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MODERN PHYSICS

These topics are taken from our Book:


ISBN : 9789386320124
Product Name : Modern Physics for JEE Main & Advanced
(Study Package for Physics)
Product Description : Disha's Physics series by North India's popu-
lar faculty for IIT-JEE, Er. D. C. Gupta, have achieved a lot of ac-
claim by the IIT-JEE teachers and students for its quality and in-
depth coverage. To make it more accessible for the students Disha
now re-launches its complete series in 12 books based on chapters/
units/ themes. These books would provide opportunity to students to
pick a particular book in a particular topic.
Modern Physics for JEE Main & Advanced (Study Package for Phys-
ics) is the 12th book of the 12 book set.
The chapters provide detailed theory which is followed by Impor-
tant Formulae, Strategy to solve problems and Solved Examples.

Each chapter covers 5 categories of New Pattern practice exercises for JEE - MCQ 1 correct, MCQ more than
1 correct, Assertion & Reason, Passage and Matching based Questions.
The book provides Previous years questions of JEE (Main and Advanced). Past years KVPY questions are
also incorporated at their appropriate places.
The present format of the book would be useful for the students preparing for Boards and various competitive
exams.
Contents
Contents
5. Electron, Photon, Atoms, 6.10 Nuclear fission 310
Photoelectric Effect and X-rays 245-300 6.11 Nuclear fusion 312
5.1 Discharge through gases at low pressure 246 6.12 Pair production and pair annihilation 314
5.2 Cathode rays 246 Review of formulae & important points 319

5.3 Discovery of electron 247 Exercise 6.1 - Exercise 6.6

5.4 Photon 248 Hints & solutions (Ex. 6.1 - Ex. 6.6)

5.5 Photo-electric effect 250 7. Electronics and Communication 337-382


5.6 Characteristics of PEE 252 7.1 Energy levels and energy bands 338
7.2 Valence band and conduction band 338
5.7 Einstein explanation of PEE 252
7.3 Intrinsic and extrinsic
5.8 Comptons effect 253
Semiconductors 339
5.9 Matter waves 254
7.4 Electron current and
5.10 The atom 257
Hole current 340
5.11 Bohrs atomic model 258
7.5 P-N junction diode 342
5.12 Spectral lines of hydrogen atom 261
7.6 Biasing of junction diode 342
5.13 Shortcomings of Bohrs atomic model 263
7.7 Zener diode 344
5.14 Correction for the finite mass of the 7.8 Light emitting diode 345
nucleus 264 7.9 Photodiode 345
5.15 X-rays 268 7.10 Rectification by junction diode 345
5.16 Origin of x-rays 269 7.11 Transistor 347
5.17 Moseleys law 270 7.12 Transistor connections
5.18 Properties of x-rays 271 or configurations 348
5.19 Braggs law 271 7.13 Transistor as an amplifier 349
Review of formulae & important points 273 7.14 Transistor as an oscillator 351
Exercise 5.1 - Exercise 5.6 7.15 Logic gates 353
7.16
OR, AND and NOT gates 354
Hints & solutions (Ex. 5.1 - Ex. 5.6)
7.17 Combination of gates 356
6. Nuclear Physics 301-336
7.18 Communication 359
6.1 The nucleus 302 7.19 Band width of transmission medium 361
6.2 Properties of nucleus 302 7.20 Antenna 361
6.3 The atomic mass unit 303
7.21 Modulation and its types 363
6.4 Mass defect and binding energy 304 7.22 Various modes of propagation
6.5 Nuclear stability 305 of em-waves 364
6.6 Radioactivity 305 Review of formulae & important points 365
6.7 Laws of radioactive disintegration 306 Exercise 7.1 - Exercise 7.4
6.8 Half life 307 Hints & solutions (Ex. 7.1 - Ex. 7.4)
6.9 Radioactive equilibrium 309
Chapter 5
Electron, Photon, Atoms, Photoelectric Effect and X-rays
250
5.5 PHOTO-ELECTRIC EFFECT
When light of certain frequency is incident on a metal surface, electrons are ejected from the
metal. This phenomenon is called photoelectric effect (PEE). Electrons ejected from the
metal are called photoelectrons. The photoelectric effect was first observed by Heinrich
Hertz in 1887. The effect was investigated in details by Hallwachs and Lenard.
Work function
We know that metals have large number of free electrons. These electrons move freely
inside the metal but can not come out from it due to attraction of the positive ions. Some
energy is needed to liberate the electrons from the bondage of the attraction of the ions.
The minimum energy required to liberate the electrons from the metal surface, is called work
function, and is represented by W0.
Work functions of some photometals

Work function
Metal Work function (ev) Metal
(eV)
Cesium 1.9 Calcium 3.2
Potassium 2.2 Copper 4.5
Sodium 2.3 Silver 4.7
Lithium 2.5 Platinum 5.6

Threshold frequency
The minimum frequency of the radiation which is just enough to liberate the electrons from
the metal surface is called threshold frequency. Thus is f0 is the threshold frequency, then
work function
W0 = hf0, ...(1)
where h is called Planks constant, whose value is 6.626 1034 J-s.
Threshold wavelength
We know that the product of frequency and corresponding wavelength of any radiation is
a constant and equal to c. Thus if l0 is the threshold wavelength, then
c
l0 = . ...(2)
f0
Hence threshold wavelength is the longest wavelength which can cause photoelectric
effect. Thus photoelectric effect takes place only if l l0 , or f f 0 .
Kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
When light is incident on a metal surface, photons collide with the free electrons at or just
within the surface of a metal, they transfer their energy to the electrons. Only some electrons
will get this energy. In a particular collision, the photon may give all of its energy to the free
electrons. If the energy of the photon is more than the work function W0, the electron may
come out of the metal. It is not necessary that if energy transfer to an electron is more than
W0, then the electron will come out from the metal surface. The electron after getting the
energy, may lose its energy due to collisions with the atoms of the metal. Only an electron
near the surface gets the extra energy and comes out from the metal surface.
Thus the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted from the metal surface ranges from
zero to a maximum value (Kmax). If E is the energy of incident photons, then the maximum Fig. 5.9
kinetic energy of any electron can be;
Kmax = E W0. ...(3)
Equation (3) is called Einsteins photoelectric equation.
Experimental set-up of PEE
The experimental set-up to study the photoelectric effect is shown in fig. 5.10.
When monochromatic light of frequency greater than f0 is incident on the cathode,
ELECTRONS, PHOTONS, AND ATOMS, PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND X-RAYS 251
photoelectrons are emitted from it and they move towards anode
A. Initially, the space between the cathode and the anode
contains a number of electrons making up electron cloud. This
negative charge repels the fresh electrons coming from the
cathode. The electrons of maximum kinetic energy are able to
reach the anode and constitutes a photocurrent. If anode is
made positive with respect to the cathode, the emitted electrons
are attracted by the anode and the photoelectric current
increases. With the increase in anode potential, the photoelectric
current increases and becomes maximum. Thereafter current will
not increase with the increase in anode potential. This maximum
Fig. 5.10 value of current is called the saturation current (is). This will
happen when all the emitted electrons by the cathode in any time interval are attracted
by the anode . Fig. 5.11 shows the photoelectric current i with anode potential V.
Stopping potential
When anode is given negative potential with respect to the cathode, the photoelectric
current decreases. For a particular value of anode potential, the photoelectric current
becomes zero. The minimum negative anode potential at which photoelectric current
becomes zero is called stopping or cut off potential V0. To stop the photoelectric current,
we must ensure that even the fastest electron will not reach the anode. Thus stopping
Fig. 5.11 potential is related to the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons. If V0 is the
stopping potential, then
Kmax = eV0. ...(4)
5.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF PEE
1. Effect of intensity of incident light
When the intensity of the light increases, more number of photons strike with
the photometal and thereby liberate more number of electrons. Because of this,
photo current increases. As the frequency of the incident light is same, so maximum
kinetic energy and hence slopping potential remains same.
2. Effect of frequency of incident light
When the intensity of incident light is kept constant and its frequency increases,
the number of photons remains same but their kinetic energy increases. Therefore
the emitted electrons are same in number but of greater kinetic energy and hence
stopping potential also increases. Fig. 5.12 shows the variation of photocurrent
with frequency of light f.
3. Effect of photometal
When intensity and frequency of incident light are kept constant and photo-
Fig. 5.12 metal is changed, the stopping potential V0 versus frequency f are parallel straight
lines. This shows that the slope V0/f is same for all metals and is equal to universal
constant (h/e). If the graph is plotted between Kmax and f, then there is straight
line. Slope of which gives the value of h (Fig. 5.13 b).
4. Effect of time
Metal starts emitting electrons as soon as light is incident on it and so there is no
time lag between incident light and emitted electrons.
5.7 EINSTEIN EXPLANATION OF PEE
Einstein forwarded the Planks quantum theory to explain photoelectric effect. According
to him light is made of small energy bundles, called photons. The energy of photon is
proportional to the frequency f. That is
E = hf,
where h is a universal constant, called Planks constant. He made the following
252 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
assumptions :
1. The photoelectric effect is the result of collisions between photons of incident
light and free electrons of the metal.
2. The electrons of metal are bound with the nucleus by attractive forces. The
minimum energy required to liberate an electron from this binding is called work
function W0.
3. The incident photon interacts with a single electron and spend energy in two
parts :
(i) in liberating the electron from the metal surface,
(ii) and imparting kinetic energy to emitted electrons. Thus if hf is the energy of
incident photons, then
h f = W0 + Kmax ...(i)

c hc Fig. 5.13
As f = and W0 = ,
l l0

hc hc 1 2
\ = + mvmax . ...(ii)
l l0 2
Above equation is known as Einstein photo-electric equation. It should be
remembered that photoelectric effect will occur only if l l o .
4. The efficiency of photoelectric effect is less than 1%, i.e., only less than 1% of
photons are capable of ejecting electrons from the metal surface. The rest 99% of
the photon energy will convert into thermal energy.
5. If V0 is the stopping potential, then Kmax = eV0 and so

hf = W0 + eV0

hf W0
or = + V0
e e

W0 h
or V0 = - + f. ...(iii)
e e

h
The equation (iii) is a straight line between V0 and f, whose slope is , which
e
is a universal constant.
5.8 COMPTON S EFFECT
When radiation of short wavelength (like X-rays) is incident on target of electron,
the wavelength of scattered X-rays becomes longer than the wavelength of
incident X-rays. This was first studied by Compton and therefore is known as
Comptons effect.
According to him if l and l are the wavelengths of incident and scattered X-
rays, then shift in wavelength Dl is given by

h
Dl = l l = (1 - cos f ) ,
mc
where f is the scattering angle.
Fig. 5.14
ELECTRONS, PHOTONS, AND ATOMS, PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND X-RAYS 253
h
Dl is known as Comptons shift and is a constant, called the Compton wavelength.
mc
Compton shift depends only on the scattering angle. This phenomenon supported the
view that both momentum and energy are transferred via photons.
Chapter 6
Nuclear Physics
305
6.6 RADIOACTIVITY
The spontaneous disintegration of nucleus, is called radioactivity. This phenomenon
was discovered by Henry Becquerel in 1896. Some radioactive elements are ; uranium,
radium, thorium, polonium etc. Madam Curie discovered radium which is 106 times more
radioactive than uranium. Radioactivity is the nuclear phenomenon which does not
depend on any physical or chemical changes.
Nuclear radiations
Rutherford discovered that radioactive elements emit two types of particles : a and b-
particles. Each parent nucleus changes into daughter nucleus after emitting a and b
particles until it changes into stable nucleus. Later, Villard discovered g-radiations along
with a and b radiations. When radiations from any radioactive element enter into electric
or magnetic field, they split into three parts : a-rays, b-rays and g-rays.

Fig. 6.3. Deflection of a, b and g-rays in


electric and magnetic fields.
Properties of a, b and g- rays
Feature a- rays b -rays g - rays

1 Identity Helium nucleus 2 He 4 Fast moving electron -1 b


0
Photon

2 Charge +2e e Zero

3 Mass 4mp (mp = 1.87 1027 kg) me = 9.1 1031 kg rest mass zero

4 speed of light
.
Speed ; 107 m/s 1 to 99% of speed of light
3 108 m/s

Effect of
electric and
5 Deflected Deflected Not deflected
magnetic
field
Ionisation
power in
6 10000 100 1
comparison
to g -rays
Penetration less (can be stopped by
7 100 times a 10000 times a
power paper)
A -a
Equation of zX z - 2 Y A + z He A zX
A
z+1Y A + -1e0 + n
zX
A
z XA + g

8
decay
306 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
6.7 LAWS OF RADIOACTIVE DISINTEGRATION

Rutherford and Soddy discovered the following laws :


(i) Radioactive disintegration is random. It is the matter of chance to disintegration
any of the atom first.
(ii) During disintegration, either a-particle or b- particle is emitted at a time. Both the
particles are never emitted simultaneously.
(iii) When an a-particle is emitted, a new atom is formed whose atomic number is
decreased by two and mass number by four. Thus for an atom X of atomic
number Z and mass number A,

zX
A
z - 2 Y A - 4 + 2 He 4 + g - rays.

(iv) Similarly, when a b-particle is emitted, a new atom is formed whose atomic number
is increased by one but mass number remains the same. Thus for an atom X,
A
zX z +1Y A + -1b0 + g - rays.

(v) The rate of decay of atoms is proportional to the number of undecayed atoms
present at any instant. Thus if N is the number of atoms at any instant, then rate

dN
of disintegration - is ;
dt

dN
- N
dt

dN
or - = lN (i)
dt
where l is a constant and is called decay or disintegration constant.
From equation (i), we have

dN
= -l dt
N
If N0 and N are the number of atoms at t = 0 and at any time t, then
N t
dN
N = ldt
N0 0

N
or ln N N0 = lt

N
or ln = -lt
N0

or N = N0 e-lt . (1)
This shows that the number of atoms of a radioactive substance decreases
exponentially with time.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS 307

Note:
1. The life time of atoms of radioactive substances are from zero to infinity.
2. If a radioactive substance decays simultaneously a and b-particles with
disintegration constants l1 and l2 respectively, then effective value of l is :
l = l1 + l 2

and N 0 e - ( l1 +l 2 )t .
N =
3. The b-particle is not present initially in the nucleus but it is produced by the
disintegration of neutron into a proton. Thus
1 1 0
0n = 1 H + -1b
+ n (antineutrino).
When a proton is converted into neutron, a positron is emitted. Thus
1
0 n1 + 1b0 + n (neutrino)
1H
4. When a nucleus emits a g- particle, neither the atomic number nor the mass
number changes.
6.8 HALF LIFE

The half life period of a radioactive substance is defined as the time in which one-half of
the radioactive substance is disintegrated. If N0 is the initial number of radioactive
N0
atoms, then after a half life t1/2, the number of atoms present are . Thus at t = t1/2
2

N0
N =
2

= N0 e -lt1/ 2

or e lt1/ 2 = 2
\ l t1/ 2 = ln2 Fig. 6.4

ln 2 0.693
t1/ 2
or = =
l l
We can form a working formula line as follows :
N0
After t = t1/ 2 , N = = N0 (1/ 2)1
2
N0
t = 2t1/ 2 , N = = N 0 (1/ 2)2
4
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -
n
t = nt1/ 2 , N = N0 (1/ 2 ) . (1)

Average or mean life


The life time of radioactive atoms ranges from zero to infinity. The average life of all the
atoms of a radioactive substance can be defined as :
sum of the life times of all the atoms
T =
total number of atoms
If dN are the number of atoms with life time t, then
308 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS

(dN )t
T = N0
.
0

As N = N0 e -lt , \ dN = N 0 le -lt
dt . Thus

( N 0 le -lt dt )t
T = N0
0

= l e -l t tdt
0
After integrating, we get
1
T = . (2)
l
0.693
As l =
t1/ 2
1
\ T = = 1.44 t1/ 2
(0.693 / t1/ 2 )
Activity of radioactivity substance
The disintegration of radioactive atoms per unit time is called activity. Thus activity A is:
dN
A =
dt

dN 0 e -lt
= dt

= (-l) N0 e -lt
or A = lN . (4)
If A 0 is the initially activity, so
A 0 = lN0.
A N
\ =
A0 N0
A
As N / N0 = e -lt , \ = e -lt .
A0
Units of activity
The SI unit of activity is becquerel.
1 becquerel = 1 disintegration /s
1 curice = 3.7 1010 disintegration/s
1 rutherford = 106 disintegration /s
6.9 RADIOACTIVE EQUILIBRIUM

Suppose a parent nuclide A with disintegration constant l A decay into daughter


nuclides B with disintegration constant l B which changes into nuclide as follows :

Fig. 6.5
NUCLEAR PHYSICS 309
Let at t = 0, the number of atoms of A are N0 and that of B are zero. After time t, there are
NA atoms of A and NB atoms of B.
At any time t,
the net rate of formation of B = rate of disintegration of A rate of disintegration of B
dN B
Thus = lANA - lB NB
dt

As NA = N0 e-l At

dN B
\ = l A N 0 e-l At l B N B
dt

or dN B + l B N B dt = l A N 0 e-l At

Multiplying the equation by el B t , we have

el Bt dN B + el B l B N B dt = l A N0 e(l B -l A )t

or d ( N B el B t ) = l A N0 e(l B -l A )t dt
After integration, we get

lA (l B -l A )t
N B .el Bt = l - l N 0e +C (i)
B A

lA
At t = 0, NB = 0, \ C = l - l N0 .
B A

Substituting the value of C in equation (i), we get

l A N 0 -l At
N B = l - l (e - e -l Bt ) (1)
B A

Special cases : If parent nuclide A is of long life than B, then l A << l B ,


and from equation (1), we have

l ANB
NB = (1 - e-l Bt ) (2)
lB

After time t which is longer than half-life of B but shorter than half life of A, then
e -l B t < < 1 and N A = N 0 and so

lAN A
NB = lB

or l AN A = lB NB . (3)
This is the condition of radioactive equilibrium of parent and daughter nuclides.

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