Testing Manual Final PDF

M
MTEKPRO POWEER TRA RMER TESTIN

ANSFOR NG
MTEKP
PROTechnologiesPvt.Ltd,NewDelh
hi- 110048
Phone
e:+911146 6173333,Faax:+911141825662
Emaill:info@mteekpro.com,WWeb:mtekp pro.com
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Power Transformer Testing
Testingof
PowerTransformers
1.VerificationofvoltageRatioandvector
Grouporphasedisplacementandpolarity.
MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

3
1.TurnRatioMeasurement
1.1Purposeofmeasurement
Thenoloadvoltageratiobetweentwowindingsofatransformeriscalledturnratio.Theaimofmeasurement
is;confirmingthenoloadvoltageratiogiveninthecustomerorderSpecifications,determiningtheconditions
ofboththewindingsandtheconnectionsandexaminingtheproblems(ifany).
Themeasurementsaremadeatalltappositionsandallphases.
1.2TurnRatioMeasurement
Bridgemethod
Measurement of turn ratio is based on, applying a phase voltage to one of the windings using a bridge
(equipment)andmeasuringtheratiooftheinducedvoltageatthebridge.Themeasurementsarerepeatedin
all phases and at all tap positions, sequentially. During measurement, only turn ratio between the winding
couples which have the same magnetic flux can be measured, which means the turn ratio between the
windingcoupleswhichhavetheparallelvectorsinthevectordiagramcanbemeasured.
Theoreticalturnratio=HVwindingvoltage/LVwindingvoltage
The theoretical noload turn ratio of the transformer is adjusted on the equipment by an adjustable
transformer; it is changed until a balance occurs on the % error indicator. The value read on this error
indicatorshowsthedeviationofthetransformerfromrealturnratioas%.
(Measuredturnratio)(Designedturnratio)
%Deviation=*100
(Designedturnratio)
The%deviationoftheturnratiosshouldbe0.5%.

1.2DeterminingtheVectorGroup
4
Dependingonthetypeofthetransformer,theinputandoutputwindingsofa multiphasetransformerare
connectedeitherasstar(Y)ordelta(D)orzigzag(Z).Thephaseanglebetweenthehighvoltageandthelow
voltagewindingsvariesbetween0and360.
Representing as vectors, the HV winding is represented as 12 (0) hour and the other windings of the
connectiongrouparerepresentedbyothernumbersoftheclockinreferencetotherealorvirtualpoint.For
example,inDyn11connectiongrouptheHVwindingisdeltaandtheLVwindingisstarandthereisaphase
difference of 330 (11x30) between two windings. While the HV end shows 12 (0), the LV end shows 11
oclock(after330).
Determiningtheconnectiongroupisvalidonlyinthreephasetransformers.Thehighvoltagewindingisshown
first(asreference)andtheotherwindingsfollowit.
Ifthevectordirectionsoftheconnectionarecorrect,thebridgecanbebalanced.
Also,checkingtheconnectiongrouporpolarityispossiblebyusingavoltmeter.Directcurrentoralternating
currentcanbeusedforthischeck.
Theconnectionsaboutthealternatingcurrentmethodaredetailedinstandards.Anexampleofthismethodis
shownonavectordiagrambelow.

Fig:Connectiongroup
representationand
measuring

Theorderofthemeasurements:
1)3phasevoltageisappliedtoABCphases
2)voltagebetweenphases(e.g.AC)ismeasured
3)AshortcircuitismadebetweenCandn
4)voltagebetweenBandBismeasured
5)voltagebetweenAandcismeasured
As seen from the vector diagram, in order to be Dyn 11 group, A.c > AB > B.b correlation has to realized.
Takingtheotherphasesasreferenceforstarting,sameprinciplescanbeusedandalsofordeterminingthe
otherconnectiongroups,sameprincipleswillbehelpful.


1.3Polaritytest
6
1.3.1Polaritytestusingvoltmeters
Singlephasetransformers
For singlephase transformers the polarity can be either additive or subtractive. The low voltage winding is
connected in series with the high voltage winding, either in phase or in opposite phase. For additive
determinationofpolarity,ifthephasedisplacementiscorrect,seefigure1.3.1.

Figure1.3.1:Connectionforadditivepolaritytest
Andforsubtractivedeterminationofpolarity,seefigure1.3.2

Figure1.3.2:Connectionforsubtractivepolaritytest.
PolyphaseTransformers.
Thevectorgroupmustbecheckedforthreephasetransformers.Thisisdonebyconnectingaterminalfrom
the low voltage side to a terminal on the high voltage side, see figure 1.3.3. When a threephase supply is
connectedtothehighvoltagewinding,potentialdifferencesappearbetweentheopenterminalsandareused
todeterminethevectorgroup.

Figure1.3.3:Polaritytestandconnectiontestonthreephasetransformer
Usingonevoltmeter

1.3.2PolaritycheckusingDCcurrent.
7
This method establishes the polarity of single and threephase transformers by briefly switching on a DC
current source atthe high voltage winding, see figure 1.3.4. The polarity is shown on a polarized voltmeter
connectedtothelowvoltageside.
Figure1.3.4:Basicanalogratiobridgecircuit

Testingof
PowerTransformers
2.WindingResistance
Measurement.

2.WindingResistanceMeasurement.
2.1Purposeofthetest 9
Windingresistanceservesanumberofimportantfunctionslike:
Providingabasevaluetoestablishloadloss.
ProvidingabasisforanindirectmethodtoestablishwindingtemperatureandTemperaturerise
withinawinding.
Inclusionaspartofaninhousequalityassuranceprogram,likeverifyingelectriccontinuitywithina
winding.
2.2General.
WindingresistanceisalwaysdefinedastheDCresistance(activeoractualresistance)ofawindinginOhms
[].
Temperaturedependence
It should be noted that the resistivity of the conductor material in a winding copper or aluminum is
stronglydependentontemperature.Fortemperatureswithinthenormaloperatingrangeofatransformerthe
followingrelationshipbetweenresistanceandtemperatureissufficientlyaccurate:
C+2
R2=R1
C+1
Where:
R1=resistanceattemperature2
R2=resistanceattemperature1
=temperatureinC
C=constantwhichisafunctionofmaterialtype
IEC[1]specifies:C=235forcopper=225foraluminum
Principleandmethodsforresistancemeasurement:
Therearebasicallytwodifferentmethodsforresistancemeasurement:namely,thesocalledvoltmeter
ammetermethodandthebridgemethod.
VoltmeterammeterMethod
ThemeasurementiscarriedoutusingDCcurrent.Simultaneousreadingsofcurrentandvoltagearetaken.The
resistance is calculated from the readings in accordance with Ohms Law. This measurement may be
performedusingconventionalanalog(rarelyusednowadays)ordigitalmeters;however,todaydigitaldevices
suchasDataAcquisitionSystems(DAS)withdirectresistancedisplayarebeingusedmoreandmore.
Measurementwithvoltmeterandammeter
Themeasuringcircuitisshowninfigure2.1.
ResistanceRXiscalculatedaccordingtoOhmsLaw:
RX=U/I

The advantage of this method is the simplicity of the testcircuit. On the other hand, this method is rather
10
inaccurateandrequiressimultaneousreadingofthetwoinstruments.
ResistancemeasurementusingaKelvin(Thomson)Bridge
This measurement is based on the comparison of two voltage drops: namely, the voltage drop across the
unknownwindingresistanceRX,comparedtoavoltagedropacrossaknownresistanceRN(standardresistor),
figure2.2.
DCcurrent is made to flow through RX and RN and the corresponding voltage drops are measured and
compared.
ThebridgeisbalancedbyvaryingthetworesistorsRdecandRV,whichhaverelativelyhighresistancevalues.
A balanced condition is indicated when the galvanometer deflection is zero, at which time the following
relationshipholds:
Rdec
RX=RN
Rv
Theinfluenceofcontactresistancesandtheconnectioncableresistances(evenoftheconnectionbetweenRX
andRN)canbeneglected.
Figure2.1:Voltmeterammetermethodmeasuringcircuit
Figure2.2:Kelvin(Thomson)Bridgemethod

ValueoftheDCcurrentofmeasurement 11
Maximumvalue:
Toavoidaninadmissiblewindingtemperatureriseduringthemeasurement,theDCcurrentshouldbe
limitedtoamaximum10%oftheratedcurrentofthecorrespondingwinding.
Minimumvalue:
ThelowerlimitoftheDCcurrentisgivenbythefollowingconsiderations:
ThemeasuringcircuitforallresistancemeasuringmethodsconsistsofaDCsourceandatransformer
windingfixedaroundanironcoreasrepresentedbythefollowingequivalentcircuit,Windinginductance
isstronglydependentoncurrentanddisplaysthefollowingcharacteristicfortransformers,seefigure3.4.
AsthemeasuringcircuittimeconstantisgivenbytherelationL/R,thecurrenttimecharacteristicdiffersquite
significantly when switching on the DCsource, depending on the measuring current value (magnetizing
current).
Therefore, the DC measuring current should be at least 1.2 times higher than the crest value of the
magnetizingcurrenttobesuretosaturatetheironcore
Figure3.3:EquivalentcircuitofaFigure3.4:Inductanceoftransformerwinding
Windingasafunctionofthecurrent.

12
Testingof
PowerTransformers
3.MagneticBalanceand
MagnetisingCurrent
Measurement.

13
MagneticBalanceTeston3phaseTransformers
Thistestisconductedonlyinthreephasetransformerstochecktheimbalanceinthemagneticcircuit.Inthis
test,nowindingterminalshouldbegrounded;otherwiseresultswouldbeerraticandconfusing.Thetestshall
beperformedbeforewindingresistancemeasurement.Thetestvoltageshallbelimitedtomaximumpower
supplyvoltageavailableatsite.
EvaluationCriteria
Thevoltageinducedinthecenterphaseisgenerally50%to90%oftheappliedvoltageontheouterphases.
However, when the center phase is excited then the voltage induced in the outer phases is generally 30 to
70%oftheappliedvoltage.
Zerovoltageorverynegligiblevoltagewithhigherexcitationcurrentinducedintheothertwowindingsshould
beinvestigated.Thevoltageinducedindifferentphasesoftransformerinrespecttoneutralterminalsgivenin
thetablebelow.
Leftsidephase Centralphase Rightsidephase

AN BN CN
Voltageappliedatleftsidephase 230V 180V 50V
Voltageappliedatcentralphase 115V 230V 115V
Voltageappliedatrightsidephase 50V 180V 230V

14
EXCITING/MAGNETISINGCURRENTMEASUREMENT
This test should be done before DC measurements of winding resistance to reduce the effect of residual
magnetism. Magnetising current readings may be effected by residual magnetism in the core. Therefore,
transformerundertestmaybedemagnetisedbeforecommencementofmagnetizingcurrenttest.
ThreephasetransformersaretestedbyapplyingSinglephase10kVvoltagetoonephase(HVterminals)and
keepingotherwindingopencircuitedandmeasuringthecurrentatnormal,minimumandmax.tappositions.
KeepthetappositioninnormalpositionandkeepHVandLVterminalsopen.Apply1phase10kVsupplyonIV
terminals.
MeasurephasetophasevoltagebetweentheIVterminalsandcurrentoneachoftheIVterminals.Thesetof
readingforcurrentmeasurementineachofthetappositionshouldbeequal.Unequalcurrentsshallindicate
possibleshortcircuitsinwinding.Resultsbetweensimilarsinglephaseunitsshouldnotvarymorethan10%
.Thetestvaluesontheoutsidelegsshouldbewithin15%ofeachother,andvaluesforthecentrelegshould
not be more than either outside for a threephase transformers. Results compared to previous tests made
underthesameconditionsshouldnotvarymorethan25%.Ifthemeasuredexcitingcurrentvalueis50times
higherthanthevaluemeasuredduringprecommissioningchecks,thenthereislikelihoodofafaultinthe
winding which needs further analysis. The identical results confirm no damage due to transportation. The
availability of test data of normal condition and faulty condition results help us to analyze the problem in
future.
MeasurementofMagnetizationCurrentatLowVoltage
For3phasetransformers,thetestshallbeconductedeitherwith415V,3phase(neutralgrounded)or230V,
1phase(preferred).Forsinglephasetransformers,thetestshallbeconductedwith230V.
This test is performed to locate defect in magnetic core structure, shifting of windings, failures in turn
insulationorproblemintapchangers.
Theacceptancecriteriafortheresultsofexcitingcurrentmeasurementshouldbebasedonthecomparison
withtheprevioussitetestresultsorfactorytestresults.Thegeneralpatternistwosimilarhighreadingson
the outer phases and one lower reading on the center phase, in case of three phase transformers. An
agreement to within 25% of the measured exciting current with the previous test is usually considered
satisfactory. If the measured exciting current value is 50% higher than the value measured during pre
commissioningchecks,thenthewindingneedsfurtheranalysis.

15
Testingof
PowerTransformers
4.MEASUREMENTOFSHORT
CIRCUITIMPEDANCE

MEASUREMENTOFSHORTCIRCUITIMPEDANCE 16
This test is used to detect winding movement that usually occurs due to heavy fault current or mechanical
damageduringtransportationorinstallationsincedispatchfrothefactory.
Ensure the isolation of Transformer from High Voltage & Low voltage side with physical inspection of open
conditionoftheconcernedisolators/disconnectors.Incasetertiaryisalsoconnected,ensuretheisolationof
thesamepriortocommencementoftesting
The measurement is performed in single phase mode. This test is performed for the combination of two
winding. The one of the winding is short circuited and voltage is applied to other winding. The voltage and
currentreadingarenoted.
The test shall be conducted with variac of 0280 V, 10 A, precision RMS voltmeter and ammeter. The
conductorsusedforshortcircuitingoneofthetransformerwindingsshouldhavelowimpedance(lessthan
1mohm)andshortlength.Thecontactsshouldbecleanandtight.
Theacceptablecriteriashouldbethemeasuredimpedancevoltagehavingagreementtowithin3percentof
impedancespecifiedinratinganddiagramnameplateofthetransformer.Variationinimpedancevoltageof
morethan3%shouldbeconsideredsignificantandfurtherinvestigated.
Theformulaforcalculatingthepercentageimpedancewithcurrentandfrequencycorrectionis:
Where:
Vtest=Testvoltage
Vrated=Ratedvoltage
Itest=Testcurrent
Irated=Ratedcurrent
ft=Testfrequency
fr=Ratedfrequency

17
Testingof
PowerTransformers
5.Measurementofdissipation
factor(tan)oftheinsulation
systemcapacitances.

Measurementofdissipationfactor(tan)oftheinsulationsystemcapacitances
18
Thepurposeofthemeasurement
The insulation powerfactor test, similar to the insulation resistance test, allows certain conclusions to be
drawnconcerningtheconditionofthetransformerinsulation.
Thesignificanceofthepowerfactorfigureisstillamatterofopinion.Experiencehasshown,however,that
thepowerfactorishelpfulinassessingtheprobableconditionoftheinsulationwhengoodjudgmentisused.
General
IEC defines the power factor as the ratio between the absorbed active power to the absolute value of the
reactivepower.Thiscorrespondstotan.IEEE[51],ontheotherhanddefinestheinsulationpowerfactoras
theratioofthepowerdissipatedintheinsulationinwatts,totheproductoftheeffectivevoltageandcurrent
in voltamperes (corresponding to the apparent power) when tested using a sinusoidal voltage. Insulation
powerfactorisusuallyexpressedinpercent[51].
Measurement of powerfactor values in the factory is useful for comparison with field powerfactor
measurements and assessing the probable condition of the insulation. It has not been feasible to establish
standardpowerfactorvaluesforthefollowingreasons:
ThereislittleornorelationshipbetweenpowerfactorandtheabilityoftheTransformertowithstandthe
prescribeddielectrictests.
Thevariationofpowerfactorwithtemperatureissubstantialanderratic.
ThevariousliquidsandinsulationmaterialsusedintransformersresultinLargevariationsininsulation
powerfactors[51].
Themeasuringcircuit/themeasuringprocedure[51]
Measurementusingabridge
ThemethodisbasedoncomparingthecapacitanceCX(transformerundertest)withawellknown
capacitanceCN(standardcapacitor).
ConventionalScheringBridge
Figureshowsthemeasuringcircuitfortheinsulationpowerfactormeasurementofatwowinding
transformerusingaconventionalScheringbridge.
Instrumentation
TheScheringBridgetestcircuitconsistsofthreemainparts:
TheunknowncapacitanceCX,whichrepresentsthetransformerundertestwhosepowerfactor(ortan)
andcapacitancearetobemeasured.
ThestandardcapacitorCN,whichmustbeaHVcapacitorwithverylowdielectriclosses.Normallyits
capacitanceisbetween100pFand10nF.
TheScheringBridgecasingcontainsresistorsR3,R4andr,adjustablecapacitorC4andgalvanometerG.
Inordertoreducetheinfluenceofexternaldisturbances,coaxialcablesmustbeusedfortheconnection
betweenCX(thetransformerundertest)tothebridgeandalsobetweenstandardcapacitanceCNandthe
bridge.

19

Figure:Measuringcircuitforthemeasurementofpowerfactorandwinding
Capacitances.
When the bridge is balanced, the unknown capacitance CX and tan can be calculated using the following
equations:

InmostbridgesthefollowingresistancevaluesareusedforR4,tosimplifythecalculation:100/,1000/or
10000/etc.inohms.
Fora50Hzmeasurement,withR4=1000/andC4innF,theinsulationpowerfactortanwillbe:

Amoderntanbridgewithcurrentcomparatorandmicroprocessor 20
Thisbridgeusesbasicallythesamemeasuringprincipleasdescribedabove.Figure18.1bshowsthemeasuring
circuit for dissipation factor and capacitance measurement with a modern tan _ measuring bridge with
incorporatedmicroprocessor.
Thecurrentsarebalancedinacomparator(morewindingdifferentialtransformer)andquadraturecurrentis
injectedtobalancethelosses.
For the unknown capacitance Cx, the standard capacitor CN and the connections between transformer and
bridgearethesameasmentionedabovefortheconventionalScheringBridge.
MEASURINGMETHODS:
CAPACITANCEANDTANMEASUREMENTOFBUSHINGS
C&Tanmeasurementofbushingsshallbedoneat10kVwithfullyautomatictestkitsoastohavereliable
testresult.
For3Phautotransformer,shorttogetherall400kV,220kVandNeutral(isolatedfromearth)Bushings.Also
shortall33kVBushingsandearththesame.
MeasurementofC1CapacitanceandTan:ConnectthecrocodileclipoftheHVcabletothetopterminalof
theshortedHV/IVbushings.Unscrewthetesttapcover,Insertapinintheholeofthecentraltesttapstudby
pressingthesurroundingcontactplugincaseof245kVOIPBushingandremovetheearthingstripfromthe
flangebyunscrewingthescrew(holdingearthstriptotheflangebody)incaseof420kVOIPBushing.Connect
the LV cable to the test tap (strip/central stud) of the bushing under test to the C & TAN KIT through a
screenedcableandearththeflangebody.RepeatthetestforallBushingsbychangingonlyLVleadconnection
ofthekittotesttapoftheBushingwhichistobetested.
MeasurementofC2CapacitanceandTan:HVleadtobeconnectedtothetesttapofthebushingundertest
(ifrequiredadditionalcrocodiletypeclipmaybeused)andLVofthekittobeconnectedtotheground.HVof
thebushingistobeconnectedtotheGuardterminalofthetestkit.TesttobecarriedoutinGSTgmodeat
1.0kV.
Formeasurementof33kVBushingTanDelta,earthHV/IVBushings(alreadyshorted).ApplyHVleadofthe
Testkittoshorted33kVBushingsandconnectLVleadofthetestkittoTesttapoftheBushingundertest.
Measurements shall be made at similar conditions as that of a previous measurement. The oilpaper
insulation combination of bushings exhibit fairly constant tan delta over a wide range of operating
temperature.Hence,effortistobemadefortestingattemperatureneartoprevioustestandCorrectionfactor
neednotbeapplied.
Donottestabushing(neworspare)whileitisinitswoodshippingcrate,orwhileitislyingonwood.Wood
isnotasgoodaninsulatorasporcelainandwillcausethereadingstobeinaccurate.Keepthetestresultsasa
baselinerecordtocomparewithfuturetests.

It is to be ensured that C& Tan measurement of bushings and testing of turrets carried out before
21
installation.ThiswillpreventinstallationofbushingshavingC&Tanvaluesbeyondpermissiblelimits.
ItistobeensuredthatTestTappointsareearthedimmediatelyaftercarryingoutthemeasurementsfor
thatparticularBushingandearthingoftesttaptobeensuredbycarryingoutcontinuitytest.
CAPACITANCEANDTANMEASUREMENTOFWINDINGS
The combination for C & tan measurement of winding is same as that of measurement of IR value. The
summeryofprobablecombinationisgivenbelow:
AutoTransformer(Two TestMode Shunt Test Mode 3winding Test Mode

winding) Reactor Transformer
HV+IVtoLV USTV HVtoE GST HVtoLV1 UST
HV+IVtoE GSTg HVtoLV2 UST
LVtoE GSTg LV1toLV2 UST
HVtoGround GSTg
LV1toGround GSTg
LV2toGround GSTg
Table:CombinationforC&tanmeasurementofwindingforvarious
Transformers/ShuntReactor.
Ensure that test specimen is isolated from other equipments. Removal of Jumpers from Bushings is Pre
RequisiteforC&TanMeasurementofWindings.
ForICTs(AutoTransformers):ShortingofallthreephaseBushings(400kV&220kV)andneutraltobedone.
Incaseofsinglephase,400kV,220kVandneutralBushingstobeshortedCapacitanceandTanmeasurement
ofwindingsshouldbedoneinfollowingcombinations:
Test Test TestleadConnection Remarks

WindingCombination CapSymbol
No. mode

HV leadoftestkitto 22
1. HVIV/LV UST CHL
HV/IV bushings of

transformer
LVleadoftestkittoLV
bushingoftransformer
2. HVIV/LV+G GST CHL +CHG do
3. HVIV/LV GSTg CHG do LV to be

withGuard Guarded
LV leadoftest kitto
4 HVIV/LV UST CHL
HV/IV bushings of
transformer
HVleadoftestkittoLV
bushingoftransformer
5 LV/ HVIV+G GST CHL +CLG LG do
6. LV/ HVIV GSTg CLG do HV to be

withGuard Guarded
Table:.WindingcombinationforC&tanmeasurementforautotransformer.
MeasurementintercheckcanbedonebycalculatingC1=C2C3&C4=C5C6&DF1=C2DF2C3DF3/C2C3=
C4DF4C5DF5 / C4C5 Where C stands for capacitance and DF for dissipation factor or tan and attached
suffix(16)denotesthesr.no.oftestinabovetable.
ForReactors:All400kVandneutralBushingstobeshorted.HVofthetestkittobeconnectedtoshorted
BushingsandLVofthetestkittobeconnectedtoEarthconnection.MeasuretheCapacitanceandtanDeltain
GSTmode.Neutralconnectionwithearth/NGRtobeisolatedbeforethetest.

23
Testingof
PowerTransformers
6.Measurement
InsulationResistance.

Measurementofinsulationresistance
24
Insulation resistance tests Megger tests are performed to determine the insulation resistance from
individualwindingstoearthorbetweenindividualwindings.Knowledgeoftheinsulationresistanceisofvalue
whenevaluatingtheconditionofthetransformerinsulation.
Insulationresistanceiscommonlymeasuredinmegohms,(M).
It should be stated, that variations in insulation resistance can be caused by numerous factors including:
design,temperature,dryness,andcleanlinessofparts,especiallyofbushings.Wheninsulationresistancefalls
belowspecifiedvalue,itcanoftenbebroughtbacktotherequiredvaluebycleaninganddrying.
Insulationresistancevarieswiththeappliedvoltage.Anymeasurementcomparisonsshouldalwaysbecarried
outatthesamevoltage.
Figure:Principalmeasuringcircuitfortheinsulationresistancemeasurement
IEEEStd.C57.12.00[50]alsospecifiestheinsulationresistancemeasurementbetweencoreandearth.Itshall
bemeasuredaftercompleteassemblyofthetransformeratalevelofatleast0.5KvDCforadurationof1
minute.
Thetestisconductedwiththehelpofmegaohmmeter.IRisproportionaltotheleakagecurrentthrough/over
the insulation after capacitive charging and absorption currents become negligible on application of DC
voltage. Insulation resistance shall be measured after the intervals of 15 sec, 60 sec and 600 sec. The
polarization index (PI) is defined as the ratio of IR values measured at the intervals of 600 and 60 seconds
respectively.Whereas,thedielectricabsorptionistheratioofIRvaluesmeasuredafter60secand15sec.IRis
normally measured at 5 kV DC or lower test voltage, but the test voltage should not exceed half the rated
powerfrequencytestvoltageoftransformerwindings.
Polarization index (PI) is useful parameters for logistic interpretation of IR test results. This ratio is
independentoftemperatureandgivesmorereliabledataforlargepowertransformers.APIofmorethan1.3
and dielectric absorption factor of more than 1.25 are considered satisfactory for a transformer when the
resultsofotherlowvoltagetestsarefoundinorder.PIoflessthan1callsforimmediatecorrectiveaction.For
bushings,anIRvalueofabove10000Mohmsisconsideredsatisfactory.
The IR value of transformer is dependent on various factors such as configuration of winding insulation
structures,transformeroil,atmosphereconditionetc.therefore,presenttrendistomonitoroilcharacteristics

forjudgingtheconditionofdrynessofthetransformerandnottorelysolelyonabsolutevaluesofIR.Itmay
be note that no national/international standards specify minimum insulation resistance values of
25
transformers.ThevalueofIRmaybeverylowunderheavyfogorhumidconditions.
DuringIRmeasurement,wemustensurefollowingconditions:
Transformerisdisconnectedfromotherassociatedequipment
Bushingsarecleanedandfreeofmoisture
Transformertankandcoreareproperlygrounded
Bothendsofwindingundertestareshortcircuited.
MeasuringMethods:
IRmeasurementsshallbetakenbetweenthewindingscollectively(i.e.withalltheWindingsbeingconnected
together)andtheearthedtank(earth)andbetweeneachwindingandthetank,therestofthewindingsbeing
earthed. Before taking measurements the neutral should be disconnected from earth. Following table gives
combinationsofIRmeasurementsforautotransformer,threewindingtransformer&ShuntReactor.
ForAutotransformer For3winding For Shunt

transformer Reactor
HV+IVtoLV HV+ IVtoLV HVtoE

HV+IVtoE HV+LVtoIV
LVtoE HV+IV+LVtoE
WhereHVHighvoltage,IVIntermediatevoltage,LVLowvoltage/Tertiaryvoltagewindings,EEarth
Unless otherwise recommended by the manufacturer the following IR values as a thumb rule may be
considered as the minimum satisfactory values at 30C (one minute measurements) at the time of
commissioning.

Insulationresistancevariesinverselywithtemperatureandisgenerallycorrectedtoastandardtemperature
(usually20C)usingtable(Source:BHELinstructionManual)asgivenbelow.

26
PI=R10/R1(dimensionless),
WherePIisPolarisationIndexandRisresistance
Thefollowingareguidelinesforevaluatingtransformerinsulationusingpolarizationindexvalues:
APIofmorethan1.25andDAIofmorethan1.3aregenerallyconsideredsatisfactoryforatransformerwhen
theresultsofotherlowvoltagetestsarefoundinorder.PIlessthan1callsforimmediatecorrectiveaction.
Forbushings,anIRvalueofabove10,000Misconsideredsatisfactory.

27
Testingof
PowerTransformers
7.CHECKLISTFORENERGISATION
OFTRANSFORMER.

CHECKLISTFORENERGISATIONOFTRANSFORMER/REACTOR 28
PRELIMINARYCHECKS
1.Releaseairatthehighpoints,likeoilcommunicatingbushings,buchholzpetcock,tankcoverandthecooling
devices including headers, radiators, pumps, expansion joints etc. of the transformer. Air release should be
resortedfromlowpointstohighpoints.
2.Checkthewholeassemblyfortightnessandrectifywherenecessary.
3.Checkthegeneralappearanceandretouchthepaintworkifneedbe.
4.Checkthatthevalvesareinthecorrectposition:
Tank:valvesclosedandblanked
Coolingcircuit:valvesopen
Conservatorconnection:valvesopen
Bypass:valvesopenorclosedasthecasemaybe.
Onloadtapchanger:valvesopen
5.Checkthatthesilicagelinthebreatherisblueandthatthereisoilinthebreathercup(oilseal)
6.CheckthatCCCLGareshorted
7. Check the oil level in the main conservator and the conservator of onload tap changer, bushing caps,
flanges,turrets,expansionbellowsaspermanufacturersrecommendation.Levelshouldcorrespondto35C
markonoillevelgaugesforBHELtransformers
8.Checkthebushings:
Oillevel(bushingsfittedwithsightglasses)
Adjustmentofsparkgaps/arcinghorngaps,ifprovided
Conformityofconnectiontothelines(notensilestressontheterminalheads)
BushingCTsecondaryterminalsmustbeshortedandearthed,ifnotinuse.
Neutralbushingeffectivelyearthed
9.Checktheonloadtapchanger:
ConformityofthepositionsbetweenthetapchangercontrolcubicleandthetapChangerhead
Adjustmentofthetapchangercontrolcubiclecoupling
Electricandmechanicallimitswitchesandprotectiverelays
StepbystepoperationlocalandremoteelectricaloperationaswellasmanualOperationandparallel
operation,ifany
Signalingofpositions
10.Checkthequalityoftheoil:
Drawoffasamplefromthebottomofthetank
CarryoutDGAandoilparameterstest(i.e.BDV,Moisturecontent,resistivity&tanat90CandIFT)

beforeenergisation.
29
11.ChecktheoilofOLTCchamber,ifnotgood,drainandfillwithfilteredoiluptodesiredlevel.
12CheckthatequalisinglinkbetweenOLTCtankandMaintankisremoved
13Extraneousmaterialsliketools,earthingrods,piecesofclothes,wasteetc.shouldberemovedbefore
energisation.
CHECKINGOFAUXILIARYANDPROTECTIVECIRCUITS
1.Checktemperatureindicatorreadingsandtheircalibrations
2. Check the setting and working of the mercury switches of winding and oil temperature indicators and
presenceofoilinthethermometerpockets
Followthesameprocedureforthethermalreplicas
3.Checkthedirectionofinstallationofbuchholtzrelay.
4.Checktheoperationofthebuchholzrelayandthesurgeprotectiverelayofthetapchanger:
Alarmandtripping
Protectionsandsignalsinterlockedwiththeserelays
5.Checktheinsulationoftheauxiliarycircuitsinrelationtothegroundby2kVmeggerfor1min.
6.Checktheearthingofthetankandauxiliarieslikecoolerbanksattwoplaces.
7.Measurethesupplyvoltagesoftheauxiliarycircuits
8.Checkthecoolingsystem:
Checkthedirectionofinstallationofoilpumps
Checkthedirectionofrotationofthepumpsandfans
Checktheworkingoftheoilflowindicators
Checkthesettingofthethermaloverloadrelays
Gothroughthestartingupsequences,controlandadjust,ifnecessary,therelaytimedelays
9.Checkthatthereisefficientprotectionontheelectriccircuitsupplyingtheaccessoriesandtightnessofall
electricalconnections
10.Checktheheatingandlightinginthecubicles
11. Check the differential protection, overcurrent protection, restricted earth fault protection, overfluxing
protectionetc.areinserviceandsettingsareasperCC/Enggrecommendations.Aftertheinspection/tests
arecompleted,thetransformermaybeenergisedfromtheincomingsideonNOLOAD.Theinitialmagnetising
current at the time of switching will be very high, depending upon the particular moment in the cycle. The
transformer should always be soaked for few hours under constant care i.e. keep it energised for twelve
hours.Excessivevibrationsofradiatorpartsetc.shouldbelocatedandcorrected.Thetransformerhumshould
beobservedforanyabnormality.Afterthatitmaybecheckedforgascollection.Shouldthegasprovetobe
inflammable, try to detect the cause which may probably be an internal fault? If the breaker trips on

differential/REF,buchholzoranyotherprotectivedevice,thecausemustbeinvestigatedthoroughlybefore
reenergizingthetransformer/reactor.Aftersuccessfulcharging,performanceoftransformer/rectorshould
30
becheckedunderloading;OTI/WTIreadingsshouldbemonitoredfor24hoursandensuredthattheyareas
perloading.
DGA samples may be sent as per Standard practice (after 24 hrs of energisation, one week, 15 days, one
monthandthreemonthsaftercharging,thereafteraspernormalfrequencyof6months).Loadingdatamay
beforwardedtoCC/OSandmanufacturer(ifrequestedbythem).

31
Testingof
PowerTransformers
8.PRECOMMISSIONINGCHECKS
/TESTSFORTRANSFORMERS.

32
PRECOMMISSIONINGCHECKS/TESTSFORTRANSFORMERS&REACTORS
Onceoilfillingiscompleted,variousprecommissioningchecks/testsareperformedtoensurethehealthiness
oftheTransformer/Reactorpriortoitsenergisation.Variouselectricalteststobeperformedandtheir
significancearegivenbelow.
Sr. Name of Test / Purposeoftest/check
No. Checkpoint
3.1 Coreinsulationtests TochecktheinsulationbetweenCore(CC&CL)andGround
3.2 OperationalChecks Operational Checks on cooler bank (pumps & Fans), Breathers
onprotectionSystem (silica gel or drycol), MOG, temperature gauges (WTI/OTI), gas
actuated relays (Buchholz, PRD, SPR etc.) and simulation test of
protectionsystem
3.3 Insulation Test reveals the condition of insulation (i.e. degree of dryness of
Resistance(IR) paper insulation), presence ofany foreigncontaminantsin oil and
measurement alsoanygrossdefectinsidethetransformer(e.g.Failuretoremove
the temporary transportation bracket on the live portion of tap
changerpart)
3.4 Capacitanceand Measurement of C1 & C2 Capacitance and Tan in UST mode.

Tanmeasurement Changes in the normal capacitance of an insulator indicate
ofbushings abnormalconditionssuchasthepresenceofmoisturelayer,short
circuitsoropencircuitsinthecapacitancenetwork.
3.5 CapacitanceandTan Dissipation factor/Loss factor and capacitance measurement of

measurementof winding is carried out to ascertain the general condition of the
windings groundandinterwindinginsulation
3.6 Turnsratio(Voltage To determine the turns ratio of transformers to identify any

ratio)measurementabnormalityintapchangers/shortedoropenturnsetc
3.7 Vector Group & Todeterminethephaserelationshipandpolarityoftransformers

Polarity
3.8 Windingresistance To check for any abnormalities due to loose connections, broken
measurement strandsandhighcontactresistanceintapchangers
3.9 MagneticBalance Thistestisconductedonlyinthreephasetransformerstocheckthe

test imbalanceinthemagneticcircuit

3.10 FloatingNeutral This test is conducted to ascertain possibility of short circuit in a
pointmeasurement winding. 33
3.11 Measurementof This test is used to detect winding movement that usually occurs
ShortCircuit due to heavy fault current or mechanical damage during
Impedance transportationorinstallationsincedispatchfromthefactory.
3.12 Exciting/Magnetising To locate defect in magnetic core structure, shifting of windings,

current failures in turn to turn insulation or problems in tap changers.
measurement These conditions change the effective reluctance of the magnetic
circuit thus affecting the current required to establish flux in the
core.
3.13 Vibration Tomeasurethevibrationsofcore/coilassemblyinthetankofthe

measurementofOil reactor. Movement of the corecoil assembly and shielding
immersedReactor structure caused by the timevarying magnetic forces results in
vibration of the tank and ancilliary quipment. These vibrations
have detrimental effects such as excessive stress on the corecoil
assembly
3.14 Operationalcheck To ensure smooth & trouble free operation of OLTC during
onOLTCs operation.
3.15 Stabilityof This testisperformedto check the proper operation of

Differential,REFof Differential & REF protection of Transformer & Reactor by
Transformer/ simulatingactualconditions.AnyprobleminCTconnection,wrong
Reactor cabling,relaysettingcanbedetectedbythistest.
3.16 Tests/Checkson
BushingCurrent To ascertain the healthiness of bushing current transformer at the
Transformers(BCTs) timeoferection
3.17 FrequencyResponse Toassess the mechanical integrity of the transformer.

Analysis(FRA) Transformers while experiencing severity of short circuit current
measurement looses its mechanical property by way of deformation of the
winding or core. During precommissioning this test is required to
ascertainthatTransformeractiveparthasnotsufferedanysevere
impact/jerkduringtransportation.

3.18 Dissolved Gas Oilsamplefor DGAtobedrawnfromtransformermaintank before
Analysis(DGA)ofoil commissioningforhavingabasedataandafter24hrs.ofcharging 34
sample subsequentlytoensurenofaultgasdevelopedafterfirstcharging.
DGAanalysishelpstheusertoidentifythereasonforgasformation
&materialsinvolvedandindicateurgencyofcorrectiveactiontobe
taken
3.19 ThermovisionInfra A thermo vision Camera determines the temperature distribution

redscanning(IR on the surface of the tank as well as in the vicinity of the Jumper
thermography) connection to the bushing. The information obtained is useful in
predictingthetemperatureprofilewithintheinnersurfaceoftank
andislikelytoprovideapproximatedetailsofheatingmechanism.
Thermovisionscanningoftransformertobedoneatleastafter24
hrs.ofloadingandrepeatedafteroneweek.
1.0TRANSFORMERANDREACTOR
1.1FollowingpointstobecheckedAfterReceiptoftransformer/
reactoratSite:
1.1.1 N2 pressure and Dew point to be checked after receipt of transformer at Site. It should be within
permissibleband(aspergraphprovidedbymanufacturer&givenbelowinFig1)
1.1.2Thedataofimpactrecordershallbeanalyzedjointlyinassociationwiththe
manufacturer. In case the impact recorder indicates some serious shocks during shipment, further
courseofactionforinternalinspection,ifnecessaryshallbetakenjointly.ImpactRecordershouldbe
detached from the Transformer/ Reactor preferably when the main unit has been placed on its
foundation.
1.1.3OilSamplesshallbetakenfromoildrums/tankerreceivedatsiteandsenttoourLab(CIOTL/IOTL)for
oilparametertesting.Thecopyoftestcertificateofroutinetestingatoilrefineryshouldbeavailableat
siteforcomparisonoftestresults.
1.1.4UnpackingandInspectionofAccessoriestobecarriedouttakingallprecautionssothatthetoolsused
foropeningdonotcausedamagetothecontents.Fragileinstrumentslikeoillevelgauge,temperature
indicators, etc. are to be inspected for breakage or other damages. Any damaged or missing
componentsshouldbereportedtoequipmentmanufacturer,sothatthesamecanbeinvestigatedor
shortagemadeupaspertheterms/conditionsofthecontract.
1.1.5 Core Insulation Test shall be carried out to check insulation between Core (CC&CL) and Ground. (Not
applicableforAirCoreReactors)

35
1.1.6Afterreceivingtheaccessoriesatsitesameshouldbeinspectedandkeptreadyforimmediateerection:
Iferectionworkcannotstartimmediatelyduetosomereasons,thenaccessoriesshouldberepacked
intotheirowncratesproperlyandpackinglistshouldberetained.
Allpackingsshouldbekeptabovegroundbysuitablesupportssoastoallowfreeairflowunderneath.
Thestoragespaceareashouldbesuchthatitisaccessibleforinspection;waterdoesnotcollectonor
aroundtheareaandhandling/transportwouldbeeasy.Properdrainagearrangementinstorageareas
tobeensuredsothatinnosituation,anycomponentgetsubmergedinwaterduetorain,floodingetc..
Immediatelyafterthereceiptofmainunitandalsotheaccessories,sameshouldbeinspectedandif
foundsatisfactory,theunitshouldbeerectedcompletelyandfilledwithdrytransformeroilasperthe
instruction.
Itispreferabletostorethemainunitonitsownlocation/foundation.Ifthefoundationisnotlikelyto
be ready for more than three (3) months, then suitable action plan has to be taken from the
manufacturerregardingproperstorageoftheMainUnit.
Ifthetransformer/Reactoristobestoreduptothree(3)monthsafterarrivalatsite,itcanbestored
withN2filledcondition.N2pressuretobemonitoredondailybasissothatchancesofexposureof
activepartatmosphereareavoided.Incaseofdropinpressure,dewpointofN2hastobemeasured
tocheckthedrynessoftheTransformer/Reactor.

Incaseofstorageoftransformerinoilfilledcondition,theoilfilledintheunitshouldbetestedforBDV
andmoisturecontentsonceineverythreemonths.Theoilsampleshouldbetakenfrombottomvalve.
36
If BDV is less and moisture contents are morethan as given for service condition then oil should be
filtered.
1.1.7Duringerection,theexposureofactivepartoftransformersshouldbeminimized.Furthereitherdryair
generator should be running all the time or dry air cylinders may be used to minimize ingress of
moisture. The transformer should be sealed off after working hours. It is practical to apply a slight
overpressure overnight with dry air or N2 inside less than 300 mbar (30 kPa or 0.3 atmospheres).
Nextdaythepressureischeckedandsuspectedleaksmaybedetectedwithleakdetectioninstruments
, with soap water or with plastic bags tightened around valves (being inflated by leaking air) For oil
filled units whenever oil is drained out below the inspection covers, job will be treated as exposed.
Otherexposureactivitiesareasbelow:
1)Bushingerections
2)JumperconnectionsofBushings
4)Fixingbushingturretsoncover
5)Fixingbushingturretsonside
6)Coreinsulationchecking
7)Buchholzrelaypipeworkfixingoncover.
8)Gasreleasepipes/equaliserpipefixing.
9)Enteringinsidethetankforconnections/inspectionetc.
Foroilfilledunitsdependingupontheleveluptowhichtheoilisdraineddecidestheexposuretime.Allsuch
exposure time should be recorded in a log sheet to decide the oil processing (drying) and oil filling of
transformer.Fortransformerswithagaspressureof2.53PSI,theacceptablelimitsofdewpointshallbeas
under:

37

TABLEVariationofDewPointofN2GasFilledinTransformerTankw.r.t
Temperature.

ParametersofTransformerOil
38
Theoilsamplefromthetransformertank,afterfillingintankbeforecommissioningshouldmeetthefollowing
specificationsasperIS:18662000(latestRevision)givenintablebelow:

39
Testingof
PowerTransformers
9.PartialDischargeMeasurements.

PartialDischargeMeasurements
9.1Purposeofmeasurement 40
Apartialdischargemeasurement(PDmeasurement)isanondestructivetoolusedtoestablishtheconditionof
atransformerinsulationsystem.ThegoalofpartialdischargemeasurementistocertifythatnoharmfulPD
sourcesexist.APDmeasurementmakesitpossibletodetectandlocalizeareaswithinthetransformerwhich
are exposed to elevated dielectric stresses, i.e. stresses which in the long run can be harmful to safe
transformeroperation.
Partialdischargemeasurementsareexplicitlyspecifiedinstandardsorincustomerspecifications.Theyareto
becarriedoutinconjunctionwithdielectrictestsinhighvoltagelaboratoriesusingACvoltageinthepower
frequencyrange.
ForHVDCtransformersPDmeasurementsarealsocarriedoutondielectrictestswithDCvoltages
ForonsitePDmeasurements(forexampleonrepairedtransformers)othertypesofPDfreeexcitationmay
alsobecarriedout[221].
Partialdischargemeasurementshouldgenerallybethelastdielectrictestconductedonthetransformer.
9.2General
Partialdischargeisapartialvoltagebreakdownwithinaseriesofinsulatingelementsbetweentwoelectrodes
of different potential, (capacitances C2 and C3, see figure 9.1). During a typical PD measurement, the
magnitudeofthedetectablevalueofpartialdischargeactivityisrecordedasafunctionoftheappliedvoltage.
A partial discharge can be interpreted as the rapid movement of an electric charge from one position to
another. For very fast changes, or during the first instant after charge movement, the individual insulation
links in a series of connected links between two line terminals can be regarded as a number of series
connectedcapacitors.

BU=bushing
HV=highvoltage
NT=neutralterminal
C1,2,3=activepartoftransformer(includingoil)
C1=weakregion
Ct=testobjectcapacitance(C2andC3)
Figure1:Schematicrepresentationofapartofthetransformerinsulation.

If the two line terminals are connected together via an external capacitor Ck, see figure 9.2, the charge
41
movementswithintheseriesconnectedinsulationlinks(capacitancesC2andC3,seefigure9.1)willalsobe
reflectedinthechargeofexternalcapacitorCk.Thechargemovementscanbedetectedascirculatingcurrent
impulsesi(t)intheparallelconnectedcapacitorsCkandCt,seefigure9.2.

Ct=testobjectcapacitance
Ck=couplingcapacitor
G=voltagesource
i(t)=PDcurrentpulses
i~k,~t=displacementcurrents
Z=voltagesourceconnectors
Q=transferredcharge
Ut=voltageatparallelconnectedcapacitors
Zm=measuringimpedance
Figure9.2:EquivalentcircuitforPDmeasurement.

Two requirements must be fulfilled to initiate a partial discharge (i.e. electric breakdown) within the weak
regionofanextendedinsulatingsystem:
LocalelectricfieldstressEintheweakregionmustbegreaterthantheinceptionelectricfieldofthePD
Source.
Freeelectronsmustbeavailabletoinitiatetheelectricbreakdown,seeclauseA9.1.
Excessivestressintheweakregioncanresultfromdesignflaws,contaminationordeviationfrompermissible
tolerancesinthemanufacturingprocess,insulatingmaterialflaws,etc.Anotherpossibilityishiddendamage
totheinsulationcausedbyprecedingtests.

9.3PrincipleofPDmeasurement
42
AllPDmeasuringmethodsarebasedonthedetectionofPDcurrentimpulsesi(t)circulatingintheparallel
connectedcapacitorsCk(couplingcapacitor)andCt(testobjectcapacitance)viameasuringimpedance Zm.
ThebasicequivalentcircuitforPDmeasurementsispresentedinfigure9.2[212].
The measuring impedanceZmcan either be connected in series withcoupling capacitor Ckorwith the test
objectcapacitanceCt.
Asdiscussedinsection9.3General,PDcurrentimpulsesaregeneratedbychargetransfersbetweenparallel
connectedcapacitorCk(couplingcapacitor)andCt(testobjectcapacitance).
Present IEC and IEEE Standards have both established rules for measuring and evaluating electric signals
causedbypartialdischargestogetherwithspecificationsonpermissiblemagnitude.
The IEC approach to the processing of the recorded electric signal is different from the IEEE approach. IEC
transforms the signal to an apparent electric charge generally measured in picocoulombs (pC), while IEEE
transformsthesignaltoaRadioInterferenceVoltageRIV,generallymeasuredinmicrovolts(V).
TheuseoftheRIVmethodforPDsignaldetectionwillbeabandoned,althoughtheIEEEstandardhasnotyet
beenofficiallyapproved.ThedetectionofapparentchargeinpCisthepreferredmethodnowinuseinIEEE
Std.C57.113[56].
ForthedetectionofapparentchargetheintegrationofthePDcurrentimpulsesi(t)isrequired.
IntegrationofthePDcurrentimpulsescanbeperformedeitherinthetimedomain(digitaloscilloscope)orin
the frequency domain (bandpass filter). Most PD systems available on the market perform a quasi
integrationofthePDcurrentimpulsesinthefrequencydomainusingawidebandornarrowbandfilter,
seeclauseA9.2.
Note:
Forshortdurationcurrents(nsrange)thetestvoltagesourceispracticallydecoupledfromthePDmeasuring
circuit(parallelconnectionofCkandCt)bytheinductiveimpedanceZ(stepuptransformerconnections).
FortheHVcomponentswithoutanybushinganexternalcouplingcapacitorCkmustbeconnectedinparallel
withthetestobjectCt,seefigure9.3.

43

PDS=PDsystem
Z=voltagesourceconnection
Figure9.3:Testcircuitformeasurementwithoutcapacitivetap
9.4PDmeasurementontransformers
CirculatingPDcurrentimpulsesgeneratedbyanexternalPDsource(inthetestcircuit)orbyaninternalPD
source (in the insulating system of the transformer) can only be measured at the transformer bushings.
BushingcapacitanceC1,seefigure9.5a,representsthecouplingcapacitorCk,whichisconnectedinparallel
with capacitance Ct (test object = total capacitance of the transformer insulating system). An example of a
typicaltransformerinsulatingsystemisshowninfigure9.4.
Forpowertransformersthemeasuringimpedanceisgenerallyconnectedbetweenthebushingmeasuringtap
andearth,i.e.inparallelwithcapacitanceC2,seefigure9.5a.
ForbushingswithoutacapacitivetapanexternalcouplingcapacitanceCkmustbeconnectedinparallelwith
thebushing,seefigure9.5b.
TherearesomeessentialdifferencesbetweenthetwoStandards(IECandIEEE)regardingtheevaluationof
thePDcurrentimpulses.

44

PR=pressring
BI=barrierinsulation
LV=lowvoltage
HV=highvoltage
RW=regulationwinding
Figure9.4:Transformerinsulatingsystem;Barriersystemwithshieldingringsandangleringstowardsyoke.
9.5.1IECStandard[3]
AccordingtoIEC,PDmeasurementsareconductedbymeasuringtheapparentcharge,q.Inthiscontextthe
apparentchargeisobtainedbyintegratingthePDcurrentimpulseusingwidebandornarrowbandfilter,
seeclauseA9.2.
ThePDmeasuringsystemisconnectedviaacoaxialcabletomeasuringimpedanceZm,seefigure9.5.
Theapparentchargeq,measuredinpicocoulombs(pC),correspondstothechargetransferredduringtheU
voltagedropcompensationprocessatoneoftheparallelconnectedcapacitancesCt(transformerinsulation)
andbushingcapacitanceC1orcouplingcapacitanceCk,seefigure9.2and9.5.
ThisvoltagedropUmaybecausedeitherinthetestobject(internalpartialdischargeinthebushingorinthe
transformerinsulatingsystem)orinthetestcircuit(externalpartialdischarge).IfPDactivityisdetectedduring
thetest,thePDsourcemustbeinvestigated,seesection9.7.
The magnitude of measurable apparent charge qm in pC must be defined by the calibrating procedure for
eachtestcircuit.

Calibration
45
CalibrationofthePDtestcircuitisperformedusingabatteryoperatedcalibrator.Thecalibratorconsistsofa
squarewavegeneratorwithadjustableamplitudeU0connectedinserieswithasmallcapacitorC0(C0should
be less than 10% of Ck). For PD measurements on transformers, the calibrator is connected across the
bushing, or across the coupling capacitor connected in parallel with the bushing, see figure 9.5. Calibration
mustbeperformedseparatelyforeachbushing.

C1=Ck=couplingcapacitor
SE=shieldingelectrode
PDS=PDsystem
CAL=calibrator
C2=capacitivetap
Figure9.5a:CalibrationcircuitforPDmeasurementontransformers;bushingswithcapacitivetap
UndertheassumptionthatC0<<Ck,theinjectedimpulsefromthesquarewavegeneratorcorrespondstothe
chargeq0,whichissettopredefinedvalues(100pC,1000pCetc.)bytheadjustingtheamplitudeU0.IEC
60270recommendsthattherisetimeoftheinjectedimpulseshouldbe60ns,amplitudeU0between2Vand
50V,selectablepolarity,andtherepetitionrate100Hz.
q0=U0C0
where:
q0=injectedcharge
U0=adjustablevoltageofthesquarewavegenerator
C0=calibratorcapacitance
Themeasuringcircuit,consistingofthetestcapacitanceCtofthetestobject,couplingcapacitorCk,measuring
impedanceZm,coaxialcableandmeasuringsystem,isnowcalibrated,seefigure9.5.
DuringthePDtestthemeasuringsystemvaluesarereaddirectlyinpC.ThispCreadingisonlyvalidforthe
specificcalibratedbushing.

46

PDS=PDsystem
CAL=calibrator
SE=shieldingelectrode
Figure9.5b:CalibrationcircuitforPDmeasurementontransformers;bushingswithoutcapacitivetap

9.5.2IEEEStandard[50],[51]
For routine PD measurements, IEEE Standards require the measurement of RIV (RIV = Radio Interference
Voltage).RIVisdeterminedinV(interferencevoltage).Anarrowbandfilterperformsquasiintegrationof
PD current impulses with quasipeak detection at center frequencies between 0,85 MHz and 1,15 MHz. The
narrowband pass filter is applied to allow suppression of external noise in nonshielded laboratories by
varyingthecenterfrequencyofthefilter.ThemeasuringsystemiscalledaRIVmeteroraradionoisemeter.
The RIV in V depends on both, on the transferred charge and on the repetition rate of the PD impulses
(numberofPDimpulsespersecond).ThisiswhyitisnotpossibletodirectlyconvertmeasuredRIVvaluesin
VintovaluesofapparentchargeinpC,seeclauseA9.2.
Thetransferredcharge(measuredinV)istheresultofacompensationprocessofthevoltagedropUatone
oftheparallelconnectedcapacitancesCt(transformerinsulation)andbushingcapacitanceC1=Ckorcoupling
capacitorCk,seefigure9.5.
Calibration
ThePDtestcircuitiscalibratedinthesamewayastheoneformeasuringapparentchargeinpC,seefigure
9.5.AssumingthatC0<<Ck,theappliedsinusoidalvoltagecorrespondsexactlytothevaluesdefinedbythe
adjustableamplitudeofU0inV(100V,1000Vetc...).
DuringthePDtestthemeasuringsystemvaluesarereaddirectlyinV.ThisVreadingisonlyvalidforthe
specificcalibratedbushing.

According to IEEE Standard C57.12.90 [51] PD activity within the transformer may be measured in terms of
apparent charge (picocoulomb). This approach should normally provide several advantages, including less
47
attenuationofsignal.
9.5.3SensitivityofthePDmeasurement
The true charge q1 released during an internal electric breakdown in a weak region in the transformer
insulation is no measurable, see figure 9.1. Only the charge transfer between the capacitance of the weak
regionC1andcapacitancesoftheinsulatingsystem(C2andC3infigure9.1)isdetectableatthebushing(Ck).
CapacitancesC2andC3(windingandtransformerinsulatingsystem)aredirectlyconnectedtothisbushing.
Therelationshipbetweentruechargeq1,apparentchargeqandmeasurablechargeqmisdiscussedinclause
A9.3.
ThesensitivityofthePDmeasurement(i.e.themeasurableapparentchargeqminpCorinterferencevoltage
in V) is strongly dependent on the components in the test circuit; especially on the ratio of the test
capacitanceCt(insulatingsystemofthetransformer)andcouplingcapacitorCk(capacitanceofthebushing).
TheinfluenceofthecouplingcapacitorvalueonthesensitivityofthePDcircuitisshowninfigure9.6[212].
Thisshowsthatcalibrationmustberepeatedifmajorchangesaremadetothetestcircuit(connectionofnew
couplingcapacitor,etc.).

q=apparentcharge
qm=measurablecharge
qm=Ck
qCt+Ck
Figure9.6:InfluenceofcouplingcapacitorCkonthemeasuringsensitivityqm/q.
Foranextendedinsulatingsystemsuchasthatofatransformer,thecalibrationdescribedaboveisonlyvalid
forPDdefectsthatareclosetothebushing.
The real PD impulse currents especially those generated by internal PD sources hidden deep within the
insulatingsystemareheavilyattenuatedbytheRLCMnetworkofthetransformer[214].(RLCMstandsfor
resistances,inductances,capacitancesandmutualinductances.)SuchslowPDimpulsesareonlydetectable
atthebushingsandmaynotalwaysbecorrectlymeasuredbytheappliedPDsystem,seeclauseA9.2.
TheamplitudeofapparentchargeqmisthereforenotalwaysameaningfulcriteriontodecideifthePDsource
is dangerous to the insulating system. A procedure for investigating the internal PD source is described in
section9.7.

Note1: 48
NormallyZmandthemeasuringsystemmustbematchedtocorrectlyquasiintegratethePDcurrentimpulses.
MixingmeasuringimpedancesZmanddetectionsystemsofdifferentmanufacturersisnotrecommended.
Note2:
FordeliverytestsitisonlyspecifiedtomeasureonbushingsforUm>72,5kV(IEC)oronbushingsUm>115kV
(IEEE)
It is recommended that all bushings of the transformer under test should be equipped with measuring
impedancesZmtoensurethatPDactivitycanbedetectedsimultaneously.IfPDactivityisdetectedinthetest
circuit,identificationandlocalizationofthePDsourceisthenmuchfaster,seesection9.9.
To avoid external discharge (corona) in the PD measuring circuit all transformer bushing tops should be
coveredwithshieldingelectrodes(includingearthedbushings),seefigure9.5.Shieldingelectrodesshouldalso
beusedforallsharpmetallicpartsontopofthetransformerandinthevoltagesourceconnections,seeclause
A 9.8. The voltage source in the HV laboratory must be PDfree. All objects in the test field close to the
transformerundertestmustbeearthed.TypicalexternalnoisesourcesarediscussedinclauseA9.4.
9.6PDmeasuringprocedure
The procedure for PD measurement is basically defined by the induced voltage test procedure shown in
section8,Table1.TherearesomedifferencesbetweenPDmeasuringproceduresaccordingtoIECandthose
specified in the IEEE Standards. Sometimes the customer specifies a special PD procedure according to his
experienceandtotherecommendationsofthenationaltechnicalcommittee.
9.6.1IECStandard[3]
AccordingtotheIECStandardsPDmeasurementsshallbecarriedoutinconjunctionwithinducedvoltagetest
on all transformers with highest voltage for equipment (Um) above a certain level. The PD measurement is
mandatory for long duration induced voltage test (ACLD) as well as for short duration induced voltage test
(ACSD).TimesequencesforACSDandACLDaregiveninsection8,figures8.3and8.4.
PDactivityshouldbecheckedatallbushingswherethesystemvoltageishigherthan72,5kV.PDactivityis
measuredinpC.AnywidebandpassfilterornarrowbandpassfiltercanbeusedasaPDmeasuringsystem,
seeclauseA9.2.
ThefirstPDmeasurement(valuesofapparentchargeinpC)shouldbemadeatalowtestvoltagelevel(ca.
10%Ur).ThisvalueservesasareferenceforthebackgroundnoiselevelinHVlaboratory.AccordingtotheIEC
Standards,thebackgroundnoiselevelmustbelowerthanhalfoftherequiredpCvalueofapparentchargefor
thespecifictransformer.InashieldedHVlaboratory,thebackgroundnoiselevelissufficientlylow.
The following PD measurements should be made at each test voltage level indicated in figures 8.3 and 8.4
(partsA,B,D,E)withtheexceptionoftheenhancementlevel(partC).AllmeasuredpCvaluesatallbushings
ofthetransformershouldbedocumented(seeexampleTable1).

Duringthelongdurationtest(partDinfigure8.4),thePDactivityshouldbecheckedatleastevery5minutes
ateachbushing. Thebestwayto checkPDactivityinthetransformerinsulating systemistoapplyamulti
49
channel PD measuring system capable of detecting PD activity at all bushings simultaneously (8channel PD
system).
AcceptancecriteriaforPDtest
ThePDtestisconsideredsuccessfulifnocontinuousPDactivitygreaterthanthespecifiedapparentcharge
amplitudeinpCisdetectedatanybushing,andifthereisnorisingtrendintheapparentchargeamplitude
duringthelongdurationtest.
TherecommendedacceptablevaluesofapparentchargegivenintheIECStandardsare:
300pCat130%Um
500pCat150%Um
thelevelofcontinuousPDactivitydoesnotexceed100pCat1.1Um

where:
Um=highestvoltageforequipmentaccordingtoIECorinotherwordshighest
r.m.sphasetophasevoltageforwhichthetransformerwindingisdesigned.

9.6.2IEEEStandards[50],[51]
AccordingtotheIEEEStandards,thePDmeasurementshouldbeperformedattheonehourlevelofthetest
voltage (defined by the customer), before the enhancement level and during the onehour test after the
enhancement test voltage, see figure 8.5 in section 8. The duration for part A must be sufficiently long to
initiatepossiblePDactivityintheoilimpregnatedtransformerinsulatingsystem(minimum10minutes).The
physicsofPDactivityinoilimpregnatedinsulatingsystemsisdiscussedinclauseA9.1.
PDactivityshouldbecheckedatallbushingswherethesystemvoltageis115kV.PDactivityismeasuredin
V.AnarrowbandpassfiltershouldbeusedasaPDmeasuringsystem.Therecommendedcenterfrequency
for the narrowband pass system is 1 MHz. If there is high background noise, the center frequency can be
variedbetween0,85MHzand1,15MHz.
ThefirstPDmeasurement(RIVvaluesinV)shouldbeperformedatalowtestvoltagelevel(about10%Ur).
This value serves as a reference for the background noise level in the HV laboratory. According to the
Standards, the background noise level must be lower than half of the required V value for the specific
transformer.InashieldedHVlaboratorythebackgroundnoiselevelislessthanafewV.

ThefollowingPDmeasurementsshouldbeperformedateachtestvoltagelevelindicatedinfigure8.5(parts
A,C)ofsection8withtheexceptionoftheenhancementlevel(partB).
50
AllmeasuredVvaluesatallbushingsofthetransformershouldbedocumented,seeexampleTable2.
Duringtheonehourtest(partCinfigure8.5),thePDactivityateachbushingshouldbecheckedatleastevery
5minutes.

AcceptancecriteriaforPDtest
ThePDtestisconsideredsuccessfulifnocontinuousPDactivitygreaterthanthespecifiedRIVlevelinVis
detectedatanybushing,andifthereisnorisingtrendofRIVduringthelongdurationtest.Accordingtothe
IEEEStandardthePDtestwassuccessfulifthefollowingconditionsweremet:
ThemagnitudeofthePDleveldidnotexceed100V
ThePDlevelincreaseduringonehouroftestdidnotexceed30V
ThePDlevelduringtheonehourtestdidnotexhibitanysteadilyrisingtrend,andnosudden,
sustainedincreaseinlevelsoccurredduringthelast20minutesofthetest.
9.7.1InvestigationofexternalPDsources
ThefirststepistoexcludeallpossibleexternalPDsources.TypicalexternalPDsourcesare,seealsoclauseA
9.4:
Conductingparticlesonthebushingsurface
Nonshieldedsharppointsonthetransformerorinthetestcircuit
Badconnectionsonshieldingelectrodes
Unearthedmetallicobjectsclosetothetransformer
NoiseorinternalPDfromthevoltagesourceElectricdischargesinair(corona)generatedbysharp
electrodes(tippointelectrode)areeasytodetectusingaportableultrasonicdetector(coronagun),see
figure9.7.

APDprobleminthevoltagesourcecaneasilybecheckedbyseparatelymeasuringthevoltagesource.
51
9.7.2InvestigationofthetypeofPDsource
APDsourcetypeisdefinedbyitsspecificstatisticalbehavior(PDpattern).ThestatisticalbehaviorofthePD
sourceismainlyinfluencedbytheavailabilityofstartingelectrons,whichtriggeranelectricdischargeinthe
weak region in the transformer insulating system, see physics of discharge processes in clause A 9.1. The
availabilityofstartingelectronsisstronglydependentonthePDsourceitself(conductingornonconducting
material)andonthepositionofthePDsourcewithrespecttothemetallicelectrode.Asaresult,fivetypical
PDpatternsrepresentingthephysicalprocessesofthePDsourcesexist(foravisualinterpretation,seeTable
3).
ThesetypicalPDpatternsarebasedonphysicalelectricdischargeprocessesintheweakregion,seeclauseA
9.1, and can theoretically be detected in any insulating system (if the measuring circuit is sufficiently
sensitive). PD patterns (statistical analysis of the PD signals) are not influenced by the structure of the
insulatingsystem[213].
Note:
Thestructureofextendedinsulatingsystems,likethoseofatransformer,heavilyattenuatetheamplitudeof
theoriginalinternalPDcurrentimpulses,butdonotchangetheirstatisticalbehavior.
An advanced PD system Phase Resolving Partial Discharge Analyser = PRPDAsystem is used to record a PD
pattern [215]. The advanced PD system, seeclause A 9.5, performs astatistical analysis of the recordedPD
data. At the specific test voltage, the PD activity is saved as a function of the phase position and of the
amplitudeofapparentchargeduringapresettime(twodimensionalmultichannelanalyser).Theresultsare
finallypresentedasatwodimensionalPDpattern,seefigure9.8a.Thethirddimension(color)indicatesthe
totalnumberofPDimpulsescollectedduringthepresetmeasuringtime.ForthestatisticalanalysisofaPD
sourceaminimumof3000cyclesareneeded(for50Hzthepresetmeasuringtimemustbe60seconds).
Figure9.8bshowsthewellknownpresentationofPDimpulsesduringonecycle,recordedusinga
conventionalPDsystem.
ToinvestigatethePDsource,thefirstPDpatternshouldberecordedunderthefollowingtestconditions
[216]:
InceptionvoltageofthePDsource
ExtinctionvoltageofthePDsource
10%abovetheinceptionvoltage
FurthertestconditionsfortheinvestigationofthePDsourcearedependentontheresultsoftheanalysisof
thePDpattern.

52
Figure9.8a:RegistrationofPDimpulses(bubblesandsurfacedischarge);advancedPDsystem(statistical
analysisofPDimpulses)
AnalysisofthePDpatternisbasedoncomparingtherecordedrealPDpatternwiththetypicalPDpattern
typespresentedinTable3:
Inreality,thefivetypicalPDpatternsappearinmanyvariations.Duetothecontinuouschangeofboththe
surroundingareaatthelocationofthePDsourceandofthePDsourceitself(duetotheelectricdischarge),
thereareonlyafewPDpatternsthatexhibitconstantbehaviorduringthetest.

53
Table3:TypicalPDsourcesinthetransformerinsulatingsystem

BasicPDpatterncharacteristicsthatshouldbeanalyzedare[216]:
54
PhasepositionofthePDsignals
SymmetryofthePDsignalsduringthepositiveandnegativesinewave
NumberofPDsignalspercycle
ReproducibilityofthePDpattern
Interpretation and screening of the correct type of PD pattern from the real PD pattern results, requires
experience and a strong interpolation capability. If PD defects are superimposed, a comparison with the
typicaltypesofPDpatternsandfindingthecorrecttypeofPDpatternbecomesmuchmoredifficult.
An overview of the typical PD sources in the transformer insulating system together with their typical PD
patternandtheirtypicalbehaviorduringthetestispresentedinTable4.
IfthereisaclearindicationofinternalPDactivityinthetransformerinsulatingsystem,localizationofthePD
sourcemustfollow,seesections9.8and9.9.

Figure9.8b:RegistrationofPDimpulses(bubblesandsurfacedischarge);conventionalPDsystemonecycle
only


Table4:TypicalPDsourcesinthetransformerinsulatingsystem(Figures9.10a,b,c)
55

Figure9.10a:TypicalPDdefectsinthetransformerinsulation;
conductingmaterial=PDpatterntype1

56

Figure9.10b:TypicalPDdefectsinthetransformerinsulation;
conductingmaterial=PDpatterntype2


57

Figure9.10c:TypicalPDdefectsinthetransformerinsulation;
bubbles=PDpatterntype3and4


9.8DetectionofacousticPDsignals
An acoustic PD signal is a mechanical vibration in the elastic medium (acoustic wave). Means to locate PD 58
sourcesthataregeneratedbytheelectricdischargeintheweakregionusingacousticwaveanalysis(acoustic
emission) are based on time delay measurements between the electric PD signal (oscilloscope trigger) and
acousticsignalsdetectedbyaminimumofthreeacousticsensorspositionedalongthetransformertankwall.
The theory of the propagation of acoustic waves in the transformer insulating system and an advanced
acousticsystemarediscussedinclauseA9.6[217].
Piezoelectric transducers (crystal) with a resonance frequency between 60 150 kHz are normally used as
acousticsensors.AfourchanneldigitaloscilloscopeisneededtoanalyzeacousticPDsignals.Atypicalresultof
detectingacousticPDsignalscorrelatedwithanelectricPDsignalisshowninfigure9.11.
ThelocationofthePDsourceintheinsulatingsystemiscalculatedfromthetimedelaybetweentheelectric
andacousticPDsignalsusingthetriangulationmethod,seefigure9.12[217].Thevelocityofacousticwavesin
oil is around 1400 m/s. This method is theoretically only applicable for direct waves i.e. acoustic waves
propagatingthroughtheoilonly.

a)=electricPDsignal[0,50V/div]
b)=acousticPDsignal[20mV/div],sensor1
c)=acousticPDsignal[10mV/div],sensor2
d)=acousticPDsignal[50mV/div],sensor3
Figure9.11:DetectionofacousticPDsignals
Acoustic wave propagation in the transformer, see clause A 9.6, is heavily influenced by the complicated
structureoftheinsulatingsystem(windingbarriers,core,tankwalls).Inacomplicatedstructuretheacoustic
signalemittedbythePDsourcechangesalongitspropagationpath.Boththeamplitude(attenuation)andthe
signal shape (absorption, dispersion) are influenced. It must therefore be possible to distinguish between
directpropagated and wallpropagated waves when analyzing the time difference between electric and
acousticPDsignalsforthepurposeoflocalization,seefigure9.12.Thisinformationistheoreticallyhiddenin
thewavefrontoftheacousticsignaldetectedbyasensoronthetankwall,seefigure9.13.
9.8.1Sensitivityofthemeasurement
Localizing PD defects that emit the acoustic wave directly into oil, similar to a metallic particle lying on the
surface,caneasilybedetected(amplitudeofapparentcharge>100pC).

PDdefectshiddeninthesolidinsulation,similartoametallicparticleintheinsulation,arequitedifficultto
detect (amplitude of apparent charge >1000 pC), due to the different propagation velocities in different
59
materialsandduetothereflectionphenomenaofacousticwavesintheextendedinsulatingsystemofthe
transformer,seeclauseA9.6.
PDdefectsinthemaininsulationofthetransformerarethemostdifficulttodetectduetothetransformer
boardbarriersandouterwinding,seefigure9.4.
Acoustic waves caused by PD defects in the core are very difficult to analyze and may give very misleading
results.

C=velocityofacousticwave
t1,t2,t3=timeofsignalarrivalatthesensor

Figure9.12:LocationofPDsourceusingtriangulationmethod
Note:
DetectionofacousticPDsignalsshouldbeperformedatatestvoltagelevelclosetotheinceptionvoltageof
thePDsourcetoachieveareliablecorrelationbetweenelectricandacousticPDsignals.Athighertestvoltages
thenumberofPDimpulsespercycleusuallyincreasesandislikelytoinitiateadditionalPDsources.Incaseof
unidentifiedPDactivity,adetailedandindepthinvestigationofthePDsourceshouldfollow.Aminimumof
onedayisrequiredforthePDmeasurementsandanadditionaldaytoanalyzetheresults,seesection9.9.

60

Figure9.13:AnalysisofacousticwavesofPDsources
a)Detectionofdirectacousticwave(throughtheoil)
b)Detectionofreflectedacousticwaveorwavepropagatedthroughdifferentmedia.
9.9DetailedinvestigationofthePDsource
DetailedinvestigationofthePDsourcegoesbeyondtherequirementsspecifiedintheIECandIEEEstandards.
This procedure is adapted to the behavior of the PD source. The goal of the investigation is to find the PD
sourceasquicklyaspossible[216],[219].
DetailedinvestigationofthePDsourcerequiresthefollowingcommerciallyavailableequipment:
Highfrequencycurrenttransformer:Highfrequencycurrenttransformers(HFCT,100kHz30MHz)mustbe
used as a measuring impedance Zm to detect the real PD current impulses. HF CTs are connected to each
bushingofthetransformer(multiterminalmeasurement).

Spectrumanalyzer:AspectrumanalyzerisusedbothtoanalyzePDcurrentimpulsesinthefrequencydomain
forlocalizationofthePDsourcesandtodetectPDsignalsasavariablebandpassfilter(quasiintegrationof
61
PDcurrentimpulses)asthefrontendoftheadvancedPDsystem.
Advanced PDsystem: For example ICM system or ICMsys8 is used to record and analyze the statistical
behaviourofthePDsignalsforinvestigationofthetypeofthePDsource(PDpattern).
Digital oscilloscope: A digital oscilloscope is used as a control device for the digitized signals and as an
analyzingdevicefortimeresolvedsignalswhenlocalizingthePDactivity.
9.9.1InvestigationandlocalizationofthePDsource
TheinvestigationofthePDsourceshouldbeperformedinthefollowingsequence:
AnalysisofthefrequencyspectrumofthePDcurrentimpulses
AnalysisofthePDpattern(statisticalanalysisofthePDsignals)
EffortstolocatethePDsourceusinganalysisofelectricPDsignalsinthefrequencydomain
EffortstolocatethePDsourceusinganalysisofelectricPDsignalsinthetimedomain
Thesestepsaboveshouldberepeatedatthefollowingtestvoltagelevels:
AttheinceptionvoltageofthePDsource
AttheextinctionvoltageofthePDsource
Atdifferenttestvoltagelevelsuptotherequiredtestvoltagelevel
Asafunctionofthetimeoftheappliedvoltage
The analysis of the results is mainly based on comparing the real PD signal behavior with the characteristic
behavior of the specific insulating system. The characteristic behavior of the insulating system of the
transformerundertestmustbedefinedbyaspecialcalibratingprocedure.
An example of the characteristics of a transformer using a conventional calibrator for PD measurements is

showninfigure9.14:
Frequencyspectraateachbushing(spectrumanalyzerworksinfullspan,seefigure9.14a).
Sensitivity(inpC)ofthemeasuringcircuitateachbushing(spectrumanalyzerworksinspanzero),see
figure9.14b(bandpassfilter).
RegistrationofthesensitivityinpCateachbushingwithICMsystem(videooutsignalfromthe
spectrumanalyzer),seefigure9.14c(PDpattern).
Crosscouplingofcalibratingsignalsinthefrequencydomain,seefigure9.14d(localizationofPD
source).
Crosscouplingofcalibratingsignalsinthetimedomain,seefigure9.14e(localizationofPDsource).
Forthecrosscouplingcharacteristicsoftheinsulatingsystem,acalibratingsignalof1000pCisusuallyinjected
at one specific bushing and the response is measured at all other bushings (multiterminal method). This
procedureisrepeatedforeachbushing(timeneededforathreephasetransformerisabout6hours).

62

Figure9.14a:Characterizationofthetransformer;calibrationinthefrequencydomain.

Figure9.14b:Characteristicsofthetransformer,calibrationinpC(spectrumanalyzerasabandpassfilter)

Figure9.14c:Characteristicsofthetransformer,calibrationinpC(ICMrecordofcalibratingimpulse)

63

Figure9.14d:Characteristicsofthetransformer;crosscouplinginthefrequencydomain
Localization
LocalizationofthePDsourcesisbasedonthefollowingtheory:
Electric PD signals (PD current impulses) propagate from the PD source through the RLCM network of the
transformer, see clause A 9.7. The response of this network to excitation by a PD current impulse at any
locationintheinsulatingsystemcanonlybedetectedatthebushings.ThemeasuredrealPDcurrentimpulses
at the bushings are compared with the characteristic values obtained during the calibrating procedure
described above, both in the frequency domain and the time domain, see figure 9.14. The theory of
propagationofelectricPDsignalsthroughthetransformerRLCMnetworkisdiscussedinclauseA9.7.

Figure9.14e:Characteristicsofthetransformer;crosscouplinginthetimedomain.
AnalysisofPDcurrentimpulsesinthefrequencydomain[216],[219]
Inordertodefinethebackgroundnoiseconditionoftheentiretestcircuit(backgroundfrequencyspectrum)
thefirstdataregistrationwhentakingthePDmeasurementisperformedusingaspectrumanalyzeratabout
10%Uratallbushings.
ThebackgroundfrequencyspectraserveasthebasisforunambiguousidentificationofrepeatedPDactivity
detectedatthespecificbushing.
For each subsequent test voltage level, frequency spectra are checked and compared with the background
frequencyspectrumateachbushing.AnyPDactivityinthetestcircuitgeneratesachangeinthebackground
frequencyspectrum(visualinterpretation).
PDsignalsclosetothebushinggenerateafrequencyspectrumsimilartothecalibratingsignal,seefigure9.15
(1U).

PDsignalstransferredtothebushingviatheRLCMnetworkofthetransformerinsulatingsystemgeneratea
spectrumwithdefinedresonances,seefigure9.15(1V).
64

1U=PDsourceclosetothebushing
1V=PDsignalcoupledfromthephaseU
1W=backgroundnoise
Figure9.15:RealPDsignalinthefrequencydomaindetectedatdifferentbushings.
Thebasicfrequencyspectracharacteristicsthatshouldbeanalyzedare:
AmplitudeofthepowerspectrumindBm
Frequencyrangeofthepowerspectrum
Typicalresonances
Reproducibilityofpowerspectra
Comparison of the PD signal frequency spectra with the results of the characterization of the transformer
givesthefirstindicationofthelocationofthePDsource.
Note:
AnalysisofthePDsignalsinfrequencydomaincanonlybeperformedforrepetitivePDsignals.SporadicPD
signalscanonlyberegisteredwithapeakdetector(conventionaloradvancedPDmeasuringsystems)
AnalysisofPDcurrentsinthetimedomain[214]
Besides analyzing the PD signals in the frequency domain (spectrum analyzer), the PD current impulses are
alsoanalyzedinthetimedomain(oscilloscope).ThehighestPDcurrentamplitudeisusedasatriggersignal
for the oscilloscope (channel, HV) and the response of the RLCM network at all other bushings is usually
systematicallyanalyzedatthesecondchannel(NT),seefigure9.16.Additionalsimultaneousrecordingoffour
specificchannelsmaybeusedtoconfirmpreviousresults.
Recorded PD current signals in the time domain are again compared with the calibrating signals (visual
interpretation).
PDsignalsclosetothebushinggenerateatimeresolvedsignalsimilartothecalibratingsignal,seefigure9.16
(HV).
PDsignalstransferredtothebushingviatheRLCMnetworkofthetransformerinsulatingsystemgeneratea
timeresolvedsignalthatiscomparablewiththeresponseofaRLCfilter,seefigure9.16(NT).

65

HV=PDsourceclosetotheHVbushing
NT=PDsignalcoupledtotheneutralterminal
Figure9.16:RealPDsignalinthetimedomain.
BasictimeresolvedPDsignalcharacteristicsthatshouldbeanalyzedare:
MaximumamplitudeofthePDcurrentsignalinmV
RisetimeofthePDcurrentsignal
PDcurrentsignaloscillations
ReproducibilityofthePDcurrentsignals
A comparison of the PD signals recorded in the time domain with the results of the characterization of the
transformergivesthesecondindicationofthelocationofthePDsource.
Note:
IntheeventofsuperimposedPDsources,itispossibletodistinguishbetweentwodifferentPDcurrentsignals
byvaryingthetriggerlevel.WhileattemptingtolocalizethePDsource,thetypeofthePDactivity(PDpattern)
iscontinuouslyanalyzedinthesamewayasdescribedinsection9.7
9.9.2Finalanalysisoftheresults
AllresultsrecordedduringthedetailedinvestigationofthePDsourceunderdifferenttestconditionsmustbe
analyzed(anexperiencedpersontakesatleast4hours)beforemakinganydecisionsregardingthenextsteps
intheinvestigationprocedure.IndepthanalysisofallresultswillreliablyidentifythetypeofPDsource(PD
pattern),giveinformationaboutthelocationofthePDdefectandprovideabasicideaofhowdangerousthe
PDsourceisforthetransformerinsulatingsystem.
ThebehaviorofthePDsourceduringtheinvestigationprocedureallowsustodistinguishbetweendangerous
PDsourcesandnondangerousPDsources.Theamplitudeoftheapparentchargeisnotalwaysameaningful
criterionforthisdecision,seeclauseA9.3.
DangerousPDsourcesforthetransformerinsulatingsystemare:
PDsourcewithinceptionvoltagebelow100%Ur

PDsourcewithextinctionvoltagebelow100%Ur
PDsourcehiddeninthesolidinsulation
66
PDsourcewithcontinuouschangeinPDpattern
PDsourcewheretheamplitudeoftheapparentchargeincreaseswiththetimeofappliedvoltage
PDsourcewherethenumberofPDsignalspercycleincreaseswiththetimeofappliedvoltage.
LessdangerousPDsourcesforthetransformerinsulatingsystemare:
PDsourcewithinceptionvoltageabovetheprotectionlevel(externalsurgearresters)inthesupply
PDsourcewithextinctionvoltageabove100%Ur
Gasbubblesintheoil
PDsourcewithaconstantPDpattern
PDsourcewherethenumberofPDsignalspercycledecreaseswiththetimeofappliedvoltage
Successful resolution of the PD problem can be finally reached by discussing the results with the design
engineers to mutually find the real cause of the PD source. Depending on the results of the discussion, the
nextstepsintheproceduremaybe:
Additionalcalibration
AdditionalinvestigationofthePDsourceinHVlaboratory
ConditioningthePDsource
Redryingthetransformerinsulation
Modifyingtheidentifiedweakregion(causeofPDdefect)
Disassemblingthetransformer

Setupforthreephaseinducedtestincludingpartialdischargemeasurement.

9.10Measuringuncertainty
67
ThecalibratedvaluesformeasurementofapparentchargeinpCandofRIVvaluesinVareonlyvalidforPD
defectsclosetothebushings.ForallPDdefectsfarfromthebushing,theuncertaintymaybemorethan50%,
seeclauseA9.3.
SincetheresonancephenomenaofthePDdetectioncircuit(bushing,measuringimpedance,measuringcable
andbandpassfilterofthePDmeasuringsystem)arenotknown,theRIVsystemmaydeliverconfusingresults
ifthecenterfrequencyofthenarrowbandpassfilter(usually1MHz)isthesameastheresonancefrequency
ofthespecificPDdetectioncircuit,seeclauseA9.2.
Exact conversion of the measured interference voltage in V to a corresponding apparent charge is only
possibleincertaincases,seeclauseA9.2.
AppendixA9
PartialDischargeMeasurement
A9.1Physicsofpartialdischarge
Partialdischarge(PD)isanelectricbreakdownintheweakregionofanextendedinsulatingsystem,seefigure
9.17.
PR=pressring
BI=barrierinsulation
LV=lowvoltage
HV=highvoltage
RW=regulationwinding

Figure9.17:PDsourceininsulatingsystemofthetransformer.

Anelectricbreakdownoftheinsulatingmaterialbetweentwoelectrodesmeansgenerallythatthedistance
betweenthemhasbeenbridgedbyelectriccharges(highohmresistancehaschangedtolowohmresistance).
Electricbreakdownoccursifthefollowingconditionsarefulfilled:

LocalelectricfieldEinkV/mmisgreaterthanthebreakdownfieldstrengthEbinkV/mmof
thespecificinsulatingmaterial(differentvaluesfordifferentinsulatingmaterials)
68
Startingelectronsareavailable.
Forahomogeneouselectricfield(maininsulationbetweenthewindings;seefigure9.17)thebreakdownfield
strengthEbisdefinedas:

where:
Eb=breakdownfieldstrengthinkV/mm
Vb=breakdownvoltageinkV
d=distancebetweentwoelectrodesinmm

Note:
Therearemanyplacesinthetransformerinsulatingsystem,wheretheelectricfieldisnonhomogeneous,see
figure9.17.Attheselocations,thecalculatedhomogeneouselectricfieldmustbemultipliedbytheelectrode
shape factor to estimate the maximum electric field. When designing a transformer, the maximum electric
fieldstrengthofcriticallocationsmustbecalculatedusingafieldprogram.
Thefollowingphysicalmechanismsdescribetheelectricbreakdownbetweentwoelectrodes[111]and[220]:
Generationofprimaryelectronstostarttheelectricbreakdown
Chargemultiplicationandtransportphenomenatobridgethedistancebetweenelectrodes
Chargestoragephenomenatosupportthenextelectricbreakdown(memoryeffectofthe
PDsource)
Generationofprimaryelectrons
Generationofprimaryelectronsdependson:
MaximumelectricfieldEmax.
Electrodematerial(conducting,nonconducting)
Electrodeshape(homogeneousornonhomogeneouselectricfield)
Electrodesurfacecondition(uncovered,orcoveredwithinsulatingmaterial)
Smoothnessofthesurface(microtipelectrodes)
Thebestconditionforgeneratingstartingelectronsoccursforanuncoveredmetallictipelectrodeasshownin
figure9.18.Startingelectronsaregeneratedbyfieldemissionfromthesurfaceifthemagnitudeofthelocal
electric field E exceeds the fieldemission values of the specific material. PD activity appears assoon as the
localinceptionelectricfieldisreached.

69

E=electricalfield[kV/cm]
x=distancebetweentheelectrodes[cm].
Figure9.18:Chargedistribution(uppergraph)andelectricfielddistribution(lowergraph)fornegativetip
electrode(upperfigure,a)andpositivetipelectrode(lowerfigureb).
Themostdifficultlocationforgeneratingastartingelectronisaweakregionwithoutcontacttothemetallic
electrodes, as shown in figure 9.19. In this situation the starting electrons are generated by radioactive
ionization (cosmic, Xray, etc.). Due to the lack of starting electrons, there is a delay before the PDactivity
starts(uptoseveralminutes),evenifthelocalelectricfieldexceedstheinceptionvalue.

E=localelectricfield
E0=electricfield
=dielectricpermitivityofthematerial

Figure9.19:PDdefectwithoutmetallicelectrodes

Note:
ForPDsourcesinthetransformerinsulatingsystemtheelectrodematerialcanbeeitheraninterfacebetween 70
different insulating materials (for example, solid insulation with a gas bubble) or a conducting material (for
examplecoppercoveredwithpaperinsulation).
Chargemultiplicationandtransportation
Charge multiplication and transport processes, see figure 9.20, are based on an avalanche mechanism
describedbytheequation:

where:
n=numberofelectronsatdistanced
d=distancebetweenelectrodes
n0=numberofavailablestartingelectrons
ed=electronavalanche
Anelectronavalanchecanonlycauseanelectricbreakdown(bridgingofthedistancebetweenelectrodes)if
thefollowingconditionisfulfilled:

where:
=factorwhichisafunctionofthelocalelectricfieldE
d=distancebetweentheelectrodes.

d=distancebetweenelectrodes
Figure9.20:Developmentofelectricbreakdown

Bothphysicalprocessesdescribedabovetaketimetodevelop(breakdowndelay),seefigure9.21.Duringthis
timetheappliedvoltage(i.e.thelocalelectricfield)mustbeconstant.ThelimitingparametersforPDactivity
intheweakregionoftheinsulatingsystemare:
LocalelectricfieldEexceedsthedesignrating(factor)
Sizeoftheweakregion(bubble)issufficient(distancebetweenelectrodesintheweakregion)
Durationoftheappliedvoltage(localelectricfield)islongenoughtodevelopthedischargeprocesses


71

T=totaltimedelay
tS=startingelectrons
tA=avalanches
Ud=statisticalvoltagebreakdown
Figure9.21:Timedelayofelectricbreakdown.
Chargestorage
Charge storage mechanisms are important for the weak regions with no contact to conducting electrodes
(bubblesininsulatingsystem),seefigure9.22.Chargestorageanddetrappingmechanismsstronglyinfluence
successive electric breakdowns in the weak region. The repetition rate of the PD impulses and the type of
PDpattern(PDtypepatterntype5inTable3)arepermanentlychanging.Thephysicalphenomenacausedby
the charge storage mechanism can be observed by the recorded PD patterns during a long duration test
(several hours at a constant value of the test voltage). An increasing repetition rate in the PD impulses
indicatescontinuousdamagetotheinsulatingsysteminthevicinityofthePDsource.

q=charge
E=localelectricfield
PD=partialdischarge
E0=electricfield
1,2=dielectricpermittivityofthemolecules

Figure9.22:Schematicpresentationofchargestorage

Note:
Thisshortintroductionintothephysicsofpartialdischargehasshownthatelectricbreakdownininsulating 72
materials is strongly influenced by the statistical behavior of the discharge mechanisms. To interpret PD
results, it is necessary not only to consider the amplitude of the apparent charge, but also to analyze the
statistical behavior of the PD source. Statistical analysis of PD activity is performed using an advanced PD
system(PhaseResolvingPartialDischargeAnalyser,seeclauseA9.5).
A9.2Principleofquasiintegration
APDsignalisalwaysdetectedasacurrentimpulsei(t)viaameasuringimpedenceZm[212],seefigure9.23.

CK=couplingcapacitance
G=voltagesource
i(t)=PDcurrentimpulses
i~k,~t=displacementcurrents
Z=voltagesourceconnection
q=transferredcharge
Ut=voltageatparallelconnectedcapacitor
Figure9.23:EquivalentcircuitforPDmeasurement
Internationalstandards(IEC60270)[26]requirethatapparentchargeshouldbemeasured:

where:
q=apparentchargeinpC
i(t)=PDcurrentsignal

IntegrationofthePDcurrentimpulsescanbeperformedeitherinthetimedomain(digitaloscilloscope)orin
the frequency domain (bandpass filter). Most PD systems available on the market, perform a quasi
integrationofthePDcurrentimpulsesinthefrequencydomainusingawidebandornarrowbandfilter.
The following assumption is made when nonperiodic PD current impulses in the frequency domain are
integratedusingabandpassfilter,seefigure9.24[109]:

where:
q=apparentcharge
73
F(0)=amplitudefrequencyspectrumatfrequencyf=0Hz
F(f)=amplitudefrequencyspectrumatfrequencyfHz
Thelimitingfrequencyforconstantspectralamplitudedensity,i.e.foracorrectintegrationofthePDimpulses
inthefrequencydomain,dependsonthepulseshapeofthePDimpulseasshowninfigure9.24[109].
ForaPDimpulsewithrisetimeT1=1sandhalfvaluetimeT2=5s,thelimitingfrequencyforF(f)=F(0)is
about 5 kHz. For PD systems that are based on quasiintegration of the PD impulses, the lower cutoff
frequency f1 should therefore be sufficiently low (kHz range), otherwise correct measurements are not
possible.
AwidebandPDmeasuringsystemconsistsofabandpassfilterwithloweranduppercutofffrequenciesf1
andf2,seefigure9.25[212].RecommendedvaluesinIEC60270[26]areforf1=50kHzandforf2=150400
kHz.
TheamplitudesmaxofthewidebandfilterresponsetoexcitationbyaPDcurrentimpulseisproportionalto
the apparent charge q if the center frequency f0 of the filter corresponds to the frequency range of the
currentimpulsewhereF(f)=F(0),seefigure9.24.
Typicalwidebandfilterresponseispresentedinfigure9.26[109].Fortheamplitudeisvalid:
where:
smax=amplitudeoffilterresponse
q=apparentcharge
F(0)=amplitudefrequencyspectrumatthefrequencyf=0Hz

a)IdealizedPDcurrentimpulse

i(t)=PDpulses
T1=timetomaximumImax
T2=halfvaluetime


b)Normalizedspectralamplitudedensity
1=T1/T2=1s/5s
74
2=T1/5T2=5ns/50ns
3=T1/5T2=5ns/15ns
F(0)=amplitudefrequencyspectrumatthefrequencyf=0Hz
F(f)=amplitudefrequencyspectrumatfrequencyfHz
Figure9.24:QuasiintegrationofPDimpulses
Forthecenterfrequencyisvalid:

where:
f0=centerfrequencyofthebandpassfilter
f1=lowercutofffrequencyofthebandpassfilter
f2=uppercutofffrequencyofthebandpassfilter

AdvantagesofawidebandPDsystem:
distinguishpositiveandnegativepolarityofPDcurrentimpulses
highresolutioncapacityforrepetitivePDimpulses,withtypicalfilterresponsedurationbetween2s
and5saPDimpulserepetitionfrequencyof100kHzcanstillberesolved
DisadvantageofthewidebandPDsystem:
Sensitivetoexternalnoise(notsuitableforunshieldedHVlaboratories)
Z=voltagesourceconnectionsFigure9.25:Widebandpassfilter
Ct=testobjektcapacitance
Zm=measuringimpedance(R,L,Ctype)
Cc=capacitanceofthemeasuringcable
i(t)=PDcurrentimpulse
u1(t)=responseofthemeasuringimpedanceZm
u2(t)=responseofthebandpassfilter
f1=lowercutofffrequencyofthebandpassfilter
f2=uppercutofffrequencyofthebandpassfilter
f0=centerfrequencyofthebandpassfilter

75

smax=maximumamplitude~q
=impulseduration(responseofthefilter)
Figure9.26:Typicalresponseofthewidebandpassfilter
A narrowband PD measuring system, see figure 9.27 [212], consists of a bandpass filter with variable
center frequency f0 and narrow bandwidth f (between 3 kHz and 30 kHz). Values accepted by IEEE
C57.12.90.1999[51]are:
Centerfrequencyf0between0,85MHzand1,15MHz(recommended1MHz)
Bandwidthfbetween3kHzand10kHz(9kHzrecommended)
Theamplitudesmax,seefigure9.28,ofthenarrowbandfilterresponsetoexcitationbyaPDcurrentimpulseis
proportional to the apparent charge q if the variable center frequency f0 of the filter corresponds to the
frequencyrangeofthecurrentimpulsewhereF(f)=F(0),seefigure9.24.
Typicalnarrowbandfilterresponseispresentedinfigure9.28[109].
AdvantageofthenarrowbandPDsystem:
LesssensitivetoexternalPDsources(successfullyusedinunshieldedHVlaboratories)
DisadvantagesofthenarrowbandPDsystem:
NotpossibletodistinguishthepolarityofthePDimpulses(signaloscillationwiththecenterfrequencyf0)
LowresolutioncapacityforrepetitivePDimpulses,withtypicalfilterresponseduration~200saPD
impulserepetitionfrequencyof4kHzcanonlyberesolved.
TheresponsedurationofanarrowbandfiltertothePDcurrentimpulseinputcanbeestimatedas:

where:
f=bandwidthofthefilter.

76
Z=voltagesourceconnections
Zm=measuringimpedance(R,Ltype)
Cc=capacitanceofthemeasuringcable
i(t)=PDcurrentimpulse
u1(t)=responseofthemeasuringimpedanceZm
u2(t)=responseofthebandpassfilter
f0=centerfrequencyofthebandpassfilter=fm(variable)
Figure9.27:Narrowbandpassfilter

The RIVPD system (radio noise or field strength meter = RIVmeter) recommended by IEEE Standard
C57.12.90.1999 [51] is a narrowband pass filter, which includes the CISPR weighting circuit (nonlinear
psophometriccurve,seefigure9.29)toquantifythemagnitudesoftherepeatedimpulses.Thereadingson
thistypeofinstrumentdependnotonlyontheamplitudeofapparentchargebutalsoontherepetitionrateof
thePDimpulses.
ForagivenconstantPDimpulseamplitudewithavariablerepetitionrate,thereadingontheRIVmeterwith
theCISPRweightingcircuitwillincreaselinearlywithanincreasingrepetitionrateupton=100impulsesper
second,seefigure9.29[109].Forapulserepetitionratehigherthan4000persecond,whichcorrespondstoa
narrowbandfilterpulseresolutiontimeof=220swithf=10kHz,thereadingbecomesuseless.
Because of the CISPR weighting circuit, there is no relationship between the pC and the Vreading. Only if
equallylargeimpulsesoccuronthepositiveandthenegativehalfcyclesaconversioncanbe made.Witha
repetitionrateoftwiceacycle(n=100ina50Hzsystem)andameasuringimpedanceof60therelationship
1V=2.6PCholds.

smax=maximumamplitude~q
77
Figure9.28:Typicalresponseofthenarrowbandpassfilter.
Note:
ForPDsourcesinthetransformerinsulatingsystemfarfromthebushings(forexampleinthemaininsulation),
thePDcurrentimpulsesareheavilyattenuatedbytheRLCMnetworkofthetransformer.SuchattenuatedPD
impulsesmaybeoutsidetherangeofthePDsystemifthelowercutofffrequencyf1ofthewidebandfilter
(recommended50kHz)orthecenterfrequencyofthenarrowbandfilterf0(recommended1MHz)arehigher
thanthelimitingfrequencyoftheattenuatedPDimpulsesF(f)=F(0),seefigure9.24.Inthiscasethequasi
integrationisnotcorrectandtheamplitudeofapparentchargenolongercorrespondstosmax.

f(N)=variationofmeterreading[V]
N=pulserepetitionrate
Figure9.29:CISPRweightingcharacteristicforperiodicpulsesequencewithconstantamplitude.
A9.3Truecharge,apparentchargeandmeasurablecharge
Apartialdischargecanbeinterpretedasarapidmovementofanelectricchargefromonepositiontoanother.
For very fast changes, or during the first instant after charge movement, the individual insulation links in a
series of connected links between two line terminals can be regarded as a number of series connected
capacitors. If the two line terminals are connected together via an external capacitance Ck the charge
movementswithintheseriesconnectedinsulationlinks(capacitances)willalsobereflectedinthechargeof
externalcapacitanceCk.
Thechargemovementscanbedetectedascirculatingcurrentimpulsesintheequivalentcircuit,viameasuring
impedanceZm,seefigure9.23.
Infigure9.30aschematicdrawingofthePDsource(capacitanceC1)intheinsulatingsystem(capacitancesC2
andC3)andthecorrespondingequivalentcircuitarepresented[212].
IfthePDsourceisassumedtobeasmallcavityinthesolidinsulation,thefollowingratioexistsbetweenthe
capacitances

Theelectricbreakdowninthecavity(capacitanceC1)isrepresentedbythesparkgapFandresistanceR1.

The electric breakdown in the cavity generates a PD current i1(t), which is a local current and cannot be
78
measuredatthebushings.
Voltage drop U1 across the cavity is caused by discharge current i1(t) and releases a charge q1 = true
charge.

q1=U1C1

ThedischargeofC1causesarapidchargetransferincapacitancesC2andC3.Thischargetransfercausesa
measurablevoltagedropUtatthetestobjectcapacitanceCt(atthewindingbushingconnection).

Assuming:

Thetheoreticallymeasurablechargeqtis:

qtq3
q3=U3Ct
UtU3

79

BU=bushing
HV=highvoltage
NT=neutralterminal
C1=weakregion
Ct=testobjectcapacitances(C2andC3)
Ut=testvoltage
F=simulationofthePDsource
R1=dampingresistance
U1=internalvoltagedropcausedbyPD
Ut=voltagedropmeasurableatthebushing
i1(t)=localPDcurrentimpulse
Figure9.30:DetectablePDsignals
a)schematicrepresentationofapartofthetransformerinsulation
b)equivalentcircuitforPDdefectininsulatingsystem
InanextendedinsulatingsystemtheUtvaluesareinthemillivoltrange,whilethemagnitudeofU1(atthe
PDsource)maybeinthekilovoltrange.Thetheoreticallymeasurablechargeqtislinkedtotruechargeq1via
capacitances C1 and C2 and is defined as apparent charge. Because the location of the PD source is not
known,capacitancesC1andC2cannotbeestimated.Theapparentcharge(theoreticallymeasurablecharge
qtatthebushing)canthereforenotbederivedfromthetruechargeq1atthelocationofthePDsource.

Sensitivityofthemeasurement:
InanyPDtestcircuit,therealmeasurablechargeqm(integralofthecirculatingPDcurrenti(t)),isdependent 80
ontheratioofcouplingcapacitanceCktotestobjectcapacitanceCt,seefigure9.31.
ThechargetransferprocessesbetweencapacitancesCtandCkcausearesidualvoltagedropUres.Ifthereis
PD activity in the test object (Ct ), the real measurable charge qm released by coupling capacitance Ck is
estimatedas:
qm=CkUres
Apparentchargeqtis:
qt=CtUt=(Ct+Ck)Ures
The ratio of the real measurable charge qm and apparent charge qt (theoretically measurable charge) is
definedas:

ToimprovePDmeasurementsensitivity,asufficientlylargecouplingcapacitanceCkshouldbeinstalled,see
figure9.31[212].InpowertransformerPDcircuitsthecouplingcapacitancevalueisdeterminedbythetypeof
bushing(from200to600pF).ThesensitivityofeachPDcircuitisdefinedbythecalibrationprocedure.

q=apparentcharge
qm=measurablecharge

Figure9.31:InfluenceofcouplingcapacitorCkonthemeasuringsensitivityqm/q

ThemaximumsensitivityfordetectionofacompensatingPDcurrentimpulsei(t)isreachedforCk>>Ct(Ck=
100Ct,seefigure9.31).AsthevalueofcouplingcapacitanceCkdecreases,thesensitivityofthePDcircuitis
reducedduetothelowercompensatingcurrenti(t).
The minimum coupling capacitance of any PD test circuit is the stray capacitance Cs of the HV potential
electrodestoground.APDcircuitusingCsasacouplingcapacitancehasaverylow
sensitivitybecauseCs<<Ct.
TheoreticallyaRIVsystemwithoutCISPRweightingcircuitdeliversthesameamplitudeofmeasurablecharge
qm as a narrowband filter (quasiintegration of circulating PD current i(t)), except that the reading is
calibratedinmicrovolt.
ForanyRIVsystemwithaweightingcircuit,noconversionispossiblebetweenpCandV.

A9.4Typicalexternalnoisesources 81
AsensitivePDsystemconnectedtoanextendedtestcircuitforPDmeasurementsonHVtransformersisable
todetectallhighfrequencyimpulsesinthetestcircuit.ThePDsystemcannotdistinguishbetweentherealPD
impulse and external noise. If PD activity is detected, the possibility of an external source must be
investigated.AnoverviewofexternalPDsourcesisgiveninfigure9.32[212].

1,2=lowvoltagepowersupply
3=highvoltagesource
4=HVfilter
5=connectionsandelectrodes
6=Ck=couplingcapacitor
7=conductingobject
8=pulseshapedinterferences
9=harmonicinterferences
10=interferencecurrentsintheearthingsystem
11=lowvoltagepowersupply
Figure9.32:Typicalnoisesources(seetextforexplanation)
Lowvoltagepowersupply(1,2,11)
Noise such as thyristor pulses or harmonics from the low voltage power supply, may especially influence a
sensitive PD system which is directly connected to the power line. If these are present, a lowpass filter or
insulatingtransformershouldbeused.Duetothefilteringeffectofthestepuptransformer(3)andoftheHV
filter(4)intheconnectiontothetestobject,thenoisefromthelowvoltagepowerlineisusuallysufficiently
suppressed.Ifthereisanoiseproblem,asecondstepuptransformermaybeusedasanadditionalfilterora
PDsystemwithanarrowbandfiltercouldbeused(f0>1MHz).
Highvoltagesource(3)
An HV source must generally be PDfree. If there is a problem, the coupling capacitor Ck can be connected
directlytothesource(withoutthetestobject)toeasilychecktheHVsource.
HVfilter(4)
Indifficultcases,aPDfreeHVfilter(lowpass)mustsometimesbeused.
Connectionsinthetestcircuitandelectrodes(5)

Allbushingtops(evenearthedbushings)andsharpmetallicpartsontopofthetransformer(especiallyclose
tothebushings)shouldbeshielded;seeclauseA9.8.AllconnectionsshouldbePDfree(sufficientradius).All
82
measuringimpedancesZmmusthaveagoodconnectiontoearth.Ifthereisaproblemanultrasonicdetector
(coronagun)maybeusedtodetectanexternalPDsource.ThePDtypecanbedeterminedfromthestatistical
analysisofthePDsignals(typicalPDpattern,seeTable3).
Couplingcapacitor(6)
The coupling capacitor must be PDfree. If there is a problem, the coupling capacitor must be measured
separately.
Conductiveobjectsclosetothetransformerundertest(7)
Unearthedconductiveobjectsclosetothetransformerundertestarechargedtoahighpotentialduetothe
electric field. If the breakdown field value is reached, a pulselike discharge occurs. These PD impulses are
coupled to the PD test circuit and detected at the measuring impedances, and normally exhibit a very high
apparent charge amplitude. This PD source can be recognized by comparing it with typical PD patterns, by
visualobservationinthelaboratory,orbyusinganultrasonicdetector.
Interferenceinnonshieldedlaboratories(8,9)
Pulseshaped interferences (switching phenomena) or harmonic interferences (radio transmitters) heavily
influencethesensitivityofthePDsystem.Inthesecasesanarrowbandfilterwithvariablecenterfrequency
shouldbeused,seeclauseA9.2,tosuppresstheambientinterference.Thebestwaytosuppresstheeffectof
suchexternalinterferencesistoapplyanadvancedPDsystem,whichusesaspectrumanalyzerasafrontend,
see clause 9.9. Repetitive external sources like thyristor pulses can be gated out. A gating function is
available on several PD systems. The final possibility for suppressing these electromagnetic waves is the
constructionofashieldedHVlaboratory(Faradaycage).
Note:
Measuring impedance Zm (lower cutoff frequency at 10 kHz) normally suppresses the power frequency
displacement currents at capacitances Ck and Ct . If the power frequency current limit for the specific
impedanceZmisexceeded,suppressionofpowerfrequencycurrentislost.Beforeapplyingatestvoltage,the
maximumpowerfrequencycurrentinthetestcircuit,whichisdependentoncapacitancesCkandCtinthe
testcircuit,shouldbecalculated.Themaximumpowerfrequencycurrentinthecapacitanceisdefinedby:

A9.5AdvancedPDsystem
TheICMsys8,(manufacturedbyPowerDiagnostixSystemsGmbH,Germany)isaspeciallydesignedmodernPD
system to meet the requirements of partial discharge measurements on power transformers. The ICMsys8
useswidebandfiltersforbothdigitaldataacquisitionandfurtherdataprocessingofconventionallydetected
PDsignals,seeclauseA9.2.
True parallel acquisition of PD impulse currents on eight channels is achieved by using eight individual
amplifiers (wideband filters) connected to eight measuring impedances at the bushings via eight pre
amplifiers. The PD activity is detected simultaneously on all eight channels and processed in the controller
unit,seefigure9.33a.PDreadingscanbeweightedaccordingtoIECinpCoraccordingtoIEEEinV(analog
interfaceforRIVmeter).TypicalresultoftheICMsys8isshowninfigure9.33b.

InadditiontoPDsignaldetection,theICMsys8offerseightindependentchannelsforvoltagemeasurements
83
viaaseparatetapateachmeasuringimpedanceZm.

Figure9.33a:AdvancedPDsystemICMsys8
BesidesconventionalPDsignaldetectionoftheapparentchargevalues,theICMsys8iscapableofperforming
astatisticalanalysisofthedetectedPDactivity(i.e.phaseresolvingpartialdischarge
analysis(PDpattern)atthespecificchannel,seefigure9.33b.
TheprincipleofaPhaseResolvingPartialDischargeAnalyzer(PRPDAsystem,ICMsystems)isshowninfigure
9.34[215].
A PRPDAsystem produces a two or threedimensional PD pattern (phase angle, discharge magnitude and
number of events are obtained; see figure 9.35). For twodimensional PD patterns the third dimension
(numberofcountsperchannel)isindicatedbythecolorcode.

84

PD pattern reflects the sum of all PD impulses collected during a specific measuring time (for example, a
presettimeof60secondscorrespondsto3000cyclesfora50Hztestvoltagepowerfrequency).
PD pattern can be regarded as a fingerprint of the partial discharge activity of a specific defect in the test
object.
Boththephaseresolutionandtheamplituderesolutionare8bit(256channelsforthephaseand256levels
fortheamplitudeoftheapparentcharge).
The main difference between a conventional and a modern digital PD system is the ability to perform a
statisticalanalysisofthedetectedPDcurrentimpulses(PDpattern).AconventionalPDsystemdelivers
phaseresolvedinformationaboutthePDactivityforonlyonecycle,seefigure9.8b.

85

Figure9.34:PrinciplePhaseResolvingPartialDischargeAnalyser(PRPDAsystem)

Figure9.35:RegistrationofPDimpulses(bubblesandsurfacedischarge);advancedPDsystem(statistical
analysisofPDimpulses)

A phaseresolving partial discharge analysis is important for identification of the type of PD source for the
followingreasons:
PDpatternsidentifyaspecifictypeofPDsource(imageofthephysicalprocess;seeTables3
and4andclauseA9.1)
PDpatternsarenotinfluencedbythesignaltransferfunctionoftheextendedinsulatingsystem
(statisticalbehaviordoesnotchange)
PDpatternscanbeusedtodistinguishbetweensuperimposedPDdefectsonthebasisof
differentstatisticalbehavior
A9.6DetectionofacousticPDsignals
AnacousticPDsignalisamechanicalvibrationcharacterizedbyitsfrequencyf.
Theoretically, the PD source acts as a point source of acoustic waves. The intensity of the emitted acoustic
wavesisproportionaltotheenergyreleasedduringthedischarge.
W1=q1U1
where:
W1=locallyreleasedenergy
q1=localcharge
U1=localvoltagedrop

Acoustic wave propagation occurs only if the wavelength is small compared with the length of the
86
propagationpath.
Inaspecificmediumthewavelengthisgivenby:

where:
=wavelength
v=soundvelocityinaspecificmedium(1400m/sinoil)
f=frequencyofmechanicalvibration(acousticwave)
Oil would be a perfect medium for the propagation of acoustic waves, with no attenuation or dispersion
occurring.Inthetransformers,acousticwavespropagationisheavilyinfluencedbythecomplicatedstructure
of the insulating system (winding barriers, core, and tank walls). In a complicated structure, both the
amplitude(attenuation)andthesignalshape(absorption,dispersion)oftheacousticsignalemittedbyaPD
sourcechangealongitspropagationpath[217].
Besides the absorption and dispersion phenomena, the multitude of wave types complicate the analysis of
acousticPDsignalsdetectedinamultimaterialstructure.Twotypesofwavesmustgenerallybeconsidered
fortheanalysisofacousticsignals,seefigure9.36.

Figure9.36:Schematicpresentationoftwotypesofacousticwaves.
Transversalwaves;attenuationisdependentonwallthickness
Longitudinalwaves;highervelocitythantransversalwaves(approximatelyafactoroftwo)
Possible propagation paths of acoustic waves from a PD source to the transformer tank wall are shown
schematicallyinfigure9.37.Thetwowaves(superimposed)arecreatedataninterface,eitherbyincidenceor
reflection,seefigure9.37.Anacousticsensorpositionedatadefinedlocationonthetankwalldetectsboth,
directly propagated waves and wallpropagated waves. The two wave types have different propagation
velocities.

87

v1=velocityofdirectwave
v2=velocityofwallwave
=incidentangle
Z=distanceofthePDsourcetothewall
h=thicknessofthewall
Figure9.37:Possibleacousticwavesatthesensor
In order to localize the PD sources by analyzing the time difference between the electric and acoustic PD
signals, there must be a possibility to distinguish between directly propagated and wallpropagated waves.
Thisinformationistheoreticallyhiddeninthewavefrontoftheacousticsignalthatisdetectedatthesensor
onthetankwall,seefigure9.38.
Note:
Thefastestpropagationpathisnotthedirectpath,butthepathwithanincidentangle,seefigure9.37:

where:
v1=velocityinmedium1(forexampleinoil)
v2=velocityinmedium2(forexampleinthetankwall)

88

Figure9.38:AnalysisofacousticwavesofPDsources
a)Detectionofdirect(throughtheoil)acousticwave
b)Detectionofreflectedacousticwaveorwavepropagatedthroughdifferentmedia
Advanceddetectionsystem:
ThreeTransducerDetector(TTD)
A minimum of three acoustic sensors (piezoelectric transducers) and a fourchannel digital oscilloscope are
theoreticallyrequiredtolocalizePDsourcesusingthetimedifferencebetweenelectricandacousticsignals.
An advanced detection system, ThreeTransducer Detector (TTD) is used in ABB factories, see figure 9.39
[218].
Note:
Thissystemisnotmanufacturedanymore,butisstillinuse.Thethreetransducers(piezoelectriccrystals)are
placedclosetooneanother(equilateraltrianglewithL=0,15m)sothatthepropagationpathoftheacoustic
wavesfromthePDsourceisnearlythesame.TTDdefinesitsownx,yandzcoordinatesystem(normalized
vectors). The normalized coordinates (x, y, z) give the direction to the source and depend only on time
differencesintheTTDsystem,seefigure9.39c.ItisassumedthatthedistancebetweenthetransducersLis
considerably less than the distance d of the TTDsensors to the PDsource when deriving the localization
formulas,seefigure9.39c.

89

Figure9.39a:MaincomponentsoftheTTDsystem
AtypicalresultobtainedbytheTTDsystemisshowninfigure9.40.
TheprocedureforlocalizingthePDsourceusingtheTTDresultsisgiveninthefollowingandwillbeexplained
furtherusinganexample:
Adecisionismadewhetheradirectwaveorawallwavewasdetectedbyanalyzingthe
shapeofthedetectedsignal
Theapparentvelocity,vappiscalculatedbyapproximateexpressiontodistinguishbetween
directwaveandwallwave

where:
L=distancebetweentransducers
t1,t2,t3=timedifferencebetweenelectricandacousticsignalsforthethreetransducers

theapparentvelocityvappiscomparedwithsoundvelocitiesinmaterialsrelevantforthe
transformerinsulatingsystem,seeTable5.
adecisionismadeaboutthetypeofwave(directorwallwave)
thecoordinatesx,y,zofthePDsourcearecalculatedusingTTDsoftwareforthespecificwave
(directorwallwave)

90

Figure9.39c:Normalizedcoordinates
Therearethreedifferentconditionsforthecalculatedapparentvelocityvapp.
vapp>vtransversal>directincidentwavewithshallowangle
vappvtransversal>transversalwave
vapp<vtransversal>shouldnothappen(possiblyinthinwalls)
Note:
Apparentvelocityvappisalwayshigherthanvoil(1400m/s).
Table5:Exampleofsoundvelocities
Example
CalculationofthePDsourcelocationusingtheresultspresentedinfigure9.40.
Theshapeofthedetectedacousticsignalindicatesawallwave(superimposedlongitudinaland
transversalwaves)
Apparentvelocityvapp=3417m/sforalongitudinalwave,calculatedvaluesforalongitudinalwave(t1L~
336s,t2L~363s,t3L~320s)donotclearlyindicatealongitudinalwave

91

Figure9.40:TypicalTTDsystemresult
apparentvelocityvapp=3236m/sforatransversalwave,calculatedvaluesforatransversalwave(t1T~382
s,t2T~418s,t3T~375s)indicateawallwave(3200m/s=velocityoftransversalwaveforsteelplate)
calculatedpositionofthePDsourceforwallwave(TTDsoftware)
x=+0.19,y=0.52,z=+0.34m
Note:
DuetothedifferentpathsofelectricandacousticPDsignalsthroughtheinsulatingsystemofthetransformer,
there is no simple relationship between the amplitude of apparent charge and the amplitude of acoustic
waves.
Knowledgeofthetransformerinsulatingsystemandexperienceintheanalysisoftheresultsareneededto
localizePDsourcesbyanalyzingacousticPDsignals.
A9.7LocalizationofthePDsourceusinganalysisoftheelectricsignals
Electric PD signals (PD current impulses) propagate from the PD source through the RLCMnetwork of the
transformer, see figure 9.42. The response of this network to excitation by a PD current impulse at any
location in the insulating system can only be detected at the bushings. All information available in the
detectedsignalmustthereforebeanalyzed.[214,219]
Allsignalsinthetimedomain(recordedusinganoscilloscope)andinthefrequencydomain(recordedusinga
spectrumanalyzer)aregenerallylinkedviaFouriertransformation,seefigure9.41.[121]
ForagivennonperiodicPDcurrentimpulsei(t),thecomplexfrequencyspectrumI(j)isobtainedfromthe
Fourierintegral:

Allthough the PD current signal is the same, the data recorded in the time domain and in the frequency
domaincontaindifferentinformation,whichisimportantforlocalizationofthePDsource.
92
TheoreticallyaspecificresponseoftheRLCMnetworkexistsforanytypeofPDpulseandforanylocationof
thePDsourceintheinsulatingsystem,andmaybedetectedatthetransformerbushings.
A time consuming characterization of the transformer RLCM network is generally necessary to be able to
analyzerealPDsignalsinthetimeandfrequencydomains.Acalibratingsignal(usually1000pC)isinjectedat
one specific bushing and crosscouplings are successively recorded at all other bushings. This procedure is
repeatedforeachbushing,seeclause9.9.

A=amplitude
f=frequency
t=time
Figure9.41:Signalpresentationintimedomainandfrequencydomain


93

A9.7.1AnalysisofPDsignalsinthetimedomain[214]
94
ThePDcurrentimpulseinthetimedomaindetectedatthebushingcanbecharacterizedbythree
components,seefigure9.43:
Capacitivecomponentcausedbytransmissionthroughthecapacitiveladdernetwork
Travelingwavecomponentcausedbyelectromagneticwavetransmission
OscillatingcomponentdeterminedbytheresonancefrequencyoftheLCcircuit
BasictimeresolvedPDsignalcharacteristicsthatshouldbeanalyzedare:

MaximumamplitudeofthePDcurrentsignal(mV)
RisetimeofthePDcurrentsignal
OscillationsofthePDcurrentsignal
ReproducibilityofPDcurrentsignals

Figure9.43:PDsignalanalysisintimedomain

AnindicationaboutthelocationofthePDsourceisgivenbycomparingtherecordedPDsignalsinthetime
domainwiththeresultsofthecharacterizationofthetransformer.
A9.7.2AnalysisofPDsignalsinthefrequencydomain[216]
ThePDcurrentimpulseinfrequencydomaindetectedatthebushingcanbecharacterizedbytwotypical
frequencyspectra,seefigure9.44:
TypicalfrequencyspectrumgeneratedbyveryfastPDsignals(closetothemeasuringtap)
TypicalfrequencyspectrumgeneratedbyattenuatedPDsignals(insidetheinsulatingsystem)

95

Y1=closetothemeasuringtop
X1=couplingviaRLCMnetwork
Figure9.44:PDsignalanalysisinfrequencydomain
Basicfrequencyspectrafeaturesthatshouldbeanalyzedare:
Amplitudeofthepowerspectrum(dBm)
Frequencyrangeofthepowerspectrum
Typicalresonances
Reproducibilityofpowerspectra
TheindicationaboutthelocationofthePDsourceisfoundbycomparingthePDsignalfrequencyspectrawith
theresultsofthecharacterizationofthetransformer.
Note:
All the theoretical components of the signals in the frequency domain as well as in the time domain are
stronglydependentonthedesignofthetransformer(size,typeofwindings),onthetruelocationofthePD
defect with respect to the terminal where the PD signal was detected and on the original shape of the PD
signal(dischargeingas,oil,orsolidmaterial).Knowledgeofthetransformerinsulatingsystemandexperience
intheanalysisoftheresultsarerequiredtolocalizePDsourcesusingtheanalysisoftheelectricPDsignals.

A9.8Coronashielding
96
Externaldischarge(corona)canbepreventedbyshielding.Aguidelineforshieldingisgiveninfigure9.45.The
graphshowspermissiblevoltageontheshieldwithoutgivingrisetocorona.

Figure9.45:Shieldingdimensionstoeliminatecorona

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MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

AutoTransformer(Two TestMode Shunt Test Mode 3winding Test Mode

Test Test TestleadConnection Remarks

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

2. HVIV/LV+G GST CHL +CHG do

3. HVIV/LV GSTg CHG do LV to be

5 LV/ HVIV+G GST CHL +CLG LG do

6. LV/ HVIV GSTg CLG do HV to be

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

ForAutotransformer For3winding For Shunt

HV+IVtoLV HV+ IVtoLV HVtoE

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

Sr. Name of Test / Purposeoftest/check

3.4 Capacitanceand Measurement of C1 & C2 Capacitance and Tan in UST mode.

3.5 CapacitanceandTan Dissipation factor/Loss factor and capacitance measurement of

3.6 Turnsratio(Voltage To determine the turns ratio of transformers to identify any

3.7 Vector Group & Todeterminethephaserelationshipandpolarityoftransformers

3.9 MagneticBalance Thistestisconductedonlyinthreephasetransformerstocheckthe

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

3.12 Exciting/Magnetising To locate defect in magnetic core structure, shifting of windings,

3.13 Vibration Tomeasurethevibrationsofcore/coilassemblyinthetankofthe

3.15 Stabilityof This testisperformedto check the proper operation of

3.17 FrequencyResponse Toassess the mechanical integrity of the transformer.

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

3.19 ThermovisionInfra A thermo vision Camera determines the temperature distribution

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.