LEARNERS AND LEARNING,

CLASSROOMS AND CONTEXTS

Summary By : Aas Yulia Miati

1.1 Introduction : Issues for The Language Teacher

In this first chapter, the issues we look at are those which are
fundamental to ELT proffesional practice. They are reflected in the account which
rufino gives of his teaching situation. He describes the context in which his
learners study english and highlights some of the social educational and local
factors which may advantage or disadvantage the puppil in his classes and himself
as teacher on the one hand stronge language awarnes and positive attitudes to
learning English in the community on the other lack of explosure to english.
This raises issues about the learning condition in which his pupil study,
and what is available to them and to him in term of language input and language
practice. Will there, as example be authentic english language material available
from which listening or reading text can be taken? In the project his describes will
he be able to involve pupil in encounters with native speakers of english, or will
they be text-based project? Or can he set up coresponden projects with
otherschool children in english-speaking countries?
Rufino is sensitive to his pupils as individual learners and realizes for
instance, that motivation and need will vary as will strenghts and weakness. In
this he reflects our fropesional concern to find out how our learners differ from
one another and to cater for this as much as possible.

1.2 What do We Know About how Languages are Learned?

Any teacher seeking ideas about how languages are learned will find a
surfeit of theories. However, some have proved more atractive to the ELT
proffession than others, probably because they concur in the useful ways whith
ideas about the communicative classroom and can therefore be assimilated into
current aproaches. There are perhaph four areas of investigation and debate
among second language acquistion researchers which deserve special attention
from english language teachers the nature of the input provided to learners how
learners process thet input: the rule of classroom interaction and the rulle of error
in the english learning.

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 1.2.1 The nature of input
A significan ideasemerged that has emerged in recent years is that of
confrehensible input. Krahens ( 1985) input hypotesis posits that languages it
picket up, or acquired when learners receive input from massages which
contain language a little above their existing understanding and from which
they can infer meaning. The hypotesis make a distincition between acquiring a
language and learning through consciouss attention to language study. The
acquistion process, often caled a creative constrictucion process, is parallel to
that of a child learning its firs language. A study of childrens error suggests
that they use operating strategies, such as paying attention to the end of words,
to formulate hypotheses about rules in the language and that these hypoteses
are tested out are in their own attempts to produce language and gradually
revised and their receive feedback on attempts.

1.2.2 The process of intake

Intake reffers to the ways in the which learners proces input and
assimilate language on their interlanguage system. Learners will not process all
the input available to them. Some of what their hear or read may not be
understood, and some parts of input will receive more attention, because for
various reasons, they seem more important or salient to the learners at the
particular stage of development. The consept of intage has given us some
insight into why teacher cant control the learning proces to the the extent we
must previously belived. Take as example: an initial class activity in which the
teacher ask an invite the question about what student did previous with the aim
of practising the past simple tenses. One stodent thingking ahead to her turn
focuses on her need for the english word countryside and uses strategy to
finding and alternative which is close to the meaning she wants to convey.

1.2.3 The role of interaction in the classroom

Related to the notion of input is that of output learner need practise in
producing comprehensible output (swain 1985) using all the language
resources they have already acquired. Geeting feedback from the teacher and
from other student in the class enables learners to the tests hypoteses and

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 refines their developing knowledge of the language system. It has also been
climed thet being pushed to produce output obliges learners to cope with their
lack of language knowledge by struggling to make themselves understood, by
speaking slowly fo example or repiting or clarifying their ideas trought
refhrasing. When the group of student do this while talking together it is called
negotiation of meaning and its aim is to make output more comprehensible.
There is a principle underlying current ELT practice that interaction pushes
learner to produce more accurate and appropriate language, which it self
provides input for other students. This is one reasons why pairwork and
groupwork have become common features of contemporary classrooms.

1.2.4 The role of eror

With a view of english learning as a creative construction proces
comes the view that error is an inevoitable and positive part of that process.
Attitudes have therefore moved on from those of their behaviourists in the
1950s and 1960s who saw error as something to be prevented as far as possible
through intensive modelling and eradicated throught intensive drilling. Errors
are now seen as reflection of a learners stage of interlanguage development.
There are conflicting view on the role of error correction in the
classroom. For example, krashen interest in the possible parallels between
childrens acquistion of their first language and adoult second language
acquistion leed him to sugest that error corection had dubious value in the
classrooms. Chldren , he claimed, do not generaly receive explicite negative
feedback on the accuracy of their language and by annalogy adults do not
recquired constants corections with its danger of distruction and demotivation.
The treatment of error requires consideration of many issues. Whether
or not to perform the role of diagnoser and corrector of error is only the first. If
we decide to undertake this role, we will need a careful policy for making
decisions about what, when, and how to correct.

1.3 How Differences Among Learners Affect Learning Prosses and

Teaching Procedures
Language aptitude, as we shall see, has been measure by test, but other
dimension had been investigate largely by introspectif method. Three methode in
particular have been used.

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 The first is self report, responding to interview question and
questionnaires. Here for example : is an introspection from an American in Japan,
on the issues relating to using work in small groups in multicultural training
sessions
A second methods is self observation, using diaries or immadiate
retrospektive verbal report.
A third method is self revelation, using thing aloud report recorded
cassete as learners actully performs task .
These three introspectife methods all depend on learners being able to
give clear, accurate, and honest account of what they do. There is also the issue in
self refelation of the wheter there are attempts to report what they do will affects
what they would normally do in carrying out a llanguage learning task.

1.3.1 Aptitude
To well known anguage aptitude test, still widel used, are the modern
language aptitude test (MLAT) (carrol and sapon 1955) , and the pinsleur
language aptitude baterie (MLAB) (insleur 1966) . these generly put forward a
multi compenencial view of aptitude as comprising four components : auditory
ability, and memory. Each of these compenent is tested in foreign language .
for example, the MLAT, has a test of gramatical sensitifity to the first language
which as a student to identify word in two sentences with have the same
gramatical function.

Example : LONDON is the capital england

1.3.2 Learning style and learning strategies

The component of aptitude measure by the test describe in the
previous section of relates to language. More recent research has located at
other variabels which seems to corelate positivey with the successfull with
language learning for example, a global learner is believed to prefer learning
trough global exposure while an analytic learner likes to analyse element in
detiles. This might influence the learners response to methode representing
language. For example, in dealing with a text a global learners might predict
and infer to get and oferal understanding, while an analytic learner might
search for small details and try to follow accurately the phrases relationship
between different part of the text. Some learners can tolerance ambiguity better

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than others and wait for further, disambiguting information. This might well
advantages beginer dealing with the presentation of smplyfied gramatical rules,
such as :
Use some in positive statement.
Use any in question in negative statements . these learners may
quicklly see exception to the rule in language they are expose to, as the rules or
far more complex.

1.3.3 Affective Factors

Most disscusion have limited affectif factor to personality
characterisctic, aptitude, and emotional response to the langage learning
process. The major problem of research in this area is data gathered by
instropective method using questionair and selfrepord often does not seems to
agree with observe behaviour .
For example there is a widely held fiew death extropert learners are
likely to be more successfull than introperted learners, possibly because theyy
are more assertive, more willing to experiment and take risk and more able to
make the social contact the need to practice language.
Ethnocentricity is an aptitudinal variable which has been investigate
and it will not surprise experienced teachers that studies so a negative
corelation with language learning perhaps the significant implication for the
teacher working where english language learning is compulsory is coution in
the portrayal of the related english speaking culture, avoidance of stereo typing
and the building of positive aptitudes to the study of english as a curriculum
subject through multipating content and task.

1.3.4 Motivation for Learning English

The degree to which any of the factors disscussed so far in these
chapter will become significant in particullar learning and teaching situation
will depend partly on the reasons why learner are learninnng english.
The following list of statements represents in general the reasins
depend by members of the group and their rank. Ordering :
a. To be able to communicate with people in an international language, both at
home in japan and while traveling in other countries
b. To be able to read a wide range of english language source for study
purposes in the uk and in japan

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c. To have a better chance of employment, status and financial reword in the
job market
d. To be able to read and listen to english llanguage media for information and
pleasure
e. To find out more about the people , places, politic etc. Of english speaking
culture
f. To take up a particular a career, e.g english language teaching. Work in an
international company
g. To be able to participate succesfully in the country I will be living in for six
month
h. To read english language literature
i. Because of parental preasure.

Indeed, Gradneer and lambert 1972 termed these two as integrated and
instrumental motivation. These two kind of motivation can be demonstrate by
the statement theyy gave student of franch in canada agains which to indicated
their own reason for learning. Of the following statement , the first two are
taken as indicated of integratif motivation and the second two of instrumental
motivation :
a. It will enable me to gain good friends more easily among rangne speaking
people
b. It should enable me tto begin to think and behave as the french do
c. One need a good knowledge of atleast one foreign language to merit social
recognition
d. I need it in order to finish high school.
(Garneer and lamberg 1972:148)

However, there is little doubt that individual defferences exist and

they play a significant rule in language learning . for the teacher the calange
must be how to enable its learner according to his or her individual
carracteristic and cultural bacground. It may be a question of flexibility in
material design, or veriety in skills work or classroom interaction. There may
well be value in rising awareness in learners of their own stylish and strategies
and in helping them to refind and apply these in more independend resource
based llearning where individualization is possible . motivation is certinely an
issue to be borne in mind when reflecting on any of the topic disscussed

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 1.4 What factors of contect should teachers take in to account ?
The educational system in which teacher work will be influenced by
cultural nation of authority which affect the potential rules of teaccher and learner.
Another factor will be weather or not the teacher is faced with a gradualy
increasing range of proficiency in classes as they move through the years. This is
a real problem that many teachers face and the issues of mixed ability teaching
deserve far greater profetional attention in ELT. At the very list it support
argument for reach, varied, and flexiblle learning resource . buut there are other
factor which have more to do with the institution and all provide potential or
constrain. For example :
1. The extent to which the material in use train for public examination and the
extent to which deviation from these may disadventage student in respect, not
with standing the benfit or alternatif.
2. The hours available for teaching and the distribution of those hours.
3. The existance of institutional or departmental policies for such things as
marking or homework and the flexibillity of these.
4. The physical constrain of the classroom
5. Class size
6. The resource available in the classroom and in the institution
7. The kohesion that exist among english aguage teacher and the degree to which
8. it posters team work
9. The status of teachers in the hierarchy and their involvement in book selection,
police development , etc.
10. The financial/contractual status of teacher and weather they work in one
institution on several
11. The interence of management continuing profesional development through in
service session, project in material design.
12. Wheater classes or monolingual or multilingual
The examination system, for example, is ussualy a heavily constrainig
factor, especialy where examination are gatekeepers to higer education or good
employment prospects . it would be mattter of high risk for a teacher not to train
students for these

1.5 What roles can teachers and learners play in the laerning proccess?
Rufino commented on his enjoyment of project work as one kind of
learners based teaching which allowed him to stand back to and take on a less

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dominant role while his pupils organized themselves in collaborative work. The
concept of role has become very popular in ELT and is a term in common usage
to denote the function the techer and learner perform during the course of a
lessons.
1.5.1 The teachers roles and responsibilities
The range of roles that teachers perform can be ilustrated by the
analysing the sample of lessons notes from the teachers books of the pre-
intermediate choice sound in the materials extract. The sample is taken from
the early stage of a lessons in which the aims are to revised and practised the
presend perfect tense and word from countries and the nationalities. The
coresponding section from the students book is shown in material extract the
activities are focused on language form and the teachers dominant role in what
is a largely teachers teachers-fronted classrooms.
Suggested by Hamrmer (1991) using factor is possible to identify the
teacher in number of roles in this lessons as controller in eliciting nationality
word as assessor of accuracy as students try to pronounce the word as corrector
fo pronounciation, as organizer in giving instruction for the pairworks,
initiating it monitoring it, and organizing feedback as prompter while student
are working together and as resources if students need help with word and
structures during the pairworks.

1.5.2 The learners roles responsibilities

Such issues are at the heart of recent debate about learner-centered
ELT, a concept has been defined from several diferent perspectives one
perspectives, which aplies usefully to situation in which adult learner can
specyfy discenible need for english learning. Is that for asking learners to
contribute to the overal design of course content and the selecton of learning
procedures.
A second perspective on learner centrenedness is that of learners
contributing to the design of language learning activities ( Clarke 1989b), an
idea which would certainly ensure that the purposes classroom activities where
well understood. The ides has been taken up by Campbell and Kryszewska who
decribe it as learner based teaching and stated its main principle of being that
all class activities can done using information that the learners themselves

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 bring to class (1992:5) such information can involve, for example, text which
learner find and for which they design reading activities.
A third perspective on learner centredness is that of encouraging
learners to take on a greater degree of responsibility for their on succesful
learning, not only contributing to course or activity design in the ways above,
but also by continuing their learning outside class, at home or in self access
fasilities. The teachers reciprocal responsibility is to ensure that learners have
effective strategis for planning, perfoming, and monitoring their independent
learning.

1.6 What Roles Can Learning Material Play

Closely related to the roles of teacher and learners is the roles of text
books materials. Any taxt books is based on assumtion about learning and the
design of its activities implies certain roles for teacher and learners and assumes
certain this pisition toward learning styles. In the early 1980s Allwright (1981)
and Oneill (1982) debated the role of learning materials in articles antitled
respectively what do you want teaching matrials for? and why use text books?
Allwright suggest that the use of text books materials places emphasis on the
teaching process perhaps at the expense of emphasis on the learning process, and
that this may lead to teacher overload and learner underinvolvement. The
logical outcome of an emphasis on learning, he argues, would be learning guides
for students. There was little evidence of these in publishers catalogues at his
time of writing but some years later their was evidence of moves in the direction
he advocated.
The debate inevitably continues as it is at the heart of teachers
professional concerns the content and quality of text books will determine the
extend to which teachers can make use of insights from research into learning and
learners. A group of teachers who where asked for their views of the potential and
the limitations of text books offered the following: their comments reflect some of
the points raised by Allwright an Oneill:
Ive tried in recent years to encourage my students to work more
independently and one of the ways they can do this, given that we dont

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 coursebook before we do it in class and than to go over it again when weve
finished.

I tried last year to negotiate content as much as possible, but it was

very, very hard work to find the relevant materials as we went along. In the
second term we chose a coursebook together and added to it. The student said
they apreciated folowwing the sequence of the book. There was a grammatical
syllabus in the map of the book and I think this fitted with their expectation of
learning a language: it seemed to reasure them.

The practical constrain outlined by the last teacher are an undeniable fact
of life in many institutions and arguments about the relative merits of using
commercial materials or not are academic to many teacher. They see their
responsibility as choosing the most appropriate text book available for their
classess. It is the enlightned head of department or director of studies who tries to
facilitate professional development in staff by promotting opportunities for in
house materials design in teams.

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