can be identified by feel if necessary) to a detent
marked 'take-off' and the flaps lower part way.

When landing, the pilot moves the lever to the 'land' position detent which
causes the flaps to move further down, in some cases nearly a t right angles to
the airflow. At this position a large drag force is created which slows the
aircraft a n d lift is also created which helps to reduce the stalling speed and
hence the landing speed.

For small aircraft the flap lever is a handle (like a motor vehicle handbrake)
that moves tine fiaps r n a n u a i i y 7 C ~large airc~al'itilt: Gap iever is a r l eieciricai
selector a n d the flaps are powerFd hflraulically (being ele<triclallyselected).
I
I ! I

If flapsjslats are lowered a t excks~iveairsbeed then they would be damaged by

the airflow (even torn away - which has h'appened) so devices k-e fitted to the
aircraft to prevent them being low'ered if the aircraft is travelling too fast.
- ----
I

' 1
On mode'rn large aircraft the selection of high lift devices is Loverned by a
computer which,takes account of airspeed, altitude, whether the aircraft is in
the air or on the ground and wdether the pilot has made a selection or not. If
h e j s h e h a s not and the computerl,thinksthat a selection should be made (at
take-off for example) the computer--will give a configuration warning.

If the pilot selects the flaps out a t too high a n airspeed then the computer will
not make the selection and a warning is given.

Air Resistance (Drag)

The total drag on the aircraft is made u p of Profile drag and Induced drag.
Profile drag increases with increased airspeed and Induced drag reduces with
increased airspeed.

The drag calculation is not too unlike that for lift and written as:

Drag = CD% pV2A or C D q A

- 17 -

rnoodull l A-96
 where

CD This is found by experimentation and is related mainly to the

aerofoil shape. I t is just a number which is called a coefficient.
With a flat plate the coefficient is 1.0 and with a highly streamlined
shape this is reduced t o about 0.02.
p Air density.
V Air velocity.
A Is related to the wing frontal area. Sometimes designated 'S'.

Profile Drag

Profile drag is associated with the whole aircraft moving through ~e air and
increases as the square of speed. Induced drag is associated with the
production of lift and occurs mainly at the wingtips. I t is opposite to profile
drag in that it decreases with the square of speed.

ProfiIe drag includes several types of drag and one, Boundary Layer drag, has
featnresbuilt into t h e design-of-the-airer,aft to help minimise-its
-
effects.

A' I I , \ ' I ---- --

This 0undar-ylayer is viscoud ($tic@) dith low energy lev& and will *adversely
affect fl9ing control surfaces, en*ne perforkance - if it gets into intakks, and
thc pkrfomance of aerofoils. I t is disliedby designers and iS bled hiy from
engine intakes, and on some $e&foils-voitex Generators are lfitted io h o v e the
free-svtrtrkarnflow down into the' bmiidary layer in an attembt to-liven it up and
1
give i t more
I
energy. I/
I
\
I i \!
1:
? --
' i
I

i I I

TOP SURFACE
OF WING

Fig. 15 VORTEX GENERATORS - PLAN VIEW OF WING

The vortex generators are small pieces of metal and inch or two high (25 to
51rnrn) set at a small angle to the airflow. They are set in rows usually towards
the front of the aerofoil on the top.

Some Airbus A340s are fitted with a riblet film to aerofoils and fuselage, which
are microgrooves to help reduce skin friction caused by the boundary layer.
 The boundary layer may be lmm thick or several millimetres thick. The thicker
it is the worse it is. The thickness is affected by several parameters:
* The further the air h a s to pass down the surface of a body the
thicker the boundary layer becomes.
* The rougher the surface the thicker the boundary layer.
* If the boundary layer gets too thick then it can become turbulent -
increasing it's depth still further.
* The slower the airflow the thicker the boundary layer - in general.

FREE-STREAM

BOUNDARY
LAYER

Fig. 16 BOUNDARY LAYER

The layer problems can--

be reduced
--
by: I
I

*I Having smooth highly polished wings, fuselage, tail and flying

control surfaces - reducing the boundary layer !tMickness.
*
I

Bleeding away the boundary layer through many small surface air
inlets on the wings using vacuum pressure - experimental aircraft
I - usually.
* Giving it more energy by mixing free-stream airflow down into the
boundary layer air using vortex generators.
-k
Bleeding boundary layer air away from engine intakes that are
close to the fuselage, or designing the intake so that it is away from
the surface of the fuselage.

The ideal arrangement is to have no boundary layer a t all, but this is not
possible, so the thinner, and more laminar it is, the better.

A s the air passes over the wing so it starts to get turbulent a t a point towards
the trailing edge. This Transition Point is usually close to the trailing edge but
will move forward a s the angle of attack is increased and if the boundary layer
gets too thick.

During the stall it moves well forward to produce a very turbulent region of air
1 on the top of the wing.

- 19-
rnoodull l A-98
 Induced Drag

So far the drag that we have been dealing with increases with the square of
speed. The faster the aircraft flies the greater it becomes - significantly, ie
double t h e speed and the profile drag increases four-fold. With Induced Drag it
is the opposite - the faster the aircraft flies the less it becomes. I t is caused by
the lift generated by the wings/ helicopter rotor blades.

NEGATIVE PRESSURE

POSITW PRESSURE

Fig. 17 INDUCED DRAG - AIR MOVEMENT

OVER-THE WIMG'CXPS

A s you know the press- on top of the wing is low whilst the pressure
underneath is high. This is true of both a wing and a helicopter rotor blade. As
the wing separates the two areas of positive and negative essure, they cannot
equalise - except at the wing/rotor blade tips (and along thp trailing edge).

A t the tip the airunder the winglrotor blade "spillsover" to movc into the area
of low pressure on the top.

This creates-wing tip vortices -which-u s e energy which ulti-mately comes from
the aircraft engines - and costs fuel (like all drag), As these vortices spill over
the wing tip thc local air pressure drops and so does the temperature, and
under some atmospheric conditions this causes the moisture to condense out
and vapour trails are produced.

This tip movement of the air means that there is some spanwise movement of
the air on the top and bottom surfaces of the wing. There is a slight movement:
towards the tip on the underside and a slight movement away from the tip on
the top side,

Induced drag is a penalty we pay for the production of lift, but there are ways
of keeping it to a minimum. These include:

Speed. With an increase in speed induced drag is reduced - but some aircraft
can't fly fast, such as gliders, so they are stuck with this one. And all aircraft
I# - have to fly,slow to take-off and land. .
The effect of speed means that the air does not have time to move spanwise to
spill over the wing tip - it is 'pushed' too quickly chordwise over the trailing
edge.

Reducing the AoA. Induced drag is a t its greatest a t high angles of attack.
Again we can't always change the angle of attack just to reduce the induced
drag. The effect of a large angle of attack is to increase the pressure difference
between the top and bottom of the wing and increase the induced drag.

AIRFLOW OVER THE WlNG AIRFLOW UNDER THE WlNG

INCLINATIONANGLE INCREASES TOWARDS THE TIP
ANGLES SHOWN EXAGGERATED

Fig. 18 AIP,FLC?~CVEP,jT,TXEEP, T9E ;;TIF?G

I
I I

I I

Winglets. A winglet helps prevent the air from spilling over the wing tip. Some
aircraft have a winglet fitted beneath the wing tip, others on top, and some on
the top and the bottom (the A380 for-example). I -

I I
I -

Some aikraft - the Boeing 777 for example - don't have them a t all. So the case
for them is not as clear-cut a s it appears. It is interesting to dote that even
wingleks will produce both profile and induced drag - and increase weight.
Some aircraft use wing tip fuel tanks-and other attachments a t the tips to help
reduce-induced drag. --
--

LEADING EDGE
FIXED

Fig. 19 WINGLETS & FIXED SPOILERS OF THE LEARJET

Yjgure 19 shows a good example. Note the rathel latge winglets compared to
the size of the aircraft. It also shows leading edge Fixed Spoilers or Stall Strips.
Remember, with swept wing aircraft there is a tendency for the wing tips to
stall first which is not a good idea as this means loss of lateral control
(ailerons),so some aircraft are fitted with inboard leading edge spoilers. These
are triangular shaped devices fitted to the leading edge so as stall is
approached they cause that section of the wing to stall first, allowing the pilot
to still have lateral control.

Increasing Aspect Ratio. Aspect ratio is defined as the number of times the
average chord length divides into the wing-span. When a wing is designed it is
made to withstand a certain "load per u n i t area" (total mass ofthe aircraft
divided by the gross wing area in plan view). This is called Wing Loading.

I HIGH ASPECT RAT10 WlNG AlRCWT 1

TOTAL WlNG SPAN
WING CHORD
WINGAREA=170xlO
= I70 ff
=IDA
=1700sqfl

\ ASPECT RATIO = 1 7 0 3 0 3 17

LOWASPPCT - AIRCRAFT 2
TOTAL WING SPAN = ff -- .-
RATIO WING "- '--
WING CHORD 7s
= 8R-
WlNG AREA = 19.7 w 86 : 4700 sq A
ASPECT R4TIO = 86G19.8 = 4.3

Fig. 20 ASPECT RATIO - WING PLAN FORM OF TWO

. - AXRCWW'I' WITH THE SAME WING AREA

Wing loading will effect stalling speed (high wing loading = high stall speed),
maximum aircraft speed, gliding distance, aircraft performance etc, so other
parameters are also used when calculating the wing loading of an aircraft and
hence wing area.

We are only concerned with induced drag here, and for a given wing area the
aspect ratio can be changed by changing the wing span.

Figure 20 shows an example of two aircraft with the same wing area and hence
wing loading (if we assume both aircraft are the same mass), but the aircraft
with the higher aspect ratio wing has smaller wing tips and hence will have less
induced drag because there is less wing tip for the air to flow over.

Ip general, aircraft that fly slowly, such as gliders, will have high induced drag
and there-fore will have high aspect ratio wings to help keep this drag as low as
possible. High speed aircraft will have low aspect ratio wings because their
induced drag is not high (athigh speed) - their main probIem being profile
drag.
Wing Fences

As the air under the wing tends to spill out over the tip it produces a span-wise
movement from root to tip. Similarly a s the air comes over the top of the wing
tip a span-wise component is produced on the top from tip to root.

On swept wings there i s a tendency for the air to move spanwise towards the
tips.

To try to counter these problems some aircraft have wing fences fitted. These
are strips of metal u p to a foot high (30cm) running parallel to the airflow
usually fitted on the top of the wing running from the leading edge to about
2 / 3rds chord length.

Fitted to the top surface of some swept winged aircraft, to promote correct
airflow in front of ailerons to ensure correct airflow direction over the control
surface.

The PrGfihkDrag C-IIF!~

I

With reference to graph 2 below. A s the angle of attack increases so the drag
increases - not as a straight line but as a curve, a s would be expected with the
squared belocity in the equation. As speed rises drags increasks - as the square
-

of speed.

0
ANGLE OF ATTACK

GRAPH 2 - ANGLE OF ATTACK AGAINST DRAG COEFFICIENT

The Lift/Drag Ratio Graph

Ideally what is needed i s a wing that will produce high lift with as little drag
penalty a s possible. In other words a high liftldrag ratio. Graph 3 shows how
this varies with angle of attack.
> 5
F 5r
The graph shows the curve produced. Note the points o f interesting a t about 4"
and 15" AoA. The 4" angle is known as the Optimum Angle of Attack and the
15"angle is the Stalling Angle.

rnoodull l A-102
The optimum angel of attack produces the best LID ratio and so it is the
optimum cruise angle. At this angle the wing produces the most lift for the
least drag. I t is the angle the wing is fsed to the fuselage, or there-abouts,
called the Angle of Incidence.

ANGLE OF AT'FACK'

-
GRAPH 3 L/D RATIO AGAINST ANGLE OF ATTACK
- - . -.

As the angle of attack of the wihi is increased from, say 0 ° , so the lift/drag
ratio gets better (higher) until zit about 4" where it is at its highest (24: 1 in
graph 4 :above). (24: 1 means Wat there is 24 times more lift than drag on this
particular aerofoil). , --

After th&optimum AoA, lift still increases as the angle of attack is increased
but drag starts to rises faster than before, so the LJD ratio gets smaller (worse).

At the stall there is a sudden drop in lift with the drag continuing to rise. This
means that t h e L/D ratio reduces significantly at t h e stall.

Many large aircraft fly with the fuselage at a slight positive AoA when in
straight and level flight as this will also produce some lift.

If induced drag and profile drag are plotted against velocity on the one graph
then the total drag is found. Where the total is at a minimum - this is the
velocity where the total drag is least and the speed that will give the aircraft it's
greatest range for a specific volume of fuel used. I t is more a theoretical
concept than a practical one as t h e profile drag element is so much more than
the induced drag element that in general, the faster an aircraft flies the greater
the total drag will be.

THE FOUR FORCES

The important forces acting on an aerofoil in flight are lift and drag. However,
when considering the aircraft as a whole there are other forces to be taken into
consideration.
The other two important forces are weight (or more correctly mass) and thrust -
from the engines.

So the four forces are:

* Lift
* Drag
* Weight
* Thrust

Lift

This force is provided mainly by the wing of a fmed wing aircraft and some lift
by the fuselage, and on some aircraft a small amount is provided by the
tailplane. It acts a t right angles to the free-stream flow through the centre of
pressure.

For fixed wing aircraft i t is varied by changing speed, AoA and wing
--
cQr,f;,m ir9 tinn
6"' """'^' -

For an aircraft in straight and level flight the lift acts vertically through the
Centre of Pressure (C of P) of the wing. For a straight wing the C of P for each
wing secrion is in the same position relative to the longitudinal datum line. For
a swe& wing aircraft (or a n aircraft-with a delta wing) a s w?ng sections are
considered further away from the fiiselage so the C of P positionpis further to
the rear relative to the longitudinal datum line. This means that, for a swept
winged or delta winged aircraft the average C of P fore and kft position h a s to
be calculated.
I

This also-demonstrates why, if-the outer part of a swept-wing stalls, the aircraft
will tend to pitch nose u p .

When calculating the total lift produced, consideration has also to be given to
any lift produced by the tailplane (positive or negative lift) and the fuselage.

Remember the lift always acts a t right angles to the free stream airflow. For a n
aircraft in a vertical climb (a fighter for example) any lift created would be
horizontal. The aircraft would be supported by the thrust from the enginels
alone. Any lift created from the wings would tend to move the aircraft
horizontally and if the pilot wanted to fly the aircraft exactly vertically then
he/she would have to push the stick forward a little to reduce the AoA to a
negative angle so the net result of the lift from the wings was zero. (Remember,
for a n aircraft in a vertical climb the relative airflow is vertically downwards.)

- 25 -

rnoodull l A-1 04
Drag

This acts backwards at right angles to the lift and resists the forward motion of
the aircraft. I t opposes thrust and acts through the aircraft's centre of drag.

Changed by varying wing configuration, aircraft velocity and, to some extent,

AoA - for fixed wing aircraft.

Thrust

For most aircraft this is provided by accelerating a mass of air backwards

either by a propeller or a jet engine. This produces thrust to propel the aircraft
forward. I t acts through the centre line of the j e t engine or t h e propeller
spinner.

When more than one engine is fitted to an aircraft the sum of all the engine
thrusts can be calculated to produce one thmst line to act through the centre
of thmst.
. - - - ..

Varied by changing the engine ~hrottlesettings/VPprop settings.

1 I I

weight (Mass) I S

.- -

This always acts vertically down~&&, unlike the other forkes that act relative
to the;aircraft" attitude. All the mass of the aircraft is saidito a c t through the
1
Cenke of Gravity (Cof G)of the aircraft.
I

In general terms is fxed for any one instant in flight. It cannot be varied by the
pilot; but over-the long term the .mass-reduces because of fuel-usage. (For most
large aircraft the pilot can dump fuel in an emergency, but this is not relevant
here.)

Arrangement of the Four Forces

These are so arranged an the aircraft as t o make it reasonably stable. In

straight and level flight at constant speed with no turning moments the aircraft
is said to be in equilibrium. This means:

THRUST = DRAG and

WEIGHT = LIFT

Each pair is equal and opposite. AIthough they are opposite in direction they
are not usually opposite in position.
For straight and level flight the AoA is adjusted by the pilot to make the lift
equal to the weight, if it is greater the aircraft will climb (in general terms). If it
is less the aircraft will descend (in general terms). Tlle engine thrust is adjusted
by the throttles to make it equal to the drag, if it is greater the aircraft will
increase speed - if it is less the aircraft's speed will decrease.

The Ideal Arrangement

The drawing below shows the ideal arrangement of the forces. Not all aircraft
are like this. For various reasons some aircraft have to have their forces in a
less than a n ideal arrangement - seaplanes for example have a high thrust line
well above the drag line - to keep the engines (and propellers) o u t of the water.

The ideal arrangement is where the Centre of Gravity is forward of the Centre
of Pressure (Centre of Lift), which produces a nose down couple - and the
thrust line is lower than the Centre of Drag, which produces a nose u p couple.
Each couple opposing the other a n d cancelling each other out.
-

NOSE DOWN COUPLE

L---

C DRAG

/ I \
NOSE COUPLE
ci fG I c-of L

-- -

I WEIGHT

Fig. 2 1 THE IDEAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE FOUR FORCES

- -

The arrangement is 'ideal' for the following reasons:

* The lift-weight nose down couple opposes the thrust-drag nose u p
couple. Ideally the couples should exactly balance each other, with
many aircraft they do not.
* Should engine power be reduced or engine failure occur then the
aircraft will automatically take u p a natural nose-down gliding
position (there being no opposing nose-up couple).
* The forward C of G makes the aircraft more stable longitudinally.
NOTES

1. The function of the tailplane is fwo fold: I t is to counteract any

tendency for the aircraft to pitch in flight (longitudinal stabiliw);
and it may be fixed at an angle to produce an additional downward
(nose-up)correcting couple in flight. Many airliners have tail
planes with asymmetric aerofoils producing down-lift and a tail
dawn moment.
2. A couple is defined as two opposing forces not on the same centre
line. The turning effect of a couple is called a moment.
3. With highly swept wings, if the outer section of the wing (which is
behind the C of G) was to stall before the rest of the wing then the
C of L for the whole aircraft would move forward causing a nose-up
moment.

MANOEUVRES

An aircraft can take up any position in the air m d the four forces will a 1 act in
- -- - - -
.
relationship to each other, but reinembe'r:
- .. .

WEIGHT always acts vertically downwards through the C of G,

LIFr always acts at right angles to the relative airflow (frcc-
stream flow) through the Centre of Lift (orCentre of
Pressure).
THRUST always acts in line with the aircraft engine,%-
DRAG always acts itz,line with t h e airflow, at right anglcs to lift and
I

opposes thrust.

All the above is correct irrespective of the position of the aircraft relative t o the
ground; - .

The Banked Turn

For the aircraft to carry out a turn it must produce a force towards the centre
of the turn (centripetal force). This is true for any object to go round a corner.

When the aircraft banks t h e lift force is placed at an angle (when viewed from
the front or rear) by the pilot moving the control column to one side moving the
ailerons.

The down going aileron will produce an upward force (higher wing) and the up-
doing aileron will produce a downward force (Lower wing).
 Kt--- "OLD" LlFT VECTOR = W

,
"NEW' LlFT VECTOR

l\d ANGLE OF BANK = 8 (theta)

CENTRIPETAL FORCE = W TAN 0

(ie dependant on weight & angle of bank)

Fig. 22 A BANKED TURN

I WEIGHT = W

This causes one wing to go down a n d the other to go up. The force can then be
divided into its component parts as-follows:

Lift Component: Must be equal and 'opposite to weight if the aircraft is

1 1 to not lose or gain height (the pilot's VSI to remain a t
zero). 1
- --
I I

Centripetal To be equal a n d opposite to the ceritnfugal force

Component: created by the aircraft, and to provide the force
required to 'pull' the aircraft arouna the corner.
-

- - If the centripetal force is larger than the centrifugal

---- --

force then the aircraft will go into-a tighter turn, if it is

smaller the radius of turn will get greater.

Can you see from what we have discussed so far, that when the aircraft goes
into a banked turn the pilot must increase the angle of attack to increase the
lift so as to give a longer lift vector? In figure 22 the 'new' lift vector is longer in
the bank t h a n it was in straight and level flight - compare the 'new' vector with
the 'old'.

For a correct turn therefore, the pilot must apply rudder (to help the aircraft
turn), aileron (to bank the aircraft and move the lift vector to produce a
centripetal component), and elevator (to increase the angle of attack to increase
the lift vector), and apply more throttle.

The throttle h a s to be increased slightly to counter the extra drag created by

the increased
I(
angle of attack. @
With a decrease in the radius of a turn (tighter turn)the angle of bank must be
greater. This means that the 'g' loadings will be greater (for both people and the
structure).

During banking the down going wing would be the most likely to stall because
of the increased AoA, but only if the rate of banking was severe. Whilst in the
banked turn, because of the increased angle of attack of both wings, the stall is
more likely than when the aircraft is in level flight under the same conditions.

With autopilot engaged and commanded t o turn by the navigation computer, it

will cause the ailerons to move commencing the bank, the rudder to move
providing a correct turn without side-slip or skid and the elevator to move
providing lift compensation to maintain correct height,

Side-slip is the aircraft slipping downwards into the turn because of too much
bank or not enough rudder. Skidding is the aircraft sliding out of the turn
because of not enough bank or too much rudder.

.
.. .
. . .-.
Lead Factor

Load Factor is the ratio of lift to weight (more correctly mas's). With the aircraft
flying straight and level the LoadFactor is one. With the aircraft in a banked
turn the Load Factor is increased, for example:

ANGLE OF BANK g LOADING LOAD FA~TOR

...
I

For an average 200 ton (= 200 metric tonnes) airliner these figures arc,
respectively 440 tons/ tonnes and 600 tons/ tonnes.

Because, effectively, the aircraft mass increases during the turn so does the
stalling speed.

The Climb
When the aircraft climbs dl the force vectors move with the aircraft - except
the weight vector. With reference to figure 23, it can be seen that the weight
vector W can be split into its component parts W, equal and opposite t o L (lift)
and W2 - a force t o be added to the effect of drag D. This means that the engine
thrust must be increased (as you would expect) from Toto T, to give a total
thrust vector equal to D + W2.This will keep the aircraft speed constant whilst
in the climb.
It is interesting to note that the new thrust force T, can be split into its
component parts also with T2 representing the element of engine power that is
assisting the lift so that L1 + T2 = W.

Fig. 23 AIRCRAFT IN A CLIMB

- -

This means that a component of the thrust vector is helping the lift vector and
the actuAl generated lift can be reduced. So L1 is equal to Ti + the vertical
1

vectoral component of L. I

1 - -

--

A similar analysis can be used when the aircraft is in a dive. -

So it is interesting that less lift is needed when the aircraft is climbing than
when it i:s in straight a n d level flight. Consider for a moment how much lift is
required by a fighter in a vertical climb - none.
--

So the greater the angle of climb the less lift needed - but - the greater the
angle of climb the more the engine power is required.

A Glide

With the engines s h u t down (or failed) the aircraft will go into a glide, naturally
or by the pilot pushing the control column forward and lowering the elevators -
putting the tail u p and the nose down.

In generally the object of a glide is to get as much distance as possible - in

order to make a n airfield, or make land. The gliding distance can always be
shortened, if the pilot thinks he/she is gliding too far, by pushing the control
column forward, but increasing the gliding distance is another matter.

For the aircraft to glide it must move forward,"so the nose is moved down to
create a component of the weight vector to produce a force in the required
direction.

- 31 -

moodull l A-110
This component takes the place of the thrust vector. The 3 forces now availabIe
are weight, drag and lift and they must all "ealance' to give a glide in an
equilibrium condition. The resultant of the lift (L) and drag (D) vectors (figure
24) must equal the weight (W) vector.

L D RESULTANT

GLIDE PATH #

HORIZONTAL

Fig. 24 AIRCRAFT IN A GLIDE

I

By a process of simple geometry if can be seen that the angle'ofglide (a) is the
same as the angle between themliftvector(Lj and the drag vector (D). I t is called
the Glide Angle. By inspection it can be seen that if the LiftlDrag (LJD) ratio is
higher ( h e r drag or higher lifti) then a is smaller, the glide slope is shallower
and the 'gliding distance longer. So, the maximum gliding distance is governed
by the LID ratio. The higher the ratio the longer the gliding distance.
- ..- - .

To some extent the LID ratio c a n be considered as a measure of the

aerodynamic efficiency of the aerofoil. The higher the L/D ratio the higher the
efficiency.

As seen from the graph on LJD ratios earlier, the best LJD ratio is about 4"
angle of attack. If this angle is varied either up or down the L/D ratio gets
worse. This means that there is only one glide angle that gives the best range.

A higher angle of attack will reduce the LJD ratio and reduce the range, and a
lower angle of attack will, of course, steepen the descent.

If the pilot is gliding for distance, to get to an airfield to make a forced landing
for example, then only one angle will do. An angle of attack indicator is a
distinct advantage. If one is not fitted to the aircraft then the pilot will have to
rely on instruments to check on rate of descent (VSI);airspeed; ground speed
etc.
Should the pilot wish to pull out of the glide (or pull out of a dive) then,
provided there is sufficient airspeed, all he/she needs to do is to pull back on
the control column to raise the elevators to cause the nose to come up.
Provided airspeed is maintained above the stalling speed then the pull-up is
only limited to the strength limits of the airframe.

If the pull-out is too severe then damage may be sustained with possible
structural failure. In general the lighter the wing loading the shallower the glide
angle.

Glide Ratio

This is the ratio of the horizontal distance travelled to the height lost. The
higher the ratio the better.

A Dive

In general to dive a n aircraft the control column is pushed foomard, this lowers
the elevators, raises the tail and lowers the nose. To be more effective the
t h r o t t l p are pushed forward to'increase engine power and the airspeed of the
aircraft increases.
I
I '
Once thd correct angle of descent has been established the e l h a t o r s can be
moved d o r e towards the neutral faiTG3 position and the pilot watches the
instruments. These will show the airspeed indicator (ASI) indicating a n
increasing speed, the Mach number rising and the altimeter showing a
reducing altitude. Two things the pilot must worry about - the aircraft must
not go too-fast, or get too low. If speed gets too great then, on modern aircraft,
Never Exceed-Speed warnings sound (and on some systems thelnose is
automatically pulled up). If the aircraft gets too close to the ground the ground
proximity warnings sound.

Control Surfaces

Figure 25 shows the control surfaces a s fitted to a civil airliner. The slats,
leading edge flaps and flaps (trailing edge) are for increasing the liftldrag ratio
of the wing, although trailing edge flaps are often lowered further on torch-
down to produce drag.

The ailerons are used for roll control (to bank the aircraft) - also to assist in
improving the L / D ratio of the wing during take-off by being drooped
(automatically in take-off configuration). The spoilers are also used to assist in
roll control when they are deployed asymmetrically (also automatically).
, i
The pitch of the aircraft is controlled by the elevators and the rudder is used
during the turn. Tabs are fitted to the elevator and aileron systems.
 OUTBOARD CIA?

Fig. 25 CONTROL SURFACES - BOEING i737

I I

The a c t i d take-off (and landing) brocedurewill valy from &refaft to aircraft.

The pilot will consult the Pilot's Notes (fora small aircraft these will be a small
booklkt,,for a large aircraft the Pilots Notes will be an A4 ring :binder with
several hundred pages - also on CD)-for that particular airbrait, but in general
.

the following sequence will apply: , . . . .

1. Permission obtained from Air Traffic ControI (ATC).

2. Engine/ s running.
3. Engine/ s and systems checks completed.
4. The aircraft is configured for take-off - flaps down (take-off
position) - leading edge devices deployed - spoilers in - doors
closed and armed - altimeter set - navigation systems set - auto
brake set etc.
5. At t h e end of the runway t h e engine/s are set to take-off power
(with correct propeller setting if fitted with a VP propeller) and EPR,
JPT,RPM etc checked.
6. Brakes off, Take-off into wind - it helps to keep ground-speed
down while keeping air-speed as high as possible.
7. The aircraft accelerates, airspeed increases and lift is generated (as
the square of speed). The thrust vector is greater than the drag
vector so the aircraft accelerates - but drag is also increasing.
 8. When the speed is high enough the pilot pulls the control column
back to raise the elevators - this rotates the aircraft about the
main landing gear (rotation speed - VR) and increases the angle of
attack - to say about 30" (with slats and flaps out).
9. This creates enough lift to overcome the weight vector and thc
aircraft rises into the air.
10. At the correct speed the flaps and slats are selected u p and the
landing gear also - if retractable.
11. The aircraft will continue to accelerate until the pilot closes the
throttles or the speed builds to a value where the drag equals
engine thrust. At this point the aircraft will maintain a constant
speed.

Landing

Permission obtained from ATC.

Aircraft configured for landing - landing gear down, flaps/slats
down (approach/landing position), radio altimeter checked,
barometric altimeter set to OFE. autobrake set, autoland set etc.
ILS set and checked if using a n instrument lanping approach.
Engine/propeller power setting reduced to allow approach. May be
automatic if auto-throttle used.
Aircraft slowing (drpg vector greater than thrust vector) and lift
vector slightly smaller than weight vector - a i r c ~ a f descending.
t
A s aircraft slows, drag vector gets smaller, but still greater than
thrust. I I
Aircraft lands into wind to reduce ground-speed.
J u s t before touch-down the aircraft 'flares-out' a n d lands a t a
landing approach angle of about 3 to 5 degrees.
On some aircraft, spoilers, reverse thmst, and auto-brakes operate
automatically when the weight switch is made.
Engine power reduced to idle. Brakes applied. Aircraft slows.
Flaps, spoilers etc selected in. Ailerons to normal position. Taxi
speed maintained and pilot manoeuvres to park the aircraft as
requested by ATC.

THE AXES

To enable the various attitudes of the aircraft to be discussed in a technical

manner axes are defined - these are imaginary straight lines all perpendicular
to each other and all running through the Centre of Gravity.

Lateral Axis runs from wing tip to wing tip - or parallel to a line from wing
tip to virJng tip. When the aircraft moves about is axis it is said to be pitching
(climbing or diving) using the elevators (control column back, elevators up,
tail down, nose up, aircraft climbs).

rnoodull lA-114
Longitudinal Axis runs as a centre line from nose to tail. When the aircraft
moves about this axis it is said to be rolling - left or right wing down. To roll,
the control column /control wheel is moved from left to right to move the
ailerons. One aileron moves up the other moves down. To roll to the left the
contro1 column /control wheel is moved to the left the left aileron moves up
(pushing the left wing down) and the right aileron moves down (pushing the
right wing up).

Normal Axis is at right angles to the other two, and in straight and level flight
is vertical. Movement about this axis is called yawing - nose moving to port
(left) or starboard (right). Pushing the left foot forward on the rudder bar causes
the rudder to move left pushing the tail to the right and the nose to the left.

Notes

1. These axes are relative to the aircraft - when it moves they move.
2. For most manoeuvres all the axes wilI be involved.
3. When the controls are moved in the flight deck their movement is
said to be instinctive.
4. For rigging purposes the aircraft will have DdtumLihes. There is a
lateral datum line - not coo different from the lateyd axls, and a
longitudinal daturri line - not too different from the longitudinal
c s specified in the AMM and may not
axis. These ~ a t u r n l ~ i nare
necessarily pass tdrough the Centre of GraviIy.1Instruments can be
placed on the airfrAme (when on jacks in the h b g a r ) at specified
points to ascertain!how level it is prior to setting other airframe
angles.
I

Fig. 26 THE THREE AXES

 STABILITY

Stability c a n be defined as the ability of a n object to return to it's original

position after it has been disturbed. In general it is opposite to
manoeuvrability. If a n aircraft is vey stable then it is not very manoeuvrable
and vice-versa. Most fighters are not very stable whilst most civil airliners are.

In general terms, a n object may:

* Be stable. It will move back to it's original position after
disturbance. The upright pyramid in figure 27 for example. If it is
tilted a little to one side and let go it will fall back onto its base.
A
Be unstable. Once moved from it's present position an object will
continue to move in the direction of the original disturbance. In
other words the disturbance will get worse. The inverted pyramid
for example, if it is balanced on its point and a force moves it to
one side the movement will continue once the force is removed.
* Have neutral stability. Once disturbed a n object will take u p it's
new position but it will not move further or try to-return to it's
I original position. The-ball-for example - if disturbed it will roll a
little and stop. It will not return nor will its position get worse.
I

When i n flight the aircraft will be subject to local air disturbances which will
try to deflect it from it's flight path. If the aircraft returns to it's original flight
path without the aid of the pilot - t h e n it is said to be stabld, if i t does not then
it is said to be unstable or have neutral stability. Stability can be achieved in 2
ways - actively or passively. I
I I

- -

- -
DISTURBING DISTURBING
FORCE FORCE DISTURBING --

STABLE UNSTABLE OBJECT WITH

OBJECT OBJECT NEUTRAL STAt31LlTY

UPRIGHT INVERTED BALL

PYRAMID PYRAMID

Fig. 27 STABILITY

STABILITY

ACTIVE PASSIVE

Fig. 28 TYPES OF STABILITY

Active Stability

The aircraft is flown back to its trimmed flight path automatically by the
controls. The flying controls are powered (usually by hydraulics) and
controlled by computers that note the aircraft" movement from laser wros.
The computers compare the aircraft movement with the pilot's input, and
intervene if an un-commanded movement occurs. Used mostly o n military
aircraft, but also on some civil aircraft - for example the gust alleviation
spoilers of the A320.

When a gust disturbs the aircraft about the longitudinal axis causing a roll the
gyros pick the movement up and send the appropriate signal t o the flying
control computers. These note that the pilot did not command the movement
so send a signal to operate the selector valve of the (gust alleviation) spoilers.

These are hydraulically powered and deploy asymmetrically on the up-going

wing. This action will dump lift on the high wing and cause it to drop - putting
the aircraft back to it's trimmed position.

A fully actively stable aircraft allows-the designer l e build-Ithe airframe strictly

in accordance with engineering principles without any considkration far
aerodinamic parameters. (Note the shape df some modern, adtively stable,
military aircraft). I /

passive Stability
I -- -. i
I .. -
I
i
The aircraft flies itself back to its original 'pathafter being disturbed because of
the aerodynamic design of the hirframe. This is the stability that we shalI
considei here. I t is achieved by the design of the tailplane (stabilator),fin, and
the wings-: - - - . . .. .- ..

Almost d l aircraft are designed to be passively stable so the pilot need takc
little or no action t o return the aircraft to it's original path after it has been
disturbed - although he/ she may assist it by using the controls if he/ she
wishes.

Although the stability of an aircraft involves all three axis - as they all interact,
it is usual to consider stability in three separate forms:
* Lateral Stability - about the longitudinal axis.
* Directional Stability - about the normal axis,
* Longitudinal stability - about the lateral, axis.

Lateral Stability

For a high winged aircraft lateral stability is helped by the Pendulum Effect.
This is produced by the high position of the C of L and t h e low position of the C
of G.

rnoodulIIA-I 17
If the aircraft is disturbed about the longitudinal axis the movement of the
Centre of Lift to one side of the Centre of Gravity will cause a correcting
movement to help put the aircraft laterally level.

) WEIGHT

Fig. 29 PENDULUM EFFECT

Also, the down-going wing will experience an increase in AoA as the relative
airflow is moving upwards from a position forward of, a n d below, the wing. This
will produce an increase in lift on that wing.
- -

The up-going wing experiences a decrease in AoA (as the reladive airflow is
moving down from a position forward of, and above, the wing), so experiences a
decrease: in lift. All this helps to correct the un-commanded role.

This differential lift effect applies to all conventional fxed wing aircraft whether
they have a high wing or a low wing, whether the wing is swept or straight.
I

Dihedral Angle
- - - -

For low winged aircraft (most civilian airliners) lateral stabilityis assisted by
the Dihedral Angle of the mainplanes - the upward and outward inclination of
the mainplanes away from the fuselage (measured against the lateral datum
line).

If a gust of wind raises one wing the down-going wing effectively has an
increase in angle of attack thereby increasing the lift of that wing, and the up-
going wing will have a reduced angle of attack and a reduced lift force, the total
effect being to help to restore the aircraft to its original flight path. Similar to
the case discussed before but the dihedral angle enhances this effect.

If the differential lift forces do not correct the aircraft (which sometimes
happens) the aircraft will stay in the banked attitude a n d a side-slip will occur.
(Unless the pilot intervenes by applying opposite aileron - or automatic roll
control spoilers are asymmetrically deployed - on the up-going wing.)

Stability from the dihedral angle applies to straight, 'swept and delta winged
aircraft.
 INCREASED LIFT
REDUCED UFT

t DIHEDRAL ANGLE

Fig. 30 DIHEDRAL ANGLE

Swept Wings

Swept wings include delta wings. They may be designed for high speed flight to
help reduce M C ~ but T come into play during an un-commanded roll at any
speed. If the roll remains uncorrected and the aircraft starts to sidc-slip then
the low wing will meet the airflow at a more effective angle (in-plan view) than
k\e ;$+ng t,k,'d= creaeng e-.reE-EErs !if? c~ ?filxl'r WibgE E ~ !iff_ the
high &ing - helping to further Correct the aircraft.

AIRFLOW 01RECTION '\a

DECREASED
EFFECTIVE
WING PLAN

Fig. 31 SIDE-SLIP

Also in a side-slip, whether the wings are swept or not the high wing (on a low
winged aircraft)will be in the Aerodynamic Shadow of the fuselage and
expe~encea reduction of lift because of the turbulent flow over that part of the
wing.

- 40 -

rnoodullIA-1 19
 f SIDE-SLIP

Fig. 32 AERODYNAMIC SHADOW

(LOWWINGED AIRCRAFT)

So it is hoped that with dihedral angle and sweep-back and aerodynamic

shadEw [a%-din snrn-e cases penduhim stahilip! t h a t lateral~stahilitywill he
achieved. However, it is the most difficult stability to obtain out of the three
and for the majority of aircraft pilot intervention/autornatic stability control
systems still have to intervene if the aircraft rolls more than a few degrees.

I
I
Directional Stability I
I 1

This is assisted by the fin and rudder and the side area of the fuselage aft of
the C e n t ~ eof Gravity - taken all together called the Effective Keel Surface. If
the aircraft is caused to yaw then, like a weather-cock or weather vane on a
church spire, the airflow will "blow9t back to it's original position.

Remember that when it yaws the aircraft will tend to fly in it's original direction
for a short time due to it's momentum (Newton's first law) - t h u s for a short
time the airflow will be acting on the side of the fuselage. This correcting
moment is also assisted by the small sideways "lift'' produced by the fin.

EFFECTIVE KEEL SURFACE

Fig. 33 EFFECTIVE KEEL SURFACE

- 41 -
moodull l A-120
This correcting action may set up an oscillating motion which is corrected by
fitting powered automatic yaw dampers to the rudder system.

Note. For most aircraft the fin is vertical and its chord line is parallel to the
aircraft's longitudinal datum line. For some single engined propeller driven
aircraft the chord line may be set at a small angle to the longitudinal datum
line to tv to counter the effect of the swirling propeller slipstream.

Longitudinal Stability

This is normally associated with the tailplane or horizontal stabiliser. For many
large aircraft the tailplane chordline is set at a small negative angle to the
longitudinal datum line (or the tailplane has a 'reverse camber'). The angle
between the two chordlines of the mainplane and the taiI-plane is called the
Longitudinal Dihedral Angle.

The negative tailplane angle of incidence (producing negative lift) helps the
stability of the aircrdt and also creates a downwards force on the tailplane to
-
help balance the four forces. :, - - -

If a gusi of wind causes the noseof the aircraft to be deflect=&up or down then
the tailplane will experience a qhange in ADA but the aircraft's momentum will
keep the aircraft going in the oi-iginaI direction for a short time.
I --
I

This change in AoA will create a fdiEe on the tailplane to coirect t h e nose-up or
nose-down condition eg:

1. Aircraft nose deflected down.' I

2. . Tailplane experience$ a negative AoA.
3, - .Negative angle of-attack produces a downward-lift force.

4. The downward force on the tail creates a correcting turning

moment about the C of G t o raise the nose and restore the aircraft
to it's original attitude.

fJ CORRECTING MOMENT

-
AIRCRAFT'S MOVEMENT
!
DOWN FORCE
ON TAILPUNE

Fig. 34 LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

 The mainplane will also experience a negative angle of attack at the same time,
but the tailplane creates a large turning moment which is strong enough to
correct the aircraft.

NOTE

We have considered stability of a n aircraft as three separate items. In reality

they are connected, a n d one will have an effect on the other. For example,
consider a n aircraft that is directionally very stable, but not very stable
laterally - the following could happen:

The aircraft is caused to move right wing low (un-commanded role)

Not being very stable laterally the wing stays down.
The aircraft starts to side-slip - to the right.
Still the wing stays down and the airflow is now being felt on the
side of the fuselage and fin.
The Effective Keel Surface comes into play and starts to turn the
aircraft towards the direction of the low wing (to the right).
This causes the high (left)wing to go faster - creating more lift.
The high wing becomeseven higher; the side-slip gets worse and
the process repeats itself.
We now have a very unstable aircraft which is starting to go into a
spin. If not corrected by the pilot it will enter a spin which may be
s u c h that recovery may- -not be possible.
- I - -

An aircraft may be statically stable in that it will return to its trimmed position
after being disturbed without any help from the pilot - a s discussed above.
However, it may be Dynamically unstable in that when returning to it's original
position it overshoots that position. Having shot past this position its normal
stability comes into play to return it back to its original position - only for it to
overshoot again.

These oscillates about it's original flight path may continue for some time and
even get worse.

An aircraft is said to be dynamically stable when it returns to it's original

trimmed position without any overshoot. It's movement is said to be heavily
damped. There are no oscillations and the aircraft returns steadily to it's
original flight path.

If the aircraft returns to it's original trimmed position but overshoots it is said
to be lightly damped. The overshoot causes it to move back passed it's original
, position and then return back again to try to-stabilise about the position it had
before it was disturbed. These oscillations gradually decrease in amplitude
until the aircraft regains it's original flight attitude.

rnoodull l A-122
 AIRCRAFT FUGM PATH

ORIGINAL FLIGHT P A M
-
HEAW DAMPING DYNAMICALLY STABLE

1
SOME DAMPING -DYNAMICALLY STABLE. OSCILLATIONS REDUCE

NEGATIVELY ~ ~ P - E
DYNAMICALLY
D UNSTABLE - OSCILLATIONS GROW
- .. .

Fig. 35 DYNAMIC'STABILITY
1

With Neutral Dynamic ~tabilid it%-& to be under-damppd; In this case the

aircraft returns to it's original flight path and overshoots. 1g corrects this
overshobt to return back to the: same overshoot position but on the other side.
Thcse overshoots either side of'the original flight path do not decrease or
increasc in amplitude but r e m h the same.
. .

If it i<D$n-Gnicdly Unstable (negativelydamped) the situation--issimilar to the

above but the amplitude of the oscillations get worsc. The amplitudes get
greater until there is a rncchanical failure or the pilot or some automatic
stability system takes a hand in correcting the situation.

Static Stability/ Dynamic Stability

All the above 'dynamic stability's' are related to an aircraft that is statically
stable because in each case the aircraft is trying to return to its original
trimmed attitude. Dynamic stability only comes in to play whcn the aircraft is
moving back to it's trimmed position. So in general terms static stabilitg acts -
first and dynamic stability acts second.

The figure above shows the aircraft longitudinal stability, but the principle is
the same for directional and lateral stability. Although with lateral stability
some of the corrective farces are non-oscillatory. .
As we have already seen the tailplane or stabiliser provide the main input for
longitudinal stability a n d the fin and effective keel surface for directional
stability.

For lateral stability it is the effect of increasing lift on the down-going wing and
reducing lift on the up-going wing that provides the initial correcting forces.
This effect can be helped by having a high wing (pendulum effect) or, on a low
wing, by using dihedral. These forces tend to be corrective and not oscillatory.

When a side-slip occurs, of course, sweep back will increase the efficiency of
the low wing and aerodynamic shadow will also affect the high wing. Again
this is primarily 'damping' but may set u p a n oscillating motion in some
circumstances.

Dutch Roll

This involves movement about the longitudinal axis (roll) and movement about
the normal axis (yaw).
--
-

If the aircraft is disturbed about the normal axis (yaw) and the fin is moving to
one side (say right) of it's normal position the wing on that side of the aircraft is
going faster t h a n the wing on the other side. So the initial yaw to one side
causes the wing on that side to lift and cause a rolling moment to the left. So
a s thefin moves to the right the right wing goes faster, lifts a n d the
- aircraft
rolls to the left. I
I I
,
~ u r i n kthis time the airflow is acting on the fin and effectivk keel surface to
move the fin to the left, as it does so it moves the left wing faster so increasing
it's lift. This increase in lift of the left-wing occurs a t the same time as the
dihedral effect is trying to correct the low left wing. It, therefore,lifts while the
fin is moving to the left and this combination sets u p a n oscillation motion, a
combination of roll and yaw, called Dutch Roll.

Dutch Roll usually h a s a low frequency (say l/z to 2Hz). Dihedral and
sweepback tend to make Dutch Roll worse while anhedral (negative dihedral)
tends to improve the situation.

Because aircraft use dihedral and sweepback to help with static stability other
means, such as Yaw Dampers (powered units fitted to the rudder system), are
used to counteract Dutch Roll.

Yaw Dampers

The pilot can control Dutch Roll by the use of the rudder but this would be
t;iring and difficult so yaw dampers are fitted to p o s t large commercial aircraft.
I

- 45 -

rnoodull l A-124
The damper is fitted in series in t h e rudder flying control system. I t is
automatic and controlled by computers with gyro inputs - one sensing degree
of yaw and one sensing rate of yaw.

The damper is usually hydrau3icalIy powered and it's piston is fed fluid
pressure at the correct times to input into the rudder contra1 system to move
the rudder to correct the yawing movement so correcting Dutch Roll.

FLUTTER

Flutter is a vibration that is set up in the airframe. It is caused by aerodynamic

loads acting directly on the airframe, or on the flying control surfaces which
affect the airframe. The condition can also be caused by engine vibration (the
Lockheed Electra suffered seriously from this form of flutter).

It is a vibration or cyclic movement of the airframe, part of the airframe, or

flying control surfaces due to elasticity within the system/ structure which is
started by aerodynamic loadings. This cyclic movement of the -
structure is
- -- .
-.
called A& Elasticity when induced by aerodynamic force-s. -.

The elastic behaviour of the structure may be complicated with both flexing
and torsional movements being involved. I

The flutter may be slight with no ~b-Vioussigns of deterioration to the airframe

o r equipment, and may be prededt fir-many years. I t may de sever-enough to
cause major svtructuralfailure isn 'flight (similar to an explosksn).

John IXrry in his DH 1 10 at Famborough for example, which disintegrated in

flight kilIing it's occupants and niany spectators on the ground.
. -.. -- . .

There are several types of flutter and all must be kept to a minimum. In it's
mildest form it causes fatigue which will cause failure in t h e later life of the
airframe. In it's worst form it can cause immediate structural failure.

Better understanding of the problem, and better design of the airframe, flying
control surfaces and engines will all go towards reducing flutter to zero or
within limits which are acceptable.

A s far as the maintenance engineer is concerned, strict observance of the

procedures laid down in the manuals is the answer - particularly when dealing
with flying controls, airframe structures, and engine and propeller balancing.

Flutter (mass balance) is dealt with in more detail in the Flying Control
Systems book.
 VARIATIONS IN AIRCRAFT DESIGN

Some aircraft are fitted with a fore-plane in place of a tailplane. The fore-plane
is fitted to the fuselage forward of the mainplanes and generally provides less
longitudinal stability than a tailplane. In some cases it can actually make the
aircraft unstable longitudinally (aircraft pitches u p - fore-plane h a s a n
increased AoA with increased lift which increases the pitching moment). A n
aircraft with a fore-plane is called a Canard aircraft.

FOREPLANE

Fig. 36 CANARD AIRCRAFT

I
I

I
One advantage of canard configured aircraft is that they can be made stall-
proof. If the
I
fore-plane is set a t a positive angle on the fuselage slightly greater
than t h e angle the mainplane is set a t (angle of incidence), then just before the
mainplane reaches the stalling 'angle the fore-plane will stall and the nose of
the air'craft will not go any higher and the mainplanes will not stall.

The elevators on the fore-plane are connected to the control column in the
usual way except that they move opposite to those fitted to the tailplane, eg for
the pilot to climb he/she pulls the control column back (instinctive control as
before) this lowers the foreplane elevators causing an upward force on the
foreplane, causing the nose to rise.

On many high performance canard fighter aircraft the fore-plane has no

elevators b u t moves as a complete surface (all-flyingfore-plane) to change the
pitch of the aircraft. (Some conventional tailplanes are also all-flying tailplanes
with no elevators.)

Swept Back Wings

These have the following advantages:

* Helps lateral stability once a side slip has started (as already
2
discussed). F-

- 47 -

rnoodull l A-126
 * Increases the critical Mach number (MCRIT)and allows higher
speeds to be obtained in the transonic speed range without the
onset of compressibility effects. Mach (Ernst Mach Austrian
physicist 1838 - 19 16) is a measure of the aircraft's speed in
relation to the speed of sound and the higher the MCMTthe better.
Mach is not part of t h e module 8 syllabus.

Disadvantages include:
* Structurally more difficult to design than straight wings.
* Tend t o suffer from tip stall - if this happens the lose of lift at the
tip will normally cause a nose-up moment and possible loss of
lateral conlol. The tendency to tip stall may be reduced by wash-
out (reduction of the angle of incidence of the wing towards the
tip).
* Less efficient at creating lift than a straight wing.

Swept Forward Wings - . ... - .. . -. . -

Aerodynamically these behave in a similar way to swept back wings, but

structurally there is a problem. Any structure that is placed out in the airflow
is stable if it is allowed to trail in the airflow (swept back wings, control
surfaces etc) . I I
- - I

If thc structure is fitted so that it1 lies forward of its mounting then it is
unstable, Example - a rudder could be designed to be fitted in front of the fin
with its hinges on the rear of the rudder so it is facing forward of the fin.

I t would work the same as a conventional rudder, but, as soon as it is

displaced more than a degree or two out of alignment with. t h e airflow the force
of the airflow would cause it to swing completely round tearing it off its hinges
and causing possible loss of control of the aircraft.

Forward swept wings have this problem, though less dramatic. Because of their
sweep any movement caused by aerodynamic loading will cause the wing to
twist. This twisting will cause the wing tip Angle of Incidence and hence Angle
of Attack to increase (wash-in).Increasing the tendency for wing-tip stall -
which is always a bad thing.

With swept-back wings the opposite is t r u e . Any movement caused by

aerodynamic loading is a stable condition and any bending normally causes
wash-out. Remember wash-out is better as it is preferred that the roots of the
wing stall first so lateral control is maintained during the stall.
Tlie Delta Wing

Has the same advantages as the swept wing but generally h a s a greater wing
area so reducing the wing loading (aircraft's mass per unit area of wing). It is
generally stronger.

Also h a s the same disadvantages, except for the structures problem. But a s
most delta winged aircraft have a high degree of sweepback so it h a s further
disadvantages:
* Poor lift characteristics a t low speed.
* High angles of attack required for take-off and landing. Note the
high nose landing gear on Concorde to allow for these high angles.

I?&. 37 TYPICAL TAILLESS DELTA WING AIRCRAFT CONCORDE

I

May be fitted with or without a tailplane. If there is a tailplane then the aircraft
will have the normal flying controls - elevator, rudder and ailerons.

If there is not a tailplane, Concorde for example, then the ailerons and
elevators are combined and called elevons.

Elevons are fitted to the trailing edge of the delta wing. For climb and descent
they both move u p and down together. For roll control they operate a s ailerons
- ie, in opposite directions. For a combination of roll and climb/descent the
inputs are mixed. For example, if the control column is pulled back and to the
left (climb and roll to the left) then both elevons move u p but the left elevon
moves further u p than the right elevon.

- 49 -
rnoodull l A-128
 HIGH SPEED FLIGHT

When studying the theory of flight, High Speed Flight (HSF) is considered to
start at the onset of MCRIT.This speed varies with the local speed of sound
which could be considered as 762mph at sea leveI under standard atmospheric
conditions, and the design of the aircraft. At speeds close t o this
compressibility problems start t o make themselves felt. Up to this speed the
study of theory of flight is considered to be Low Speed Flight.

In fact the definitions could be refined still further to:

* Low speed flight - subsonic flight - up to MGRIT.
* Transonic flight - going through the sonic range from MCRIT(about
M = 0.7 - depending on conditions and aircraft type) t o about M =
1.2.
* Supersonic flight - all speeds above M = 1.2.

The Speed of Sound

-.

A s HSF is related to the local speed-of sound it is important to have a good

knowledge of how sound travel&through air. Sound is transmitted through air
as a series of sound waves and the speed the waves travel at is related t o the
air temperature and is calculated from the formula:

I I
where a -
-
I

speed of s d w d
I

K = a constant
T = absolute tcmperature (Kelvin)
-"..
The speed of sound in air at sea level at stp (standard temperature and
pressure - stp) is 762 rnph - the temperature taken as 15°C. This reduces to
660 rnph at 36,000 feet (tropopause) where the temperature is takcn as -56°C.
So with increasing height the speed of sound decreases. Converting these
values to metric givcs:

762 mph - 1229 km/h

660 rnph - 1062 h / h
36,000 feet - 11 km

Definitions

Subsonic Speed. The aircraft is travelling up to speeds of about M = 0.7 where

all the air over the aircraft is subsonic.

Transonic Speed. The aircraft is travelling at speeds between about M = 0.7

and M = 1.2 where some of the air moving over the aircraft is supersonic and
some is sub-sonic.

moodulll A-129
Supersonic Speed. The aircraft speed is generally above about M = 1.2 where
all the air moving over the aircraft is supersonic.

The Sound Barrier

In the early days, during the period immediately prior to the introduction of the
jet engine, aircraft had flown u p to the speed of sound (usually in a dive) and
so many problems occurred, including a significant increase in drag, that it
was thought that there was a 'barrier' to going any faster. It was called the
Sound Barrier. Even today, going faster than the speed of sound is usually
mentioned as going through the sound barrier.

Of course there is no barrier, but for aircraft not designed to go faster than the
speed of s o ~ ~there
l d are considerable problems in passing through this speed
range.

Mach Number (M)

I
-

Named after Ernst Mach Austrian physicist 1838 - 19 16. The Mach number
refers to the speed that a n aircraft is travelling compared to the local speed of
sound, ie
I

M = true airspeed --

local speed of sound I

The speed of sound decreases with height (up to 36,000ft - the tropopause).
I

For example, if a n aircraft is flying a t 700mph a t seal level (stp) its M number
would be: - -- - -

If it is flying a t 700mph a t 36,000ft (stp),its Mach number is:

The airspeed is indicated to the pilot by a n airspeed indicator (ASI) while the
Mach number is indicated on a Machmeter (which gives a n accurate reading a t
all altitudes). This 'sums' the values of airspeed (corrected for density) and
altitude.

From the above you can see that if the aircraft maintained a constant speed
and climbed then, starting a t 700mph a t sea level, it rxould eventually go
through the sound barrier although its actual speed would not increase.

rnoodull l A-1 30
Similarly on descent (ata constant true airspeed) its Mach number would
decrease.

Mcrit

I t is important that the pilot knows the speed of the aircraft in relation to the
local speed of sound as at that speed he/ she is likely to encounter significant
problems in t h e control characteristics of the aircraft.

As the aircraft approaches the speed of sound so some parts of the airframe
become supersonic before others. This supersonic flow will occur over the
lwger cambers of the airframe such as the tops of the wings. This supersonic
flow will cause shock waves and turbulence and may cause the aircraft to
exhibit some or all of the following:
* Vibration and buffeting - sometimes severe.
-k Stability problems.
* Control ineffectiveness.
* Control reversd. - - -
' .

* Inability ta control thc aircraft (particularly with manual controls)

* Turbulence. I '

Turbulence wilI occur behind the shock wave and this can affect the tail plane
which will cause buffeting, pitch Control
. and stability problems.
- .

Because of the high

- acrodynarnic loads on the control surfaces at high spced,
the control surfaces can act like trimming tabs on the main aerofoil surface. If
this is associated with lack of rigidity in the structure the wingltail plane/ fin
can twist-aboutits torsional axis and produce the opposite aircraft response to
that desired by the movement of the-cockpit controL-md control surfaces.

Fig. 38 AILERON REVERSAL

With reference to figure 38. When the aileron goes up the expected response is
that the complete wing moves down. If, however, the wing is not torsionally stiff
enough it will twist about its torsional axis, increasing its angle of incidence
(and angle of attack) thus causing the whole wing t o go up - thus the aircraft
waves in the opposite direction to that intended. N o t a good state of affairs.
In the 'early days' this was a problem with some aircraft. Today, however, as
designers know more about structural stiffness and its relationship to
aerodynamic loads, the design engineers can anticipate the difficulties and
design the airframe stiff enough to withstand the twisting loads.

So it is important that the pilot knows his speed in relation to the local speed of
sound so he/she can keep his/her speed down below Mcrit - the speed a t
which the first supersonic flow occurs around the airframe. Hence the fitment
of a Machmeter to all aircraft that are likely to fly near to their Mcrit.

Of course, this only applies to aircraft that are not designed for supersonic
flight. Those that are have enough power to overcome the significant rise in
drag and are designed to have high MCRITvalues. Aerodynamically they are also
designed to pass through the transonic range with little adverse affect.

TRANSONIC SPEED

When a6 aircraft passes through the air a t a speed lower t h a n the speed of
sound ,(661 knots stp a t sea level) it sends out pressure waves ahead of it that
'warn' the air of the aircraft's approach. Thus the air starts to move out of the
way of the oncoming aircraft before the aircraft actually gets there.
I
I
I

At speeds below the speed of sound the air behaves as if it is incompressible,

but as the speed of sound is approached so the behaviour df the- air gradually
---

chang7s1At high speed the air wiil compress or expand as nelessary (refer
table 4). I
I
I

SPEED IN KNOTS COMPRESSIBILITY

- - ERROR % I

80 0.5
260 4
440 11
520 16
TABLE 1

In very general terms it is considered that the air acts as if it is not

compressible a t speeds below the speed of sound and is compressible a t speeds
above the speed of sound - not strictly true, but a s a rough guide it is okay.

A moving object will send out pressure waves in all directions a t the local speed
of sound. These pressure waves warn the air that the object is coming and the
air is prepared to move out of the way.

If the object is moving through the air at the speed of sound then the pressure
waves being sent out ahead of it do not move f k a r d ahead of the object but
build u p in front to form a Bow Wave. The air in front now h a s no warning that
the object is coming and hence there is sudden change in pressure and velocity
a s the object hits the air.

rnoodull l A-132
 SOUND

SOUND WAVES STIU

MOVING MRWARD
MSTERTHANwAm w
THE S P W
OF THE OBJECT
STATIONARY OBJECT

OWEET MOVING FORWARD

SLOWER THAN THE SPEED
OF SOUND

WE BEGlNNlNG OBJECT MOVING FORWARD

OF A BOW WAVE AT THE SPEED OF SOUND

Fig. 39 SOUND WAVE PROPAGATION

Shock Waves
- .. - -.
-. .

As the spied of the airflow increases over an aerofoil or stre-lined shape so

the bdundary layer of air starts tb break.away from the surface towards the
rear. This may start at low airspeeds and the position at which it starts on the
aerofoil is called the Transition Pbint. A s 'the speed increases :so this point
moves fonvard and the b o u n d w--layer
-- gets thicker. I

LAMINAR FLOW
- - - -

TURBULENT WAKE
= -
1
'
,
i
--
-
. . .. - -- . - . ..
Fig, 40 TRANSITION POINT (Mw 0.6)

A s the speed of the aircraft increases to about MO.75 an incipient shock wave
farms. This occurs at the point of maximum camber (usually on the top of the
wing and some points on the fuselage near t h e flight deck),

SUDDEN INCREASE IN
PRESSURE. AIRSPEED
INClPfNT SHOGK WAVE DROPS TO Mcrit

AIRSPEED HIGHER THAN M I

DECREASlnlG PRESSURE
PRESSURE INCREASlNG
TO THE TRAlUNG EDGE

Fig. 41 INCIPIENT SHOCK WAVE [M= 1.0)

It causes a sudden rise in pressure and density of the air and a drop in
velocity. There is also a tendency for the turbulent wake to move forward and
start a t the point where the shock wave attaches itself to the aerofoil.

The Shock Stall

The shock wave causes a sudden large increase in drag (by as much a s a factor
of 10))and a loss of lift.

The change in the pressure distribution around a conventional aerofoil causes

a nose down pitching moment of the aircraft and the turbulent airflow behind
the shock wave causes severe buffeting - particularly if it hits the tailplane. The
effects are similar to a stall and it is often called a shock stall. This condition is
not confined to the aerofoils but can occur to any part on the aircraft.

The ordinary stall is often called a high incidence stall to distinguish it from a
shock stall. This shock stall is often called 'tuck under7.

Shock Drag
!
~enerall; considered to be made up from wave drag and boundary layer drag.
I I

profile drag a t subsonic speed varies with the square law (drag = Cd % pV2S)
but a t transonic speed the square-law breaks down. A s can beseen from the
graph the Cd rises rapidly during the transonic period, but decreases thereafter
until it becomes steady at about M = 2. But the Cd is still a t least twice that a t
I
which it was at subsonic speed.

-- --

0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

MACH NUMBER

-
GRAPH 4 C d AGAINST MACH NUMBER
Critical Mach Number (Mcrit)

As the speed of sound is approached at below M = 1 compressibility effects are

felt - lass of lift; buffeting; loss of control etc. The speed at which this starts is
called the Critical Mach Number (Mcrit). In general the higher the Mcrit for an
aircraft the better.

To increase the Mcrit aircraft are designed with slim wings and a slim fuselage
with no 'lumps' to produce local shock waves. Swept wings also help, and
having a high tailplane tends to keep the tailplane out of the turbulent air from
the wings.

The Machmeter will have a lubber line indicating MCWTand for slow speed
aircraft the pilot will not fly the aircraft beyond this mark under any
circumstances (on most modern aircraft high speed warnings will sound).

Mcrit is also specified in the Pilot's Notes.

Flying ~ h r o u ~ h Transonic
the Sb&& Range
A s the aircraft becomes transonic so there is a considerable change in the
longitudinal trim - usuaIly a nose down pitch, This is accompanied by
buffeting; lack of effectiveness of t h e t r i u n g devices and a considerable
I

increase in the force required to move the controls.

I

The aircraft may:

Snake - Yaw from side b side.

Porpoise - Pitch uyj and down.
Dutch Roll - A combination or roll and yaw.

The aircraft may become difficult to control, The control surfaces are usually
behind the shock wave and in the turbulent area, therefore, they may not be
very effective. A s the speed increases so t h e shock wave moves back over t h e
aerofoil and over the control surface - this makes them difficult to move.

In some cases control surface reversal occurs. The lack of rigidity in the
structure tends to move the structure about its flexural centre line.

Better airframe design, slab tailplanes, powered flying controls etc, will help
overcome some of these probIems.

Increasing the Mcrit of an Aircraft

If the fuselage and wings are kept as slim as possible this will increase the
Mcrit. On a wing this is called thicknesslchord ratio - and a wing with a lower
% t/c ratio has a higher Mcrit,
 THICKNESSICHORD 6
RATIO (%)

0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1.O

Mcrit

GRAPH 5 - MCRITAGAINST T/C RATIO

If the wing is swept this will also increase Mcrit. This is because the shock
wave i s caused by that component of the airflow running parallel to the chord
1 :
r l r l c (IL
1T
v
--
LUD
-1 --
- au
+L-
LIL
--,A+,,
gLLaL\rl
+L, ,,,,,,,L,-.-lr
LLLL
+ L - l..:-L---
~ W L L ~ U Q L A LILL
+ L A nrT,,:+
11lf;ll~l L I ~ L LVLLILL.

Fig. 42 COMPONENTS OF AIR VELOCITY O N A SWEPT WING

Another advantage of the swept wing is that it has a lower Cd (graph 5).

Sweepback also helps to keep the wing tips within the leading edge shock
waves (shockcone) created by the nose of the aircraft.

Swept wings also help to main lateral stability about the longitudinal axis at
low speed (low speed theory of flight).

- 57 -

rnoodull l A-136
 0.6 1.O 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

MACH NUMBER

-
GRAPH 6 Cd AGAINST MACH NUMBER

The swept wing has, however, several disadvantages:

(a) I t is prone to tip stalling.- -.

( 1 ' '
Ct ;I;= is I3-;v' therefEire?atl&ir=gc.*~-PAc. h;dh
U~C.LUU
- -
C C L ~
A L A ~ ~ .

,(c) Angel of attack is high for CL max.

(d) Bending stresses are high so structurally more difficult to design.

Going Through Mach 1 (figure 43) - -

The first signs of the incipient khock wave okcurs at below speed of sound,
and on a symmetrical aerofoil !he wave wiU appear on bothmtlie top and bottom
surfaces. For wings with a more cambered top surface the first wave starts on
the top. A s the speed increases sd the shock wave gets stronger and tends to
move towards the trailing edge. - -

(The shock wave is sometimes described as a pressure wave made up of d l t h e

sound waves moving forward from that part of the wing and when they meet air
coming back at t h e speed of sound they cannot travel any further l o w a r d so
build up to form a pressure wave.)

At just above M = I a bow wave forms in front of the aerofoil and the tail wave
becomes curved and attached t o the trailing edge.

As the speed increases further so the bow wave attaches itself to the leading
edge and the angle of both waves becomes more acute. A t each wave there is
an increase in pressure, density and temperature, and a decrease in velocity.

All air is supersonic at about aircraft speed M = 1.2.

Nbte the rearward movement of the centre of lift or centre of pressure.

 SUBSONIC FLOW C
E
,N
T
RE OF PRESURE (C of P)

M = 0.6
NO SHOCK WAVE FORMED YE1

SUBSONIC FLOW

INCIPIENT SHOCK WAVE

(ON BOTH SIDES OF THE
-+----- AEROFOIL AS IT IS
SUPERSONIC SYMMETRICAL)
AIRFLOW SUBSONIC FLOW

M = 0.8
C of P = STARTS TO MOVE REARWARDS

\
SUPERSONIC SUBSONIC FLOW
AIRFLOW P = SUDDEN INCREASE
P = SUDDEN INCREASE
V = DECREASE

SUPERSONIC
AIRFLOW
/
M = 1.0 SHOCK WAVE NOW MORE
FULLY DEVELOPED AND
MOVING REARWARCIS

I
AIRFLOW

I
BOW WAVE STARTS TO I
FORM AND APPROACHES
FROM THE FRONT THE INCIPIENT SHOCK WAVE
NOW MOVED BACK TO THE
TRAILING :EDGE

--

I I

FULLY DEVELOPED BOW

AND TAIL WAVE ATTACHED
TO THE AEROFOIL ALL AIR
SUPERSONIC

Fig. 43 SHOCK WAVE DEVELOPMENT - BI-CONVEX AEROFOIL

Area Rule

In a n attempt to keep the drag a s low as possible during the transonic period
the area rule may be applied to the design of the aircraft. This states that the
total frontal cross sectional area of the aircraft (including wings, tailplane and
engines) should increase gradually from the front of the aircraft to the middle,
then reduce slowly to zero a t the rear. Thus where additions are fitted to the
fuselage, such as wings and tailplane, the fuselage should be wasted.
 Fig. 44 AREA RULE

SUPERSONIC SPEED

The Mach Cone (figure45)

- .-.
If an aircraft moves at a velocity-V! which is greater than t h e speed of sound. it
will send out pressure waves in all directions continuously atlevery point along
its path. Thus it will send out pressure waves at, say, points A, B,C and D.
These~waveswill have travelled to a p o h t on the line Dl3 during the time the

-
aircraft has travelled from A to,D.

VELOCITY bF AIRCRAFT (Vl

Fig, 45 MACH ANGLE (MACHCONE)

The angle sin o~ is equal to g = 1,

V M
where a - speed of sound
V = Velocity

And this is called the Mach Angle.

Mach Angle = sin x = a = 1= angle ADE

V M
The faster the aircraft goes the more acute t h e angle becomes. At M = 1K = 90.

The line DE is often called the Mach Line. Mach lines a r e developed from many
points on the aircraft,

rnoodulIl A-139
If the speed of the air over the aircraft is constant then all the Mach lines will
be parallel. If the airflow is accelerating then the Mach lines will diverge. And if
the airflow is decelerating then the Mach lines will converge.

This gives some indication of how a shock wave is formed.

AIRFLOW CONSTANT AIRFLOW AIRFLOW

\'ELOCIPI ACCELERATING DECELERATING

Fig. 46 MACH LINES

I
--

Supersonic Flow

In sub'sonic flow the air will anticipate objects in it's path a h d make changes
gradually. It will also behave in accordance with Bernoulli's theorem (see the
books in the LBP series on Science/Physics/Theory of ~ l i ~ ~Int supersonic
-
).'
flow things are different.
I
4

Supersonic flow may be divided into compressive flow and dxPansive flow.
I
I ,
--
Compressive-Flow (figure 47)

Consider the supersonic airflow meeting the wedge angle of the leading edge of
a mainplane. It will not anticipate the oncoming corner but will continue until
it is forced to move by the wedge angle itself. At this point the air slows, a n d
temperature, pressure and density increase. An oblique shock wave is formed.

This condition will occur whenever supersonic air meets:

* The leading edge of a wing - whether it be rounded or wedge
shape.
* The nose of the fuselage.
* Leading edges of tailplanes, fin, engine intakes etc.
* The beginning of a contracting duct, a s in engine intakes.
* Any concave corner of the airframe.

- 61 -

moodull l A-140
 SHOCK
INCREASED PRESSURE
INCREASED DENSITY
INCREASED TEMPERATURE
LOWER VELOCITY

AIRFLOW ,
P

WEDGE SHAPE LEADING EDGE

Fig. 47 COMPRESSTVE FLOW

Expansive Flow (figure 48)

When supersonic air passes over a convex surface/corner it is caused to move

faster around the corner - othenvise a vacuum would form. This sudden
change in direction causes the reverse to happen as happened with
compressive flow. There is a reductiop in pressure, density and temperature,
and an i n r r ~ a s ein velocity. A t the same time Mach lines &e formed.

~ e t w e e nthe old and new Mach lines the air follows a curveld path andthe
second Mach line is at a more acute angl'c than thc first.

--
OLD NEW
MACH MACH
LINE. , LINE

SUPERSONIC LOWER PRESSURE

AIRFLOW LOWER DENSITY
.- -b LOWER TEMPERATIJRE
HER VELOCITY

Fig. 48 EXPANSrVE FLOW

There may be many Mach Iines to a curved surface and the air flows through
these (which are weak compared to shock waves) without sudden changes in
direction or physical properties. The condition between these lines is called an
expansion wave.

The angle the air can move through in any one expansion wave is small, but it
can be moved through a large angle by passing through a succession of
expansion waves, eg around a large curved surface.

moodull 1A-141
Supersonic Aerofoils

Figure 49 shows a typical high-speed symmetrical aerofoil a t a small angle of

attack. Notice the shock waves where there is compressive flow and many
Mach lines where there is expansive flow. There is also no upwash and no
downwash.

MACH LINES \ -

\ - -

Fig. 49 SUPERSONIC FLOW OVER A SYMMETRICAL AERO'FOIL

I
--

Curved surfaces are very good for-low speed flight but for supeTsonic flight
straight surfaces offer a better solution. For example, a double-wedge aerofoil
may be used.
1
Figure 50-shows a double wedge aerofoil a t zero angle of a t k c k . The flow
patterns are symmetrical with shock waves at the leading and trailing edges
and expansion waves a t the point of maximum thickness. At the shock waves
pressure, density and temperature increase (with a decrease in velocity) - and
a t the expansion wave the reverse will occur.

AIRFLOW
____lt

\ \
COMPRESSION

SHOCK WAVE
MACH LINES
1 I-

Fig. 50 SUPERSONIC FLOW OVER A DOUBLE WEDGE AEROFOIL

- 63 -
rnoodull l A-142
A s the angle of attack increases so the top leading edge (L/E) shock wave
becomes weaker, as does the bottom trailing edge (T/E) shock wave - this is
because the wedge angle is becoming smaller.

A t an angle of attack equal to half t h e wedge angle the top L / E and bottom T / E
shock waves disappear altogether. The other two shock waves get stronger
because their wedge angles are greater.

Figure 51 shows the aerofoil at the best angle of attack for the best L/D ratio.
(The best lift/drag ratio. The most lift for the least drag.)

-
AIRFLOW
-
-
MACH LINES
SHOCK WAVE

SHOCK WAVE \ \
MACH LINES

Fig. 51 S U ~ R S O N ~FLOW
C AT ANGLE -.
GMNG--BEST LJD RATIO

If the angle of attack is increased still further the bow wave: bkcomes detached
and expansion waves form on thk top L/E and bottom T/E areas (figure 52).

Fig. 52 DOUBLE WEDGE AEROFOIL AT LARGE ANGLE OF ATTACK

Supersonic aerofoils may take various forms. The ideal would be a flat plate
but this is impractical structurally. Bi-convex aerofoils and various 'straight'
aerofoils may be used. Ideally they should have a low t / c (finesse) ratio
(thickness/chord ratio); have straight lines and have no projections or bulges.
The problem with all high speed aerofoils is that they must perform reasonably
well a t low speed to allow the aircraft to take off, land and fly through the
subsonic speed range. So most high speed aerofoils are a compromise - to give
reasonable low speed characteristics with good high speed characteristics.

DOUBLE WEDGE X = 50%

AEROFOIL

61-CONVEX
AEROFOIL t 1= 10%
C
-

, -

I
I HEXANGONAL L = 10%
AEROFOIL c

1 '

I
- -
Fig. 53 HIGH SPEED AEROFOILS
\ I i
I

The x / c ratio (thickness/chord ratio figure 53) of a typical 9erofoil for high-
speed flight can be between 40% and 60% for least drag. These values should
not affect the C of P or the lift significantly. For low speed flight the best x/c
ratio i s between 30% and 40%.

The 'hexagonal' aerofoil is probably stronger and has a %lunterY

leading edge
compared to the double wedge. This h a s advantages when it comes to kinetic
heating (heating of the aircraft's skin a t high speed).

A bi-convex aerofoil is better than the others a t subsonic speeds and produces
the same drag as a double wedge with a n x / c ratio of 25%.

Lift/drag ratios for a conventional low speed aerofoil a t low speed can be u p to
about 24, while the lift/drag ratio for a high speed aerofoil above M 1 . 3 is about
1 2 (very poor).

The lift coefficient, while low, is similar for all the high-speed aerofoils and
because of this it does mean high landing, take off and stalling speeds.
WING PLAN FORMS

At supersonic speed the wing plan form is very important.

Sweepback delays the shock sbll and increases the Mcrit. I t also means that
the leading edge of the wing will be within the Mach Cone (if it is swept
enough). This will put the leading edge behind the Mach Line and, if there are
shock waves at the nose of the aircraft, within a region of air that is moving
slower than the rest of the airflow (though it may still be supersonic).

To maintain this rule t h e faster the aircraft flies the more acute the sweepback
must be - until a delta shape is formed.

The more sweepback there is the more structural problems there are - and of
course there is tip stalling and lack of lateral control.

Delta wing plan forms have an advantage as regards strength/weight ratio

because of their long chord length they can have quite a depth 01 wing and still
- good t/c ratio. The depth of wing gives greater bending strength.
have a - -- -
.-.. .. - -

Conventional swept wings tend, however, t o create less drag than delta wings.
With wings swept at more than say 55" an pdvantage is gdned in respect to lift
and drag during the high-speed stall. The leading edge stall starts at the wing
tips and works inboard - the bubble that is formed is thenswept back along
the leading edge to form a trai$ng%dgevortex. This low pressme acts on the
upper: leading edge and creates lift at the same time creates-a form of
thrush (negative drag) - and because it is laminar causes little or no buffeting.

The striight wing has an advantkge when it comes to drag!athigh Mach

numbers. A s can be seen from graph 7 the total amount of drag from a straight
wing becomes less than a swept wing after about M 1.6. The wing tip will
produce a Mach Line and that means that part of the wing will be within the
cone of the Mach Angle (but only a small part).

SWEPT
WING

DRAG STRAIGHT
WING

1 '12 1.4 1.6 t.8 2.0

MACH NUMBER

-
GRAPH 7 DRAG AGAINST MACH NUMBER
 Variable Geometry Wings

To try and overcome some of the problems associated with straight and swept
wings a variable geometry wing plan form may be used. Thus for landing and
take-off the wings are moved to the straight position while for high-speed flight
the wings are moved to the swept position. This increases the structural
problems a n d makes the aircraft technically more complex.

Typical Wing Plan Forms

Figure 54 shows some typical wing plan forms. (a) is the plan view of a YAK-40
with a maximum design cruising speed of M0.4 so is unlikely to have any
problems as regards Mcrit. However, some high performance aircraft do have
straight wings. These are usually short (low aspect ratio), placed well back on
the fuselage a n d their tips are within the Mach cone created by the nose of the
aircraft.

Figure 5 4 (b) shows a wing plane form of a typical airliner (B747).The 747 has
a maximum cruise of M0.76 so there could he a possibility nf flying c l n s ~tn its
Mcrit. F'or many aircraft in this range the sweepback plays an important roll in
giving thle aircraft stability about the longitudinal axis (lateral stability).
' I

Fig. 54 WING PLAN FORMS

' Figure 54 (c) shows the wing plan form of Coricorde. It is a delta wing aircraft
without a tailplane. Some delta wing aircraft also have a tailplane (stabiliser)
normally fitted in the form of a T tail.

moodull l A-146
Note the acute angle of the shock cone or Mach cone - with the wingtips
designed to be within the cone. Concorde had a design top speed in the region
of M2. Delta wings have a poor coefficient of lift (CL),particularly at low speed,
so on landing and take-off they have a high angle of attack to obtain the
required lift. For aircraft like Concorde this necessitates a long landing gear.

Figure 54 Id) shows the Mirage G fighter which as a top speed of M2-5. The
drawing shows the wings in the high speed position w i the ~ dashed profiles
showing the extended position for landing and take-off. Remember, straight
wings have a better coefficient of Lift (CL)
than swept or delta wings particularly
at slower speeds.

Note - the plans of the aircraft in figure 54 are not to scale.

KINETIC HEATING

A s aircraft move through the air at high-speed so heat is created. This comes
from three sources - skin friction, air compression and shock waves.
- . - -.

Friction in any form. creates heat ana aerodynamic skin friction is no exception.
Heat is always created this way when an aircrdt flies throdgh the air - at low
speed skin friction is low and the heat created is very srnali. At high-speed the
reverse is true.
- -
-

When air is compressed (cg the stagriation point at the leading edge of the
aerofoil is compressed) its temperature rises - it is, afterall1 an adiabatic
compression (ie does not lose o,r gain heat from another s o v c e ) .
, ' I

I I

This f o r k of heating accounts for why the leading edges tend to get hotter than
the rest of-the-aircraft. . ...

TEMPERATURE
"c

0 1 2 3 4
MACH NUMBER

GRAPH 8 - TEMPERATURE AGAINST MACH NUMBER (28,000ft)

Shock wave heating mostly tends to heat the air and h a s only a small effect on
the aircraft skin temperature. So the faster the aircraft flies the more acute the
problem of kinetic heating becomes - particularly skin friction heating and
shock wave heating.

The formula:

gives the approximate rise in temperature in degrees Celsius where

t - rise in temperature in degrees C and

v - speed in knots.

The rise in temperature c a n cause problems with:

(a) Structures.
(b) Systems - fuel etc.
'
lV!
, n A ncaccongers.
PVDTXT p"""""
V I U " " U l L U

(d)' Freight.
I

The solubon for (b), (c), and (d) is insulation or some form qf cooling but (;I) is
more difficult to solve. --
I
I l 1

The stkucture cannot be allowed to heat u p to temperature$ that-affect the

mechdnical properties of the metals. So if the structure cadnot be artificially
cooledor protected in some way, then limits to speed must Ibe imposed
depending on the materials used; eg l l

Aluminium Alloy - about M 2

Titanium Alloy - about M 4
Stainless Steel - higher than titanium alloy
Ceramics - higher than stainless steel

In the design of the aircraft, to reduce kinetic heating, it is better to have wave
drag than boundary layer drag and to avoid all sharp corners. At supersonic
speeds the boundary drag i s relatively unimportant compared to its effect a t
low speed.

STABILITY &, CONTROL AT SUPERSONIC SPEED

Some of what has been said about stability and control in the transonic region
applies to this area, particularly when it comes to control. Stability is
complicated a t these speeds by the high inertia loads. Natural inherent stability
provided by such things as effective keel surface and dihedral angle is not a s
effective. To increase the size of things like fins and wings to increase stability
would only increase weight and drag (and increase the inertia loads).

rnoodull l A-148
The aircraft's inherent stability can be assisted automatically by such things
as:
* Mach trim.
* Auto pilot.
* Active stability.

All these stability inputs coming via the flying control surfaces - or all-flying
tailplane (slab tailplane) or all-flying aerofoils. All-flying aerofoils move similar
to an all flying tailplane, they are rare.

Mach Trim

As we have seen there is a tendency for the aircraft to pitch nose down (Tuck
under) when it moves through the transonic region. This is because the Centre
of Pressure moves rearwards. A Mach Trim system is fitted to many high-speed
aircraft to compensate for this by putting a signal into the longitudinal
controll trim system during t h e transonic period.

If Mach trim is via the tailplane it would cause the tailplane to decrease its
angle of incidence (and hence its angle of attack) so putting a down-load on the
tail and raising the nose.

I , .
. ... .

Auto pilot
, ,

This fully automates the flying cqntroi system of the aircraft using computers
and servos fitted into the flying control systems. In some aikraft Mach trim
would be via t h e autopilot system.

Active Stability

Most fmed wing aircraft are inherently stable [not so most helicopters). A fixed
wing aircraft will return to its normal flight path without assistance by the
pilot. This inherent stability is achieved by making the aircraft aerodynamically
stable by the use of such things as Effective Keel Surface (Directional Stability);
Dihedral Angle (Lateral Stability) and Tail Plane (Longitudinal Stability).

Somc modern aircraft - particularly military hardware - use Active Stability.

This means that the aircraft is kept stable by active intervention of the
controls. When the pilot moves the controls - usually via a computer system -
the aircraft will respond.

If the aircraft is disturbed in flight laser gyros will sense the movement and
inform the computer. If the pilot has not commanded the movement the
computer assumes that t h e aircraft has been disturbed aerodynamically which
sends a signal to servos which move t h e powered control surfaces to return the
aircraft to its normal flying altitude.
The advantages of active stability are:
* Quicker response times. Inherent stability is opposite to
controllability. If the aircraft is very stable it is not very responsive
to the controls. With active stability systems the aircraft c a n be
made inherently unstable and be very aerobatic. Ideal for fighter
type aircraft.
* Better structural strengthlweight ratios - the aircraft can be
designed as a structure with little or no consideration for
aerodynamic stability (note some of the "square" shapes of some of
the more modern military aircraft).
A
The aircraft can have varying levels of stability - j u s t by the flick of
a switch.

It is, of course, a more complex system with the safety of the aircraft depending
on the correct q e r a t i o n of the hardware and good software, and reliable
supplies of electrical and hydraulic power. The systems are usually triplicated
and may have u p to 5 or 6 levels of redundancy with software designed by
different software houses to hope the prevent the duplication of software errors.
--

Possibly the first use of active stability in civil aircraft was t h e ~ 3 2 0gust
alleviation system. If the aircraft is caused to roll by aerodynamic forces, the
laser gyros pick this u p and serid a signal to the flying control computers
(triplicated for each channel) who will know that the pilot has not commanded
the manoeuvre (all his/ her flying control inputs go via the computers). The
computer/s will send a signal tb the spoilers on the u p goirig wing; these
spoilers kill deploy, destroying lift and bringing that wing down.

-- -- - -- -

Two features are worth noting about the design of the intake; (1)the bleed-off
of the boundary layer if the intake is close to the fuselage or wing of the aircraft
and (2) the requirement to slow the air down to a n acceptable velocity for entry
into the compressor stages of the engine.

The Boundary Layer

As described earlier it is a layer of slow moving low energy air on the skin of the
aircraft that gets thicker the further back it travels. The problem occurs a t all
speeds and effectively the layer of air molecules next the aircraft's skin is
almost stationary with respect to the aircraft. The next layer of molecules is
moving slightly faster and the next layer after that is moving slightly faster still
and so on. This state of affairs will continue for a centimetre or two until we get
to the free-stream flow where all the air is travelling at the same speed. Should
it become1turbulent, as happens a t the t r a n s i t i ~ npoint then the boundary
layer gets thicker and even more sluggish. This boundary layer is a problem.

moodull 1A-150
To try and get more energy into this layer vortex generators are fitted to some
parts of the aircraft skin - normally the top side of the mainplanes near the
leading edge. These are lines of small pieces of metal sticking up into the
airflow by about an inch (25mrnj. They are at an angle to the airflow so they
cause the free-stream flow to mix downwards into t h e boundary layer to liven it
up and give it more energy. May be fitted up-stream of the ailerons (or any
other control surfaces) to improve their effectiveness.

If there is an engine intake close to the skin of the aircraft then this layer of air,
if it got into the engine, would adversely effect its performance - so it is bled
away from the engine through air ducts to the outside, or the intake is
designed so that it is clear of the fuselage. For example, the rear engine intakes
of the MD11 and TriStar and the Eagle fighter (figure 55) and Concorde [figure
56).

Where the intake is actually on the side of the structure then provision wiU be
made within the intake to bleed off the boundary layer through ducts to the
outside.

,1 , \ BOUNDARY
LAYER BLEED
I

Compressor Entry Speed

Fixed configuration circular intakes work well for aircraft travelling at subsonic
speeds. A s the aircraft approaches supersonic speed, however, shock waves
will form in the intake and engine performance will be considerably reduced.

At speeds up to about M 1.4 the shock waves do not have much effect on the
pressure recovery of the intake, as down-stream of the normal shock wave the
velocity is always subsonic (during the transonic speed range of the aircraft).

A s the aircraft Mach number increases so the pressure recovery behind the
shock wave drops away and methods have to be found to restore the
performance of the intake.

For supersonic flight, intakes have t o be designed to create shock waves when
required. This means that intakes must be variable geometry intakes and
mechanical means must be found to change the shape of the intake to produce
different pattern shock waves at different airspeeds.
 BOUNDARY LAYER BLE

TAKE-OFF

SECONDARY AIR VALVE

SUPERSONIC

SHOCK PATTERN DIFFUSER

RAMP ASSEMBLY

SHUT-DOWN I

I I

I
Fig. 56 SUPERSONICINTAKE - CONCORDE
I
I
I

For circular intakes this was achieved by having a moving centre cone within
the intake. Most modern intakes are of the 'square' type, which,allows easy
adjustment-of square panels within the intake to control the pattern of shock
waves.

The variable geometry intake is designed to supply the engine with the correct
quantity of air a t all times and to reduce the velocity to a subsonic value a t the
compressor inlet.

Typical of the square section intake is that shown in figure 56. The intakc has
a movable ramp assembly, an auxiliary door, a secondary air valve and a
subsonic diffuser. The moveable ramp assembly creates the shock waves
which will reflect within the intake to reduce the airspeed to subsonic values
even when the aircraft is well within the supersonic region.

In supersonic flight the ramp assembly is lowered to focus the pattern of shock
waves formed on the intake lip to obtain subsonic flow a t the throat. Further
compression and reduction of air velocity is obtained in the subsonic diffuser.

- 73 -

rnoodull l A-152
Changes in engine aidow demand caused by varying ambient conditions are
met by spilling excess air over the intake lip. This ensures maximum intake
efficiency and good enginel airspeed matching.

n flight t h e ramp is lowered as far as possible and the

W i t h engine shutdown i
auxiliary door opened to dump excess air overboard, and the secondary air
valve is open. This reduces the chanccs of instability in the enginc and reduces
drag.

During take-off and subsonic flight the engine requires maximum mass airflow,
so the ramp assembly is fully raised, the auxiliary door open and the secondary
air valve shut.
 LBP Dec 03 - Feb 04 - Apnl04

Addendums module 11A books STRUCTURES pending amendment action in

response to student feedback after taking the CAA examinations.
***
If there is partial failure of the passenger emergency lighting system the aircraft
can be dispatched provided the passenger compliment is reduced to that
number t h a t can be carried in that part of the aircraft with a serviceable
emergency lighting system. Check the MEL for the specific aircraft. The
maximum number of emergency lights that can be out is 25%
(www2.faa.gov/ certification/ aircraft).
***
A similar regulation applies to inoperable passenger exits. The passenger
compliment is reduced and passengers are not seated near that exit. Again the
MEL is consxlted.
***
Painting radomes. Use non-metallic acrylic lacquer or polyurethane. For
neoprene coated surfaces the use of cellulose based paint is not recommended
i a s it is likely to attack the neoprene. Probably a module 7 question.
I I

-
***
Alodizing is a n anti-corrosive treatment for aluminium alloys. The part is
cleaned with a n acid or alkaline solution and rinsed with clean water. The part
is then treated with Alodine solution (a propriety solution similar to Alochrome)
which1r;sults in a hard greenish finish. After another watea wash the part is
then treated with Deoxylyte (a p r o p r i m brand solution to leave the surface
slightly acidic). Almost certainly a module 7 question.
I *** I

passedger seats may face in any direction.

*** I

Aluminium alloy 2024 is a n American specification and is used widely in

airframe construction.
***
Acrylic windows have a larger coefficient of linier expansion than A1 alloy
structure .
***
Kevlar is stored in moisture proof bags.
***
A heavy landing is likely to cause hogging (the fuselage bent so that it is high in
the middle and low a t the nose and tail).
*****

NOTE: It is possible that some of the above statements may not be too
meaningful when read out of context, so it is suggested that the appropriate
book/ subject be read first then the information above be checked against that
topic. -

(1)
moodull l A-154