Running head: LIPIDS 1

Lipids

Delia Garcia

GRT-1 Biochemistry

February 20, 2015

Julie Thompson
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Lipids

Fatty acids belong to a grouping of biological molecules which are designated as lipid

macronutrients. Examples of lipids include fats, waxes, sterols, monoglycerides, triglycerides,

and the fat soluble vitamins. Enzymes known as lipases assist in the breakdown of fatty acids in

order to produce energy. Correspondingly, triglycerides are synthesized through dehydration, and

then stored within adipose tissue for later use. Lipids are integral in the development of the

phospholipid membrane, energy production and storage, as well as the signaling of pathways.

Cholesterol is found within the phospholipid membrane and allows for the protection of the

fluidity within the cell.

Essential fats are required by the body and must be ingested as humans are unable to

synthesize these on our own. Fatty acids play a vital role within metabolism and the production

of energy via ATP synthesis, similar to the catabolism of other macronutrients such as proteins

and carbohydrates; however, lipids produce the highest amount of ATP at nine Kcal/per gram

through the pathway of -oxidation. Conversely, carbohydrates may only produce ATP at a rate

of four Kcal/per gram, but they can do so much quicker. (Khan Academy Medicine, Oxidation,

2014) The hydrocarbon bonds within the fatty acid are an energy powerhouse, and the body

transforms this fat to use for our own vitality.

Saturated VS Unsaturated Fats

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Types of Fatty Acids

Fatty Acid Structure

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Importance of Fat in the Diet

Because some dietary fats are potentially helpful and others potentially harmful to our

health, it pays to know which ones we are eating and whether we are meeting national

recommendations (Ward, 2008). Fats are important to human health, as such understanding the

difference between good fats and bad fats can benefit our health and overall quality of life. Fat is

a natural and important part of a healthy diet; good fats nourish our brains, eyes, hair, skin, nails,

aid in digestion, and support cellular walls.

The American Heart Association (AHA) recommends that we get 20% to 35% of our

calories from fat, most Americans consume too much, nearly 34% or more (Ward, 2008).

However, there are fats that should be avoided; for instance, Trans fats and hydrogenated oils, as

these are known to cause cardio vascular disease. Omega-6 oils should also be avoided; these are

often found in packaged and processed foods. Very low-fat diets, 15% or 34 grams of fat in a

2,000 calorie diet may not reduce artery-clogging compounds in the bloodstream for everyone as

such most people cannot maintain a very low-fat diet in the long run(Ward, 2008).
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Nevertheless, the consumption of beneficial fats are necessary for optimum health,

unsaturated fats such as avocado, almonds, plant-based foods and oils, omega-3 fatty acids in

fish, and raw cream are not only good for us, but are required by our body. Fat supplies

essential fatty acids (EFAs) as the body is incapable of producing the EFAs, known as linoleic

acid and alpha-linoleic acid, thus it must derive them from food(Mayo Clinic, 2015). Without

the proper fat intake metabolic disturbances can occur. However, cholesterol, on the other hand,

is found in animal proteins such as meat and eggs are good in moderation. Cholesterol is vital as

it helps build the body's cells and produce certain hormones, but the body makes enough

cholesterol to meet its needs we do not need any dietary cholesterol (Mayo Clinic, 2015).

Metabolism of Fatty Acids

The metabolism of fatty acids requires the process of catabolism to occur in order to

produce energy and yield other crucial biological metabolites. Conversely, fatty acid anabolism

is executed in order to form other essential biological molecules the body needs to sustain life.

Metabolic conditions related to fatty acid breakdown and uptake are either genetic or as a result

of poor diet. For example, hypertriglyceridemia occurs when too many triglycerides are taken

into the body for the liver to metabolize, triglycerides will then spill into the blood stream as a

result and contribute to disease such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, or other types of

hyperlipidemia.

Fatty acid metabolism begins when we ingest food and begin the process of digestion.

Triglycerides are initially too large for proper digestion, therefore the pancreas will begin to

release secretions and the gall bladder will begin to contract and release enzymes into the bile

duct, and then into the bowel in order to break them down. Once in the bowel, the broken down

triglycerides are pushed through the bowel wall into the portal vein for transportation to the liver.
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Lipoproteins serve as a transport vehicle carrying fatty acids around the body, delivering fatty

acids to adipocyte tissues, muscles, or ultimately contributing to the accumulation of body fat.

Lipids stored within adipocyte tissue will be broken down for energy later, as needed.

Lipolysis occurs with the appearance of hormonal secretions of epinephrine or in the

manifestation of low insulin levels, and essentially is the phosphorylation of the hormone-

sensitive lipase to catabolize triglycerides into glycerol and free fatty acids. Next, the fatty acids

will travel to the blood stream to attach to albumin to be conveyed and released to tissues

starving for energy. The enzymes used in fatty acid oxidation are found within the mitochondrial

matrix. The process consists of three phases, activation and transport, -Oxidation, and then

finally rounds through the electron transport chain.

Fatty Acid Synthesis

Synthesis consists of condensation, reduction, dehydration, and reduction again. Fatty

acids are synthesized in the cytosol, while fatty acid degradation occurs within the mitochondrial

matrix. Fatty acids are hydrophobic and do not mix with water, therefore for them to move

towards and through the mitochondria they must first form a bond to Carnitine to go into the

matrix. Then, once inside the matrix the carnitine is exchanged for a CoA group.

In the process Acyl Carrier Protein (ACP) has an integral role. First ACP is primed by

Acetyl-CoA which produces the product of Acetyl-ACP. Next, the Acetyl group will be passed to

a synthase enzyme as Malonyl-CoA binds to ACP to produce Malonyl ACP. Then the Malonyl

will release the CoA and through condensation the Acetyl group will bond to the Malonyl to

produce Acetoacetyl-ACP and then release a molecule of C02. Next, by means of reduction

NADPH and H+ will reduce the molecule to produce the product D--Hydroxybutyryl-ACP.
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At this point, dehydration will produce an unsaturated fatty acid known as Crotonyl-

ACP. Then, reduction will occur for a second time and as it re-saturates the molecule a product of

Butyryl-ACP is created. Next, the additional two carbon units from Malonyl-CoA will be added

to the growing acyl chain. Seven cycles are then required to make a 16 carbon palmitate

molecule. (Khan Academy Medicine, Synthesis, 2014)

Fatty Acid Oxidation

95% of chemical energy extracted from fatty acids comes directly from the fatty acid

chains (Kahn Academy Medicine, Synthesis, 2014). Therefore the remaining five percent comes

from the glycerol backbone in the process of glycolysis. Oxidation of fatty acids allows the

human body to produce energy in the electron transport chain. Essentially, this is the reverse

process of fatty acid synthesis.

Once Acetyl-CoA is created, it can enter the Citric Acid Cycle (CAC), and then the

Electron Transport Chain. For each run through the CAC we can produce about 10 ATP per

Acetyl-CoA molecule and eight pairs of Acetyl-Co-A carbons, altogether producing 80 ATP in

the CAC alone. Moreover, nearly 27 ATP are produced during direct oxidation of a fatty acid,
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thereby producing 107 ATP for a single 16 chain fatty acid. (Kahn Academy Medicine,

Oxidation, 2014).

In -oxidation, a four step process begins by removing two carbon units from a fatty acid

at a time. In the first step, Acyl-CoA Hydrogenase and the oxidizing agent FAD will convert

Acyl-CoA into Enoyl-CoA. Next, through hydrolysis Enoyl-CoA hydratase will add a molecule

of water across the double bond to create -hydroxyacyl-CoA. At this time a second oxidation

will take place implementing -hydroxyacyl dehydrogenase and oxidizing agents NAD+ to

produce -ketoacyl-CoA. Thiolase in combination with CoASH will cleave two carbons from the

molecule to produce Acetyl-CoA. Each time the cycle repeats oxidation, hydration, oxidation,

and cleavage, another two carbon molecule of Acetyl-CoA is produced. (Khan Academy

Medicine, Oxidation, 2014)

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Conclusion

In conclusion, lipids are an essential component of human physiology at the molecular

level. Finding the proper balance between the intake of healthy unsaturated fats and unhealthy

saturated fats is necessary to avoiding cardio vascular disease and reducing obesity and weight

gain. Despite the common rhetoric, sugar and fat must be included as part of a healthy diet, these

elements are the precursors of energy production and the structure of cellular tissue.

Whats more, physician Terry Wahls has found that a diet can be modified to support the

mitochondria, and in turn mitigate disease and disorders of the body. Dr. Whals reversed

progressive symptoms of multiple sclerosis by structuring the paleo/hunter gatherer diet. She

recommends three cups of green leafy vegetables, three cups of sulfur rich vegetables, three

cups of brightly colored fruits and vegetables, grass fed meat and fish, organ meat, daily and

eating seaweed once a week (Whals, 2011).

Dr. Whals diet plan consists of eating green leafy vegetables such as kale which are rich

in the fat soluble vitamins B, A, C, & K, and minerals which are co-factors for many different
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enzymes. In fact kale has the most nutrition of any other plant. Sulfur containing vegetables

include cabbage, kale, onion, leeks, chives, asparagus, and mushrooms. Colored fruits and

vegetables encompass polyphenols and antioxidants and can be gleaned through eating beets,

carrots, peppers, berries, peaches, oranges. Eating meats which contain omega 3 fatty acids such

as herring and salmon are desirable; in addition to the consumption of grass fed organ meat.

Organ meat consumption ensures the uptake of vitamins, minerals, and the co enzyme CoQ10.

Seaweed is recommended for consumption at least once a week because it has iodine and

selenium, which is good for brain health, reduce breast and prostate cancer risk, and removes

toxins. (Whals. 2011).

Reference

Khan Academy Medicine. (2014). Fatty Acid Synthesis - Part I. Retrieved from

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6YV0bHzHAfw

Khan Academy Medicine. (2014). Overview of Fatty Acid Oxidation. Retrieved from

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=acA5iF1zrDI

Mayo Clinic. (2015). Healthy Lifestyle Nutrition and Healthy Eating. Retrieved from

http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/fat/art-

20045550?pg=2
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Wahls, T. (2011). Minding your Mitochondria | Dr. Terry Wahls. Ted X Iowa City. Retrieved

from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KLjgBLwH3Wc

Ward, K. (2008). Food & Recipes: Fat Facts: Good Fats vs. Bad Fats. Web MD. Retrieved from

http://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/good-fats-bad-fats