WE 4611 Welding Metallurgy I Lab

Lab 2 Heat Affected Zone Microstructure

Daniel Fishburn, Austin Gordon, Isaac Luther

Thursday 9:00am
16 February 2017
Spring 2017

Report Due on 9 March 2017

Introduction

The heat affected zone (HAZ) is one of the most critical areas of a weld

because of its propensity to be the region containing material failure. Understanding

how welding creates and morphs an HAZ is critical to ensuring the integrity of an

engineered product involving the welding process. There are a wide variety of

parameters which contribute to the formation of an HAZ, including heat input,

cooling rate, and alloying elements involved. The HAZ is not necessarily defined in

any textbook sense, and can vary from engineer to engineer. However, one

commonly accepted definition of the HAZ defines it as the area of base material

which experiences a change in microstructure, and thus its mechanical properties,

due to heating from the weld. This is often visually manifested through the growth

of grains within the HAZ. Throughout the welding process, a variety of

discontinuities and defects can form within the HAZ, often times found along the

grain boundaries of the microstructure (with a few notable exceptions such as

hydrogen cracking). Commonly encountered defects include liquation cracking and

ductility dip cracking, however there is a significantly larger list of defects that may

occur. The microstructures found within the HAZ can be better understood with the

use of phase diagrams, but only for steady-state solidification. Phase diagrams can

help predict what phases will be present in the HAZ, which formed from the base

material, and possibly the location of these phases. While welding is not steady-

state due to the fast cooling rates encountered, the diagrams remain useful in

identifying expected phases within microstructures. Various crystallographic

structures such as FCC, BCC, BCT, and HCP will form in this region and provide a

forewarning of defects which may be present.

 Through the analysis conducted in this lab, the heat affected zones of several

samples of metals were evaluated. The materials tested include medium carbon

steel welded with E7018, type 304L stainless steel, a dissimilar weld between alloy

2205 duplex stainless steel 2205 and type 304L, a Ni-base alloy 718 with a spot

varestraint test, aluminum alloy 6022 autogenously welded, and a dissimilar friction

stir weld between alloy 2507 and type 316L. The varestraint, or variable restraint

test works to induce cracks into a weldment by applying a strain upon solidification.

A GTAW torch operates in three different modes of motion, transverse, longitudinal,

and spot (no motion). Once a weld is formed rollers then descend to force the

weldment around a die block to introduce a strain and thus form cracks.

Understanding how cracks form and heal in a material provides a point of

analyzation to determine how elements affect crack susceptibility and chance of

healing. Analyzing these microstructures across all different welding processes will

help to develop a better practical understanding of how the specific microstructures

formed and the mechanical changes they brought with them that affect both the

fusion zone and the base metal.

Results and Observations
Medium Carbon Steel Welded with E7018
The following figures (1-5) provide detailed information regarding the medium

carbon steel welded with E7018. Figure 1 is a phase diagram of the element system

and the remaining are micrographs of the sample.

Figure 1 Iron Iron Carbide Phase Diagram. While the phase diagram assumes equilibrium cooling,
this diagram can aid in the prediction of final phases present upon solidification.
 HAZ Fusion
Zone

Base
Material

Figure 2 Macroscopic image of the fusion zone, heat affected zone, and base metal, taken at 25x
magnification.
Martensit
e

Ferrite

Figure 3 Coarse Grain Heat Affected Zone. Martensite can be optically detected in the upper right
corner due to the nature of the grains forming at approximately 60. Ferrite can also be seen
beginning to form between the grian boundaries. Image taken at 200x magnification.

Decreasing Grain Size

 Ferrite

Figure 4 Intercritical Heat Affected Zone. In the intercritical heat affected zone grains are reduced in
size and ferrite growth is increased. Image taken at 200x magnification.

Large
Grains

Small
Grains

Ferrite
Figure 5 Microscope image taken at 200x magnification showing the coarse and fine grain heat
affected zones. In the fine grain heat affected zone grains are smaller and ferrite is more prevalent.
Large grains are found closer to the fusion boundary.
 In figure 1 the phase diagram for carbon steel can be seen, from which we

can predict equilibrium phases. In this sample ferrite growth along the grain

boundaries was expected due to it being the first phase formed when leaving the

pure austenite region. The ferrite would form along the grain boundaries due to the

lower amount of energy required to form within this region in comparison to the

center of the grains. The composition of the regions within the grain boundaries

could not be predicted entirely by the phase diagram due to the high cooling rates

encountered during welding, and thus, required further inspection to determine the

composition. However, constituents such as pearlite, martensite, or bainite are

expected. In figure 2 an overview of the weld can be seen from the fusion zone to

the base material. The grains nearest the fusion zone are coarser than those further

away. This phenomenon is due to the heat affected zone near to the fusion zone

(also known as the coarse grain heat affected zone or CGHAZ) spending more time

at elevated temperatures, which in turn provides more time for grain growth. The

regions further away from the fusion zone (also known as the fine grain HAZ or

FGHAZ) spent less time at these elevated temperatures, resulting in less grain

growth and smaller grain sizes. By the time the FGHAZ boarders the base metal, the

grain size becomes essentially the same, as the base metal possessed "refined"

grains before the weld was made, and was thereby unaffected (in relation to

microstructural properties) by the welding process.

Figure 3 is taken at a higher magnification, focusing on the coarse grain HAZ.

As can be seen in the image the zone consists mostly of martensite, with ferrite

lining the grain boundaries in white. Martensite presence is known due to the angles

created by the grains being around 60 degrees. Another way to confirm this would

have been to collect hardness data and compare the values to those expected of a
variety of microstructural constituents (such as martensite) to determine the

composition of the grains. The martensitic microstructure occurs due to the faster

cooling rates occurring in the CGHAZ. These fast cooling rates don't provide enough

time for the carbon alloyed in the steel to diffuse out of the BCC microstructure

below the A1 temperature (727 degrees Celsius). These carbon atoms become

trapped and deform the crystallographic BCC structure, resulting in the formation of

body centered tetragonal (BCT) martensite.

As one moves towards the FGHAZ seen in figure 5 the microstructure

contains a greater amount of ferrite, as well as finer grains. The presence of ferrite

can be largely contributed to the fact that the HAZ closer to the base metal

experiences a slower cooling rate than areas closer to the fusion zone. Slower

cooling rates are more favorable for the formation of ferrite. Once again martensite

can be identified within the grains due to the shear angles seen within the grains,

while the white boundaries are ferrite. Bainite could also potentially be found

throughout the HAZ, however, this cannot be determined through use of etching the

sample and viewing it through an optical microscope. In figure 4 the transition from

fine grain HAZ to the inter-critical zone. This zone is a narrower region where the

base metals temperature rises between the critical temperature A1 and A3. There

is a significant amount of ferrite in this region and incredibly refined grains.

Autogenous Weld with 304L Modified for Fully Austenitic Solidification
Varestraint Test
The varestraint test, meaning variable restraint induces strain into the

weldment during solidification. The nickel-chrome phase diagram shows what

phases are predicted to form under equilibrium cooling. The micrographs highlight

microstructural elements and reactions present.

Figure 6 Nickel-chrome phase diagram at a constant 70% iron. Under equilibrium cooling rates final
phase constituents can be predicted in the given material.
 Fusion
Fusion Zone
Bounda

Base HA
Metal Z

Figure 7 Macroscopic image taken at 25x magnification of the fusion zone, heat affected zones, and
base metal.

Fusion
Boundary

Fusion
Zone

HA
Z
Base
Metal

Figure 8 Macroscopic overview of the fusion boundary taken at 100x magnification. Grain growth is
present towards the base metal increasing towards the HAZ.
 HA
Z

Liquation
Crack

Base
Metal
Fusion
Zone

Figure 9 Overview of a liquation present between the fusion zone and base metal. This liquation
crack can be found on the rightmost edge of the sample. Image taken at 100x magnification.

Liquation
Crack

Figure 10 Microscopic image taken at 400x of the liquation crack occuring on the right side of the
sample between the fusion zone and base metal. Liquation crack is evident between grain boundaries.
 Figure 6 presents the phase diagram for 304 stainless steel. From this

diagram, it is predicted that the microstructure will form to be fully austenitic, but

with slightly varying alloy compositions in the austenite. In Figure 7 a macro image

of the fusion zone and HAZ can be seen. In this figure grain growth also occurs

within the microstructure, with large, coarse grains being found close to the fusion

zone and small, finer grains being found further away from the fusion zone. The

large grain sizes found near the fusion zone are due to the extended time spent in

the ferritic solidification phase, resulting in more time available for grain growth. As

the HAZ begins to border the unaffected base metal, the grain size of the HAZ

becomes practically the same as the grain sizes found in the base metal, which did

not experience any grain growth due to welding. In Figure 8 a closer view of the

microstructure can be seen, allowing for a better view of the grain growth.

Figure 9 shows the liquation crack between the HAZ to the Fusion Zone. This

liquation crack propagated due to the segregation mechanism. The segregation

mechanism occurs when melting point depressant elements (both alloying elements

and contaminants) found within the alloy or on the alloy's surface begin to

segregate to the grain boundaries, and in turn lower the melting temperature of the

alloy. This results in localized liquid being trapped by surrounding solidification along

the grain boundaries. As the liquid cools, it begins to solidify and subsequently

shrink, creating stress along the grain boundary. These grain boundaries will have

lower ductility and strength due to both liquation and grain growth, and when the

stress along the grain boundaries exceeds a certain threshold for the given volume

of solidified material, cracking occurs. Figure 10 takes a closer view of the liquation
crack in Figure 9. The white line seen in Figure 10 running vertically is the fusion

line, separating the HAZ from the fusion zone.

Dissimilar Weld Between Alloy 2205 and Type 304L
The same phase diagram is used for both the alloy 2205 and type 304L,

however both alloy 2205 and type 304L are stainless steels, with 2205 being a

duplex stainless steel. The following figures are micrographs that analyze the heat

affected zone microstructure.

Figure 11 - Phase Diagram for both alloy 2205 and type 304L. Type 304L solidifies in the large
austenite region on the left of the diagram and alloy 2205 solidifies in the three-phase region on the
lower right hand corner at approximately 23 wt% Cr and 7 wt% Ni.
 Fusion
Zone

Base
Metal
Fusion
Boundary HA

Figure 12 Overview of the fusion zone and heat affected zone for the rolled alloy 2205 stainless steel
base metal taken at 25x magnification. Grains are oriented longitudinally in the base metal due to the
rolled nature of the steel.

Fusion
Boundary Fusion
Zone

HAZ

Base
Metal

Figure 13 Overview of the fusion boundary regions on the side of the alloy 2205 taken at 25x
magnification. The etchant used does not bring about the grain structure in the alloy 2205. The black
lines are the ferrite, the remaining area is the austenite.
 Fusion
Fusion
Zone
Boundary
Austenite

Non- Base
Directional Metal

HA

Figure 14 The heat affected zone on the rolled steel side shows the directional grains in the rolled
steel and the non-directional growth in the heat affected zones. Image taken at 100x magnification.

Precipitat
es

Figure 15 In the stainless steel, the precipitates are detected in the darker brown clouds that form
throughout the heat affected zone. These precipitates are chromium nitrides, and the image was
taken at 400x magnification.
 HAZ
Fusion
Zone

Fusion
Boundary

Base
Metal

Figure 16 This is a microscopic image taken at 200x magnification of the fusion boundary on the
2205 side. Non-directional grain growth is observable in the HAZ leading up to the fusion zone.

Figure 11 presents a phase diagram for the alloy 2205 stainless steel. This

figure is the same phase diagram utilized for the type 304L stainless steel

previously. The duplex stainless steel would occupy the regions with a composition

of around 23 weight percent chromium and 7 weight percent nickel. However, unlike

the type 304L, alloy 2205 stainless steel is expected to contain both ferrite and

austenite in its microstructure upon solidification to room temperature, as it enters

a multi-phase region on the phase diagram during the final stages of cooling. This

prediction was confirmed upon looking at the microstructure optically.

Figure 12 provides an overview of one side for the weld between alloy 2205

and type 304L stainless steel. The base material seen in this image is alloy 2205

stainless steel, which had been rolled prior to welding. This rolling is evidenced by

the long, narrow, horizontal grains found in the image. In Figure 12, the overview of
the other base material, type 304L, can be seen. Figure 13 takes a closer view of

the alloy 2205 side of the weld. Here the grains can be seen to have non-directional

growth. Due to phase change and recrystallization during the welding process, the

directionality of the rolled base material was lost. The white portions of the grains

are austenite, while the brown portions are ferrite. In Figure 14 the nitrides can be

seen in the dark cloudy regions within the ferrite. These nitrides form due to fast

cooling rates, which do not allow the chromium to diffuse to the edges fast enough.

In Figure 15 the close-up image of the type 304L can be seen. The dark areas

forming are ferrite. This is due to 304L running through the eutectic point of the

phase diagram seen in figure 6. Upon entering this region liquid, austenite, and

ferrite are present. As solidification continues, the liquid phase transforms to both

austenite and ferrite. Finally, austenite will be formed from any remaining liquid.

The visual HAZ is difficult to describe due to the etching chosen.

Ni-Base Alloy 718 Spot Varestraint Sample
A spot varestraint test was performed on an Ni-base alloy 718. This

varestraint test results in liquation cracking occurring radially outside the fusion

zone around the weld in the partially melted zone. Figure 17 is a phase diagram that

allows for the prediction of final constituent phases upon cooling, the remaining

figures are micrographs to highlight features in the varestraint test.

Figure 17 Phase diagram for the nickel base alloy 718. The phase diagram aids in the prediction of
microstructural constituents and amounts in the final cooled phase.
 Base
Metal

HA
Z

Fusion
Zone

Figure 18 Macro overview of the fusion zone across the HAZ to the base metal. Top of the sample is
oriented to the bottom of the image, taken at 25x magnification.

PMZ HAZ

Liquation
Crack

Back
Healing

Figure 19 Liquation crack present in the spot varestraint test (observed at 100x magnification).
Eutectic back healing is present on the left hand side where the eutectic liquid falls back in the crack
and solidifies. Cracking along the grain boundary is evident as well as back healing beginning in the
PMZ.
 HAZ

Precipitat
es

PMZ
Fusion
Zone
Figure 20 Precipitates visible at 100x outside the fusion zone in the sample. Two different
precipitates are present in the sample (Titanium Nitrides and Niobium Carbides) however they are
almost optically indiscernable at this magnification.

HAZ

Liquation
Crack

Fusion
Zone
Back Healing
PMZ

Figure 21 Image of the fusion zone crossing into the wide partially melted zone (PMZ) taken at 100x
magnification. A liquation crack is visible and back healing also occurs on the edge of the partially
melted zone.
 Figure 17 displays the phase diagram for a Nickel-Chromium alloy system.

This diagram helps to predict the presence of FCC Nickel in the HAZ. Figure 18

displays a macroscopic image of a Nickel 718 alloy's microstructure after it had

been welded and a spot varestraint test was conducted on it. The fusion zone, PMZ,

HAZ, and base metal being distinguishable from each other. As can be seen in both

Figures 18 and 21, this alloy possessed a large PMZ region. The large PMZ can likely

be contributed to the welding process (which is unknown for this sample). If the

process had a very high heat input, a large region of this alloy could have been in

the temperature range in which partial solidification of the weld could occur. This

region can be seen in Figure 17 on the phase diagram, with the alloy composition

for Nickel alloy 718 being approximately 20 weight percent chromium.

In Figures 19 and 21, a liquation crack can be seen within the PMZ and HAZ of

the alloy. This crack occurred due to the segregation mechanism, which was

discussed earlier in the Type 304L Stainless Steel sample. This form of cracking will

occur exclusively along former grain boundaries of the microstructure, which can be

seen within Figures 19 and 20, with it being particularly evident in Figure 19. Back

healing of the crack can be seen on the side of the crack extending into the PMZ.

This back healing occurred due to the eutectic liquid in the PMZ extending into the

solidified crack that was formed and filling the cracked region. Upon further cooling,

this eutectic liquid would then solidify, and thereby heal the remainder of the crack.

The amount of healing that occurred can be contributed to the large PMZ found in

this sample, as there was liquid available to initiate healing in nearby cracks.

However, there was still not enough liquid that filled the cracked region to heal the

entirety of the visible crack, which resulted in portions of the crack remaining.
 In Figure 20, precipitates can be seen throughout the HAZ. However, as one

extends into the PMZ and then the fusion zone, little to no precipitates can be seen.

The precipitates, when exposed to the elevated temperatures found in the PMZ and

fusion zone, begin to dissolve and therefore disappear. This can result in reduced

strength within these regions, as precipitates are typically used to increase an

alloy's strength. This may be a problem depending upon the service application of

the welded part.

Autogenous Weld in Aluminum Alloy 6022
The following figures analyze an autogenous weld on aluminum alloy 6022,

which is aluminum alloyed with magnesium and silicon. Figure 22 is the Al Mg 2Si

phase diagram and the remaining are micrographs that highlight cracking and

microstructure present in the heat affected zone.

Figure 22 Phase diagram for 6XXX series aluminum. The phase diagram serves to predict final
phases and constituents.
 Fusion Base
Boundary Metal

Hardness
Indents

Liquation
Crack
Fusion

Figure 23 Image taken at 25x magnification of fusion boundary overview with a liquation crack. The
partially melted zone falls between the fusion boundary and the liquation crack.

HAZ

Largest
Indentation

Fusion PM
Zone

Liquation
Crack
Figure 24 Detailed image (100x) of PMZ and the PMZ hardness indentation. That indentation is the
largest throughout the traverse indicating the region has the lowest hardness.
 Precipitates
Fusion
Bounda
ry

Liquation

Fusion HA
Z
Figure 25 Image taken at 100x magnification displaying the liquation crack running parallel with the
fusion zone as well as precipitate dissolution in the HAZ.

Fusion Zone

Liquation
Crack

HAZ
Eutecti
c

Figure 26 Microscopic image taken at 200x magnification of phases present in the HAZ and fusion
zone of the weld. Eutectic phase is the dark region on the left-hand side that trails into the HAZ.
 Fusion HA
Zone
Base
Metal

Fusion
Bounda
ry

Figure 27 This image taken at 100x magnification is of the cross section of the weld, whereas the
previous images were of the top of the weld.

Figure 22 provides a phase diagram for an Aluminum-Mg2Si system, a final

microstructure containing FCC aluminum with Mg 2Si is predicted. Figures 23 includes

a macroscopic overlay view of an Aluminum 6022 autogenously welded, with the

fusion zone, HAZ, and base metal being clearly visible. The cross section of this

weld can be seen in Figure 27. As can be seen in Figures 23, 24, 25, and 26, this

sample features a significant amount of cracking within the PMZ and HAZ. The

cracking that occurred is liquation cracking propagating through the segregation

mechanism. The cracking that occurred is likely so severe due to the small

quantities of eutectic phase throughout the sample. Portions of the eutectic phase

can be seen in Figure 26. This small amount of eutectic phase was enough to cause

liquation and lower the melting temperature of the grain boundaries, but it was not

in large enough quantities to provide sufficient healing to the cracks that formed.
 In Figures 24 and 25, precipitates can be seen occupying parts of the HAZ.

However, as the HAZ approached the PMZ (which can be seen in Figure 24) and

fusion zone, these precipitates begin to dissolve. As mentioned before, when

exposed to the elevated temperatures found in the PMZ and fusion zone,

precipitates begin to dissolve and therefore disappear. This results in a notable

reduction in strength, which can also be translated to a reduction in hardness. In

Figure 24, the hardness indentation made in the PMZ is the largest indentation

throughout the entire traverse. This means that the PMZ within this sample is the

softest region, which is expected due to the reactions that occur inside the PMZ

during welding and solidification. One specific reaction that softens the PMZ is the

dissolution of precipitates in the PMZ back into the matrix of the solid solution.

Dissimilar Friction Stir Weld Between Alloy 2507 and Type 316L
The phase diagram for the base metals alloy 2507 and type 316L is the same

as the previous dissimilar weld (Figure 11). The following images are micrographs

taken of a dissimilar friction stir weld (FSW), displaying the noticeable features and

affected regions.
 TMAZ

Stir Zone

Figure 28 Overview of the advancing side of the weld taken at 25x magnification. The sweeping
motion is seen throughout the type 316L.
 Stir Zone

HAZ

Figure 29 Image of the retreating side taken at 25x magnification containing alloy 2507.

Stir Zone

HAZ

Figure 30 Microscopic image taken at 200x magnification of the grain refinement present in the
retreating side.
 Elongated
Sweeping
Grains

Figure 31 Macroscopic overview at 25x magnification in the TMAZ where long sweeping grains are
seen. The distinguished region separating the HAZ and TMAZ cannot be determined.
 TMAZ

Stir
Zone

Stir
Zone

Figure 32 Microscopic image at 200x magnification of the advancing side. More refined grains are
seen in the stir zone.

The last sample analyzed was a Friction Stir Weld between type 316L and

alloy 2507 stainless steels. The phase diagram for these can be seen in Figure 11.

The type 316L was predicted to be fully austenitic, while the alloy 2507 would

contain a combination of austenite and ferrite. Figures 28 and 29 show overviews of

the advancing (Type 316L alloy) and retreating (Alloy 2507) sides of the weld

respectively. The retreating side has a notably steeper slope than the advancing

side due to the differences in tool speed, and therefore heat input, on the two sides.

The advancing side experiences a higher heat input due to the rotation of the tool is

moving in the same direction as the tool movement (resulting in a higher

experienced speed). The retreating side is also more defined; however, this is likely

due to composition of the alloy more than anything else.

Figure 30 shows a closer view of the region between the stir zone and

thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) on the retreating side. As can be seen,

the grain sizes within both regions are relatively small in comparison to grain sizes

often observed in fusion welding processes, with the grains in the stir zone being

particularly refined. This results in improved mechanical properties throughout the

part. Figure 32 shows a similar view on the advancing side.

Figure 31 provides a close image of the region between the HAZ and the

TMAZ on the advancing side of the weld. The TMAZ is marked by when the grains

start to sweep in an upward motion towards the stir zone. The HAZ resembles the

TMAZ, however it does not feature the sweeping motion found in the TMAZ. The

TMAZ and HAZ on the retreating side can be seen in Figure 30. However, in

comparison to the advancing side, the TMAZ on the retreating side is significantly

smaller and doesn't feature nearly as pronounced sweeping motions. Once again,

this is due to both the differences in heat input and the different mechanical

properties/compositions of the alloys. The retreating side saw slightly less heat and

may have a higher yield strength than the advancing side, both of which could

result in smaller and less defined sweeping motions.

Summary

Plain Carbon Steel Welded with E7018

Grain growth found within the HAZ due to time varying times in which regions
within the HAZ were forming at a temperature ideal for grain growth. Larger
grains found near the fusion zone, with smaller grains found closer to the
base metal.
Microstructure consisting largely of ferrite, martensite, and possibly bainite.
Larger concentrations of martensite found near the fusion zone, while larger
concentrations of ferrite found near the base metal. Both phases can be seen
throughout all the HAZ. This distribution can largely be contributed to the
slower cooling rates experienced near the base metal.

Type 304L Stainless Steel Varestraint Test

Grain growth found within the HAZ. Grains were seen growing as they neared
the fusion zone. This was due to increased time for grain growth near the
fusion zone.
Liquation crack formed through grain boundary segregation in the HAZ.

Dissimilar Weld between Alloy 2205 and Type 304L

Lack of directionality in the Alloy 2205 HAZ grains due to phase change and
recrystallization.
Formation of nitrides in the HAZ of Alloy 2205 near the fusion zone caused by
fast cooling rates in that region.
Ferrite forms within the grain boundaries of the Type 304L stainless steel.

Ni-Base Alloy 718 Spot Varestraint Test

Precipitate dissolution is present within the HAZ due to the elevated

temperatures encountered in this region. Dissolution is notably visible near
the fusion zone
A wide PMZ is present within the sample
Liquation cracking through the segregation mechanism can be observed, with
back healing in some of the cracks occurring within and near the PMZ

Autogenous Weld in Aluminum Alloy 6022

Significant liquation cracking through the segregation mechanism occurred

throughout the HAZ
 Precipitate dissolution is present within the HAZ due to the elevated
temperatures encountered in this region. Dissolution is notably visible near
the fusion zone
Softening of the material can be seen in the PMZ through an increase in
indentation size for the hardness test due to precipitate dissolution

Dissimilar Friction Stir Weld between Alloy 2507 and Type 316L

Grain refinement is present within the stir zone of the weld

Sweeping of the grains occurs within the TMAZ

Notably more grain sweeping and a shallower boundary between the stir
zone and TMAZ on the advancing side (Type 316L alloy) than on the
retreating side (alloy 2507)
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