MED PHYS 1E03

The Nucleus
MED PHYS 1E03

What do we know about the nucleus?

The mass of an atom is contained mainly in the nucleus.

We also know the charge of a nucleus is equal to the atomic number, Z, =mes
the charge of a proton
We can think of the nucleus as a sphere of charge distribu=on which has a
charge density

The atomic number denes the element i.e. the posi=on in the periodic
table

A is approximately equal to 2Z (with the excep=on of hydrogen)

The Nucleus
MED PHYS 1E03

What do we know about the nucleus?

The radius of a nuclei is typically less than 10F (Fermi) 1F=1x10-15m. Compare
this with the radius of an atom at ~10-10m

The mass of both protons and neutron is 1.675x10-27kg. Compare this with the
mass of an electron at 9.109x10-31kg Note that 1AMU = 1.661x10-27kg

The charge on a proton is the same as the electron but is posi=ve rather than
nega=ve +1.602x10-19 C
The Nucleus
MED PHYS 1E03

What do we know about the nucleus?

There is a nuclear force ac=ng between the par=cles in the nucleus that must
be an aVrac=ve force that keeps the nucleus together
The nuclear force is a very short (< 2F) range force and must be a very strong
force compared to the repulsive Coulomb force.

+ +
The Nucleus
MED PHYS 1E03

What do we know about the nucleus?

There is a nuclear force ac=ng between the par=cles in the nucleus that must
be an aVrac=ve force that keeps the nucleus together
The nuclear force is a very short (< 2F) range force and must be a very strong
force compared to the repulsive Coulomb force.

+ +

At a distance of 2F the aVrac=ve nuclear force is approximately 100 =mes

stronger than the repulsive Coulomb force
The Nucleus
MED PHYS 1E03

What do we know about the nucleus?

There is a nuclear force ac=ng between the par=cles in the nucleus that must
be an aVrac=ve force that keeps the nucleus together
The nuclear force is a very short (< 2F) range force and must be a very strong
force compared to the repulsive Coulomb force.

N P

The nuclear force is charge independent i.e it is the same between protons
and protons, protons and neutrons or neutrons and neutrons
Binding Energy
MED PHYS 1E03

The mass of an atom is represented in terms of atomic mass units, u.

The nucleons (protons and neutrons) each have binding energy giving the nucleus
a total binding energy value.

The binding energy will depend on the atomic mass.

The binding energy per nucleon is typically several MeV

Binding Energy
MED PHYS 1E03

If we were to take the cons=tuent nucleons of a nucleus (i.e. all the protons and
neutrons)

Each nucleon has mass=m

M = m
Binding Energy
MED PHYS 1E03

If we put them together to form a nucleus we would nd that there is a decrease

in the total mass.

MNucleus = m-M

This is due to the binding energy of the nucleus: Mc 2 = E

Where E is the binding energy of the nucleus
Radioac=vity
MED PHYS 1E03

There are many unstable nuclei in which some of the nucleons may obtain enough
energy to break free of the nucleus. These nuclei are said to disintegrate or decay
and are known as radioac=ve.

In the process of disintegra=on, a nucleus can eject alpha par=cles, beta par=cles
and gamma rays.
Nuclear Emissions
MED PHYS 1E03

Unstable nuclei
Gamma () rays
+
+ + +
+ + + + +
+ + +
+ + + + +
Beta (-) par=cles + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + +
+ +
+ + + +
Alpha () par=cle + +
Positrons (+) par=cles
Radioac=vity
MED PHYS 1E03

The disintegra=on process is one of pure chance and there is no way of knowing
when a par=cular nucleus will decay

However, if there are many nuclei present we know that sta=s=cally a certain
percentage will disintegrate over a given =me depending on the nuclei in
ques=on
Isotopes
MED PHYS 1E03

Elements
Elements are dis=nguished from each other by atomic number (ie number of protons
in the nucleus)
Elements can have more than one isotope

Isotopes
Are atoms having the same atomic number but dierent mass number (ie
dierent number of neutrons)
Isotopes of an element have the same chemical proper=es as the number of
electrons is the same

Radioisotopes
A naturally or ar=cially produced radioac=ve isotope of an element.

The Decay Equa=on
MED PHYS 1E03

The probability of a radioac=ve atom decaying in say one second is called the
transforma*on constant or the decay constant , .

If we have N radioac=ve atoms, the number decaying every second will be given
by N.

In =me t, the number decaying, N is

N = Nt
t
N = N 0e
where N0 is the original number of atoms at t=0
Half Life
MED PHYS 1E03

The half life (T1/2),is the =me it takes for half the number of atoms in a quan=ty of
Radioac=ve material to decay

No of atoms

1000

Exponen=al decay
500

250
125
T1/2 = 10 hrs 20 hrs 30 hrs Time (hours)
Ac=vity
MED PHYS 1E03

Units are the Becquerel Bq.

1Bq is one decay in one second
Sample ac=vity is the number of decays per second i.e N

t
A = A0 e
Unstable Nuclei
MED PHYS 1E03
N = Z line Too many neutrons
and protons

Line of stability
Number of protons

Too few neutrons

Too many neutrons

Number of neutrons
Beta Decay (-)
MED PHYS 1E03
neutrino
Unstable nuclei too
many neutrons

+
n p + +
+ + +
+ + + + +
+ + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + +
- par=cle (electron)
+ + + + + +
+ + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + +
A A +
Z X Z +1 Y + + + +
+
Decay Scheme
MED PHYS 1E03

Energy of atom

14
6C Parent

- (beta decay) Energy 0.156

MeV

14
7 N Daughter

Increasing Z
Beta Decay (-)
MED PHYS 1E03

14
6 C Parent

- (beta decay) Energy 0.156

MeV

14
7 N Daughter

The energy carried away by the electron and the neutrino in this example is 0.156MeV

How is this energy shared between the two par=cles?

Energy Distribu=on of Beta Par=cle
MED PHYS 1E03

E average

Frequency

Emax

Energy (MeV)

A typical beta spectrum

Beta par=cles are emiVed with energies that range up to a specic maximum Emax.
The remaining energy is carried o as KE by the neutrino. The average energy is
approximately one third of Emax.
Excited or Metastable States
MED PHYS 1E03

Excited or metastable
daughter product ?
A A * A
X Y
Y +
Z Z +1 Z +1
+ + +
+ + + + +
+ + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + +
+
+ + + +
+
Decay Scheme
MED PHYS 1E03

Energy of atom

Parent
- (beta decay)
Daughter (excited state)

(gamma)

Daughter (ground state)

Increasing Z
Decay Scheme
MED PHYS 1E03

A more complicated - decay scheme is shown for Co-60

60
27 Co Parent (5.26 yrs)

1- (beta decay) 99.8%

0.313 MeV

This leads to Ni-60 in an excited state. This gives up its energy via the emmision
of two gamma rays with energies 1.173 and 1.332 to Ni-60 in the ground state
Decay Scheme
MED PHYS 1E03

A more complicated - decay scheme is shown for Co-60

60
27 Co Parent (5.26 yrs)

1- (beta decay) 99.8%

1.173 MeV

1.332 MeV

60
28 Ni Daughter

It is these two gamma rays that provide radia=on in therapy cobalt units.
Decay Scheme
MED PHYS 1E03

A more complicated - decay scheme is shown for Co-60

60
27 Co Parent (5.26 yrs)

1- (beta decay) 99.8%

2- (beta decay) 0.12%

1.173 MeV

1.332 MeV

60
28 Ni Daughter

In the 0.12% of cases when this does not happen there is an alterna=ve beta decay.
Decay Scheme
MED PHYS 1E03

133
54 Xe
1
0.384

2
6 5 4
3 0.181
1
0.081
2 3
0
133
55 Cs
Internal Conversion
MED PHYS 1E03

An alterna=ve process to the emission of a gamma ray.

-
-

+ +
-
+ + + --
+
-
--
Internal Conversion
MED PHYS 1E03

An alterna=ve process to the emission of a gamma ray.

-
-

Conversion Electron + +
-
+ + + --
+
The energy of the conversion electron
is the same as the gamma ray would
have been, minus the binding energy -
of the electronic shell (in this case the --
K shell)
Decay Scheme for Internal Conversion
MED PHYS 1E03

137
55 Cs
1- (94.6%) 0.514 MeV

IC e- 137
56 Ba

Energy - 0.662 MeV

K shell 662 - 37.4 = 624.6 (7.7%) 85%
L shell 662 5.25 = 656.7 (1.4%)
M shell 662 0.78 = 661.22 (0.5%)

137
56 Ba
Internal Conversion
MED PHYS 1E03

The likelyhood of internal conversion occuring is describe by the internal conversion

yield

number of conversions in K shell

K =
number of rays

More likely with:

Higher Z nuclei
Longer life=me nuclei
Beta Plus Decay (+)- positron decay
MED PHYS 1E03
An= neutrino

+
p n + e + +
+ + +
+ + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + +
+
A + A + + +
Z X Z 1 Y + +

Unstable nuclei too

few neutrons
Positron Annihila=on
MED PHYS 1E03

+
Positron Annihila=on
MED PHYS 1E03

511 keV 180

511 keV

Rest mass energy of an electron or positron is 511keV

Beta Plus Decay (+)- positron decay
MED PHYS 1E03

Energy of atom
15
8 O Parent

1.022 MeV

+ (Positron decay)

15
7 N Daughter

Decreasing Z
Beta Plus Decay (+)- positron decay
MED PHYS 1E03

In order for this decay to occur there must be at least 2m0c2 (1.022MeV)
dierence in the parent and daughter nuclei. The remaining energy is given to
the positron and the neutrino.
13
7 N Parent

1.022 MeV
+ (Positron decay)
2.21 MeV
Emax = 2.21 1.022 = 1.19 MeV

13
6 C Daughter
Electron Capture
MED PHYS 1E03

p + e n +
-
A EC A -
Z X
Y
Z 1
+ +
-
+ + + --
+
-
--
Electron Capture
MED PHYS 1E03

An= neutrino
p + e n +
-
A EC A -
Z X
Y
Z 1
+ +
-
+ + + --
+
-
--
Decay Scheme
MED PHYS 1E03

125
53 I
EC
Excited state

125
Te
52
Decay Scheme
MED PHYS 1E03

7
4 Be
EC (10.3%)
Excited state

0.862 MeV
0.478 MeV

7
3 Li
Neutrino will have energy = (0.862-0.478) - BE K shell
Decay Scheme
MED PHYS 1E03

7
4 Be
EC (10.3%)
Excited state

0.862 MeV
0.478 MeV
EC (89.7%)

7
3 Li
Neutrino will have energy = 0.862 - BE K shell
Alpha () Decay
MED PHYS 1E03

Unstable nuclei

Alpha () par=cle +
+ + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + +
A A 4
Z X

Y
Z 2
+ +
+ +
+ + + +
+
+ + + + + + +
+ + + +
+
+ + + +
+
Decay Scheme for Alpha Decay
MED PHYS 1E03

226 226 222

88 Ra 1620 yrs 88 Ra 86 Rn + 42 He

2 (5.5%) 4.6 MeV

1 (94.5%) 4.78 MeV

222
86 Rn *

0.18 MeV

222
86 Rn
Alpha () Decay
MED PHYS 1E03

The energy of the alpha par=cle is large but it is easily stopped.

For example in human son =ssue a 5MeV alpha will be brought to rest in a few
tens of microns.

Loses its energy via ionisa=ons

The energy is deposited in the =ssue over this very short distance

Of par=cular concern is if the alpha emiVer is in the form of a gas and is taken
into the lungs
Nuclear Fission
MED PHYS 1E03

Fission fragments (2 new nuclei)

235
92 U + 10 n 92
236
U

+
+ + +
+ + + + +
+ + +
+ + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + +
+
+ + + +
+
Nuclear Fission
MED PHYS 1E03

Fission fragments (2 new nuclei)

235
92 U + 10 n 92
236
U neutrons
Lots of energy (200MeV)