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The temperature of a substance remains constant, that is it does not rise or drop, during the
change of state.
The density of water is 1 g per cm3 at 4oC. 1 cm3 of water has a mass of 1 gram. For example,
50 cm3 of water has a mass of 50 gram.
Water is a poor heat and electrical conductor. This means that water does not conduct heat
and electric current readily.
Liquid solid
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
Unlike other liquids, water expands upon freezing. Thus, the ice is less dense than water and
floats on water.
This characteristic allows aquatic life to survive during winter. When the lake water freezes, ice
floats on the surface. Since ice is also a good thermal insulator, the water underneath it does
not freeze. This allows life to continue under the freezing lake.
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
Liquid gas
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
O
H H
Water can be broken down to its elements through electrolysis.
Electrolysis is a method to break down a compound by passing an electric current through its
liquid or solution
In the process of electrolysis, oxygen is discharged at the anode (positive electrode) and
hydrogen is discharged at the cathode (negative electrode).
The volume of hydrogen released is always twice the volume of oxygen released.
The acid helps water to conduct electricity.
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
Oxygen is tested with a glowing wooden splint. The wooden splint lights up when oxygen is
present. This is due to oxygen supports combustion.
Hydrogen is tested with a lighted wooden splint. Pop sound is produced when hydrogen is
present.
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
Evaporation Boiling
Similarities - Heat energy is absorbed and converted into kinetic energy.
- Liquids become gases
Rate Slow Fast
Temperature At any temperature below boiling point At the boiling point
Site Occurs only on the surface of water Occurs throughout the water
Observation No visible effect Air bubbles are formed in water
Factors - Humidity - Air pressure
- Surrounding temperature - Presence of impurities
- Surface area of water - Rate of heating
- Air movement - Volume of water
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Water vapour has the same temperature as the air, while the temperature of steam is above
the boiling point of water
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
Figure above shows that when some sugar is added to a beaker of water and stirred, the sugar
is no more visible.
The sugar which is soluble in water is called solute.
The water is called solvent because it dissolves the sugar.
The mixture that is formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent is called a solution.
The particles of a solute and a solvent are evenly distributed in a solution. At any part of the
solution, the taste, appearance and composition are the same. Thus, a solution is
homogeneous.
When a solution is formed, the solute cannot be separated from the solvent by filtration.
However, solute can be obtained by evaporating the solution to dryness.
Water is the most common solvent because it dissolves many types of substances.
Petrochemical solvents are used to dissolve oil and grease.
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
Dilute solution
Contains very little solute
Still can dissolve much more solute
There is a lot of space between the particles of solvent
Concentrated solution
Contains a lot of solute
Can only dissolve a little more of the solute
There is a little space between the particles of solvent
Saturated solution
Has dissolved the maximum amount of solute at that particular temperature
Cannot dissolve any more solute
Any extra solute added into the solution will be deposited at the bottom of the solution
There is very little space between the particles of solvent
5.4.4 Solubility
Solubility is the maximum amount of solute in grams that will dissolve in 100 g of solvent at a given
temperature.
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
Water is known as universal solvent because water can dissolve many types of substances.
A solution in which water is the solvent is called an aqueous solution.
The importance of water as a solvent
Water is used as solvent during preparation of foods and drinks like tea, coffee and fruit
juices.
Water is also needed to dissolve detergent for washing clothes, cars, cooking utensils and
lab apparatus.
Water which covers 70% of the Earth's surface is the solvent in rivers, seas, ponds and
lakes.
Water acts as a medium in many chemical reactions in our body.
Human body processes like digestion of food, respiratory, excretory and blood circulatory
need water as a solvent.
Water is used as a solvent in many types of industries that manufacture foods, drinks,
medicines, detergents and textiles.
Plants need water for photosynthesis and transpiration processes.
Aquatic organisms are able to live in water because oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolve in
water.
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
Organic solvents are volatile. Therefore, products such as paints, lacquers, varnishes and inks
become dry in a short period of time.
However, products containing organic solvents should be handled carefully.
They are flammable and should be stored away from heat.
They are toxic and carcinogenic (likely to cause cancer).
5.5.1 Acid
An acid is a substance that has a hydrogen atom, which can be replaced by a metal or
ammonium.
Acids can be classified as :
Organic acids
Inorganic or mineral acids.
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
Organic acids.
Organic acids which contain carbon are normally found in plants and animals.
Common organic acids are shown in the Table above.
Inorganic acids
Mineral salts are used to prepare inorganic acids. Therefore, it is also called mineral acids.
Common inorganics acids are :
Nitric acid
Sulphuric acid
Hydrochloric acid
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
Example :
React with reactive metals (magnesium / aluminium / zinc / iron) to release hydrogen and
form salts
Example :
5.5.2 Alkali
An alkali is hydroxide or metal oxide that dissolves in water.
Example: potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide (lime water), ammonium
hydroxide (ammonia solutions).
Alkalis have the following properties :
Taste bitter
Feel slippery like soap when touched with the fingers
Corrosive
Change red litmus paper to blue
Have pH values of more than 7
Reacts with ammonium salts to release ammonia when heated
Example:
5.5.3 pH values
The pH value of a substance shows if the substance is acidic, neutral or alkaline.
The pH scale has values from 1 to 14.
Acidic conditions (pH 1 - 6) : a substance with a value of pH 1 is far more acidic than a
substance with a pH value of 6
Neutral condition (pH 7) : neither acidic nor alkaline
Alkaline conditions (pH 8 - 14) : a substance with pH value of 14 is far more alkaline than a
substance with a pH value of 8
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
The pH values of substances are determined by using pH paper or universal indicator solutions.
Colour of solution
Indicator
Acidic Neutral Alkaline
Litmus solution Red Purple Blue
Methyl orange/red Red Orange Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink Red
Universal indicator Red/orange/yellow Green Purple
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
5.5.5 Neutralisation
Neutralisation is the reaction that occurs between an acid and an alkali to form salt and water.
The word equation below represents the neutralisation reaction between an acid and an alkali.
At the neutralisation point, all the acid completely reacts with the alkali; they cancel out each
others properties. The solution formed does not show acidic or alkaline properties and has a
pH value of 7.
The salt formed from the neutralisation process depends on the type of acid and alkali used, as
shown in the following table.
The method of mixing an acid with an alkali using a burette to achieve the point of
neutralisation is known as the titration method. In this method,
The correct amounts of an acid and an alkali are mixed using a burette.
An acid-alkali indicator is used to detect the end-point of neutralisation.
To neutralise an acid, an alkali is dripped into conical flask containing acid and stop once the
colour changes from red (acidic pH) to green (neutral pH), using universal indicator.
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
The applications of the neutralisation process in everyday life are shown below:
Using hair shampoo that is alkaline which is neutralised by hair conditioners that are acidic
so that the hair looks clean and soft?
Applying alkaline medicine on insect bites that are acidic. For example, a bee sting, a
mosquito or an ant bite, which is acidic, can be neutralised by applying lotion that contains
zinc carbonate.
Reducing soil acidity by adding slaked line that is alkaline.
Gastric patients drink milk of magnesia or take pills such as magnesium hydroxide or
aluminium hydroxide that is alkaline to reduce stomach acidity
A weak acid such as vinegar can be used to neutralise a wasp sting that is alkaline
Bacteria in the mouth change sugary food into acid that attacks the teeth causing tooth
decay. Toothpaste contains weak alkalis to neutralise the acid in the mouth.
Usage of Water
- Generate
- Drinking - Cooling
- Irrigation hydroelectric power
- Washing - Washing
- Aquaculture - Recreation
- Watering plants - Disposal of waste
- Transportation
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
Filtration
River water or well water is filtered before being sent to consumers at home
Boiling
Piped water or well water is boiled before drinking
Surgical equipment is sterilised in boiling water to kill microorganisms
Chlorination
Piped water that has been filtered at a water treatment plant will have chlorine added to it
before it can be used
Chlorine is added to the water in a swimming pool to kill microorganisms that cause
diseases like skin infections.
Distillation
Distilled water is used in clinics and hospitals to prepare medicines.
Distilled water is prepared in school laboratories to prepare chemical solutions.
Distilled water is used in car batteries.
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
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Form 2 Chapter 5: WATER AND SOLUTION
In short, the main steps of water pollution control are prevention, enforcement and
monitoring.
Water should be used carefully in order to avoid wastage and shortage of water.
To ensure continuous supply of clean water, we need to conserve and preserve water and its
quality.
Several steps need to be taken to save or conserve water, which includes:
Closing the water tap after using it.
Using water from cup and not running water from tap to rinse teeth after brushing.
Reusing the water used for washing fruits and vegetables to water plants.
Using buckets of water and not running tap water connected to a hose to wash car.
Collect rainwater to water plants and wash floor.
Use an energy efficient washing machine, and wash only full loads.
Install low-flush or dual-flush toilet cisterns.
Some examples of measures that can be taken for preserving water:
Cleaning up polluted rivers.
Promoting public awareness through education, seminars, media campaigns, exhibition
and talks.
Proper disposal of waste.
Strict enforcement of laws in pollution control.
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