Fundamentals of Electrical and

Electronics Engineering
EEE-209 Lecture Notes

A. Prof. Dr. Murat Fahrioglu

METU Northern Cyprus Campus

References:
Lecture notes by Prof. Dr. O. Sevaiolu, Electrical and Electronics Engineering, METU
Electrical Circuit Analysis 3rd Ed. by Johnson, Johnson, Hilburn, and Scott
G. Rizzoni, Principl. and Appl. of Electrical Engineering (4th Ed.), McGraw Hill, 2003.
Electric Circuits 8th Ed. by Nilsson & Riedel
Engineering Circuit Analysis 7th Ed. by Hayt, Kemmerly, and Durbin
 Circuit Analysis

(continued)

Murat Fahrioglu 2
 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

Definition
Thevenin Equivalent of an electrical
circuit is the simplified form of the circuit
consisting of a voltage source in series
with a resistance.
Given Circuit Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
R1 Requiv A
A

+ +
Vs
R2 Vequiv
R3

R4 B B

Murat Fahrioglu 3
 Norton Equivalent Circuit

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit can be

converted to an alternative form with
a current source Iequiv in parallel with
an admittance Gequiv, called Norton
Equivalent Circuit or simply
Norton Form
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit Norton Equivalent Circuit
Requiv A
A

+ Vequiv
Vequiv Iequiv = --------- Gequiv = 1 / Requiv
Requiv

B B

Murat Fahrioglu 4
 Thevenin and Norton Equivalents
Thevenin Subcircuit
i

+
RT
vT v

vT : Thevenin equivalent voltage source

RT : Thevenin equivalent resistance

Murat Fahrioglu 5
 Thevenin and Norton Equivalents
Thevenin Subcircuit
i

+
RT
vT v

v RT i vT

Nomenclature: vT : Thevenin equivalent voltage source

RT : Thevenin equivalent resistance

Murat Fahrioglu 6
 Thevenin and Norton Equivalents
Thevenin Subcircuit Norton Subcircuit
i i

+ +
RT
vT v iN RN v

- -

v RT i vT

Nomenclature: vT : Thevenin equivalent voltage source

RT : Thevenin equivalent resistance
iN : Norton equivalent current source

Murat Fahrioglu RN : Norton equivalent resistance 7

 Thevenin and Norton Equivalents
Thevenin Subcircuit Norton Subcircuit
i i

+ +
RT
vT v iN RN v

- -

v
v RT i vT iN i v RN i RN iN
RN

Nomenclature: vT : Thevenin equivalent voltage source

RT : Thevenin equivalent resistance
iN : Norton equivalent current source

Murat Fahrioglu RN : Norton equivalent resistance 8

 Thevenin and Norton Equivalents
Thevenin Subcircuit Norton Subcircuit
i i

+ +
RT
vT v iN RN v

- -

v
v RT i vT iN i v RN i RN iN
RN
Therefore Thevenin & Norton circuits are equivalent if RT = RN & vT = RNiN

Nomenclature: vT : Thevenin equivalent voltage source

RT : Thevenin equivalent resistance
iN : Norton equivalent current source

Murat Fahrioglu RN : Norton equivalent resistance 9

 Thevenin and Norton Equivalents
Thevenin Subcircuit Norton Subcircuit
i i

+ +
RT
vT v iN RN v

- -

v
v RT i vT iN i v RN i RN iN
RN
Therefore Thevenin & Norton circuits are equivalent if RT = RN & vT = RNiN
These are also referred to as source transformation equations.
Nomenclature: vT : Thevenin equivalent voltage source
RT : Thevenin equivalent resistance
iN : Norton equivalent current source

Murat Fahrioglu RN : Norton equivalent resistance 10

 Example (N & R Problem 4.59a)
Use a series of source transformations to find the current i0 in
the circuit: 2.7 k

i0

6 4.2
2.3 1
mA mA
k k

Murat Fahrioglu 11
 Example (N & R Problem 4.59a)
Use a series of source transformations to find the current i0 in
the circuit: 2.7 k

i0

6 4.2
2.3 1
mA mA
k k

Solution: Source transformation:

RT = RN & vT = RNiN (watch the assumed signs here !)
2.3 k 2.7 k 1 k

i0

-13.8 V 4.2 V

Murat Fahrioglu 12
 Example (N & R Problem 4.59a)
Use a series of source transformations to find the current i0 in
the circuit: 2.7 k

i0

6 4.2
2.3 1
mA mA
k k

Solution: Source transformation:

RT = RN & vT = RNiN (watch the assumed signs here !)
2.3 k 2.7 k 1 k

i0

-13.8 V 4.2 V

6 k

i0

-13.8 V 4.2 V

Murat Fahrioglu 13
 Example (N & R Problem 4.59a)
Use a series of source transformations to find the current i0 in
the circuit: 2.7 k

i0

6 4.2
2.3 1
mA mA
k k

Solution: Source transformation:

RT = RN & vT = RNiN (watch the assumed signs here !)
2.3 k 2.7 k 1 k

i0

-13.8 V 4.2 V

Using Ohms Law:

i0 = 18 V / 6 k = 3 mA
6 k 6 k

i0 i0

-13.8 V 4.2 V -18 V

Murat Fahrioglu 14
 Deriving Thevenin & Norton Equivalent
Circuits:
If the circuit terminal law is extracted as a linear equation,
then RT & vT are slope and intercept respectively.
i
f (i) RT i vT
+
Thevenin parameters
v = f(i) vT
RN RT & iN
RN
-
Norton parameters

Murat Fahrioglu 15
 Deriving Thevenin & Norton Equivalent
Circuits:
If the circuit terminal law is extracted as a linear equation,
then RT & vT are slope and intercept respectively.
i
f (i) RT i vT
+
Thevenin parameters
v = f(i) vT
RN RT & iN
RN
-
Norton parameters

It follows that: vT f (0) open circuit voltage voc

i.e. one could open-circuit the terminals to find vT

Murat Fahrioglu 16
 Deriving Thevenin & Norton Equivalent
Circuits:
If the circuit terminal law is extracted as a linear equation,
then RT & vT are slope and intercept respectively.
i
f (i) RT i vT
+
Thevenin parameters
v = f(i) vT
RN RT & iN
RN
-
Norton parameters

It follows that: vT f (0) open circuit voltage voc

i.e. one could open-circuit the terminals to find vT

vT voc voc
It also follows that: f ( i ) 0 RT isc vT RT
isc isc iN
i.e. one could short-circuit the terminals to find iN and RT once voc is known
Murat Fahrioglu 17
 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Derivation:
Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits can be obtained by applying any 2
of the following 3 steps (1-3). [Applying all 3 is not necessary.]
1.
2.

3.

Murat Fahrioglu 18
 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Derivation:
Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits can be obtained by applying any 2
of the following 3 steps (1-3). [Applying all 3 is not necessary.]
1. Open-circuit the terminals and calculate the open circuit voltage voc
2.

3.

Murat Fahrioglu 19
 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Derivation:
Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits can be obtained by applying any 2
of the following 3 steps (1-3). [Applying all 3 is not necessary.]
1. Open-circuit the terminals and calculate the open circuit voltage voc
2. Short-circuit the terminals and calculate the short circuit current isc

3.

Murat Fahrioglu 20
 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Derivation:
Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits can be obtained by applying any 2
of the following 3 steps (1-3). [Applying all 3 is not necessary.]
1. Open-circuit the terminals and calculate the open circuit voltage voc
2. Short-circuit the terminals and calculate the short circuit current isc
voc
Thevenin equivalent may then be found from: vT voc ; RT
isc
voc
and Norton equivalent may be found from: iN isc ; RN RT
isc
3.

Murat Fahrioglu 21
 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Derivation:
Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits can be obtained by applying any 2
of the following 3 steps (1-3). [Applying all 3 is not necessary.]
1. Open-circuit the terminals and calculate the open circuit voltage voc
2. Short-circuit the terminals and calculate the short circuit current isc
voc
Thevenin equivalent may then be found from: vT voc ; RT
isc
voc
and Norton equivalent may be found from: iN isc ; RN RT
isc
3. A) Alternatively, equivalent Thevenin resistance, RT, and Norton
resistance, RN, can be computed as the resistance looking into the
terminals of the circuit when all internal sources have been killed (shut-
down). In this state, independent voltage sources are replaced by short
circuits, and independent current sources with open circuits. This
method can only be used when there are no dependent sources in the
circuit. RT RN Requivalent with sources killed
Murat Fahrioglu 22
 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Derivation:
Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits can be obtained by applying any 2
of the following 3 steps (1-3). [Applying all 3 is not necessary.]
1. Open-circuit the terminals and calculate the open circuit voltage voc
2. Short-circuit the terminals and calculate the short circuit current isc
voc
Thevenin equivalent may then be found from: vT voc ; RT
isc
voc
and Norton equivalent may be found from: iN isc ; RN RT
isc
3. B) When there are dependent sources in the circuit, enhance the
previous method (3A) by a test-like procedure. First deactivate all
independent sources (do not deactivate dependent sources). Then
apply a test voltage vt and a test current it to the terminals of interest.
Solve the circuit find the ratio between the two test parameters to get
the effective resistance. v
RT t
it
Murat Fahrioglu 23
 Thevenin Equivalent Example

Method (without dependent sources):
i. Open circuit the terminals AB of the
given circuit,
ii. Calculate the open circuit voltage
VAB seen at the terminals A and B,
iii. Remove (kill) all the sources in the
circuit,
iv. Calculate the equivalent resistance
RAB = Requiv. seen at the terminals A
and B

Given Circuit Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

R1 Requiv A
A

+ +
Vs VOC
R2 Vequiv RAB
R3

R4 B
B

Murat Fahrioglu 24
 Thevenin Equivalent Example
Calculation of Thevenin Equivalent Voltage Vequiv:

i. Open circuit the the terminals A-B,

ii. Calculate the voltage Voc seen at the
terminals A-B
Given Circuit Simplified Circuit
R1 R1
A A

+ +
Vs Vs R3 x R 4
R2 ----------- R2
R3 VOC R3 + R 4 VOC

R4 R3 // R4
B B

Murat Fahrioglu 25
 Thevenin Equivalent Example
Calculation of Thevenin Equivalent Voltage Vequiv:
An Alternative Representation
ii. Calculate the voltage Voc between
of the same Circuit
the terminals A-B
Current I
+
R2
Voltage Division Ratio = ----------------------------
R1 + R2 + ( R3 // R4 )
R1
R2 +
VOC = -------------------------- Vs Input Output
R1 + R2 + ( R3 // R4 ) Vs Voltage R2 V Voltage
OC

R3 // R4

Murat Fahrioglu 26
 Thevenin Equivalent Example
Calculation of Thevenin Equivalent Resistance Requiv:

iii. Remove (kill) all the sources in the A Circuit with Voltage Source
given circuit R1 A

The term: Killing Sources +

Vs
R3 R2
(a) Short Circuit all voltage sources
SC R4 B

Voltage Source Killed

A very Important Rule:
R1
Controlled (dependent) sources cannot be A
killed.
If you do, the result will be incorrect !
R3 R2
Hence, a circuit with these types of sources
can NOT be simplified by using the method of R4 B
killing sources and finding equivalent
resistance
Murat Fahrioglu 27
 Thevenin Equivalent Example
Calculation of Thevenin Equivalent Resistance Requiv:

iii. Remove (kill) all the sources in the A Circuit with Current Source
given circuit R1 A

The Term: Killing Sources

Is
(if we had current sources..) R3 R2
(b) Open Circuit all current sources
OC R4 B

Current Source Killed

A very Important Rule:
R1 A
Controlled (dependent) sources cannot be
killed.
If you do, the result will be incorrect ! R2
R3
Hence, a circuit with these types of sources
can NOT be simplified by using the method of R4 B
killing sources and finding equivalent
resistance
Murat Fahrioglu 28
 Thevenin Equivalent Example
Calculation of Thevenin Equivalent Resistance Requiv:

iii. Kill all the sources in the given circuit,

iv. Calculate the equivalent resistance RAB
seen from the terminals A and B
Given Circuit Calculate Requiv

R1 R1
A A

+
Vs R2
R2 R3
R3

R4 R4 B
B

Murat Fahrioglu 29
 Thevenin Equivalent Example
Calculation of Thevenin Equivalent Resistance Requiv:
R1 A
iv. Perform simplifications on the
resulting circuit in order to find
Requiv.
R2
R3 x R4
-----------
R3 + R4 R3 // R4
B

(R3 // R4) + R1 R2

Murat Fahrioglu 30
 Thevenin Equivalent Example
Calculation of Thevenin Equivalent Resistance Requiv:
A
iv. Perform simplifications on the
resulting circuit in order to find Requiv.

Requiv = (( R3 // R4 ) + R1 ) // R2 ((R3 // R4) + R1) // R2

= ( (R3 x R4 )/( R3 + R4 ) + R1 ) // R2
((R3 x R4 )/( R3 + R4 ) + R1 ) x R2 B
= ---------------------------------------------
((R3 x R4 )/( R3 + R4 ) + R1 ) + R2

Murat Fahrioglu 31
 Thevenin Equivalent Example
Resulting Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:

((R3 x R4 )/( R3 + R4 ) + R1 ) x R2 ((R3 x R4 )/( R3 + R4 ) + R1 ) x R2

Requiv = -------------------------------------------- Requiv = ---------------------------------------------
((R3 x R4 )/( R3 + R4 ) + R1 ) + R2
((R3 x R4 )/( R3 + R4 ) + R1 ) + R2 A

R2
VOC = -------------------------- Vs
R1 + R2 + ( R3 // R4 ) +
R2
VOC = -------------------------- Vs
R1 + R2 + ( R3 // R4 )
VT = VOC
RT = Requiv
B

Murat Fahrioglu 32
 Thevenin Equivalent Example
Determination of the Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
by using Open and Short Circuit Tests:
R1 Ammeter

Procedure A
a) Short circuit the terminals A +
and B and measure Isc
b) Open circuit the terminals A and Vs R3 R2
B and measure VOC ISC
R1 R4
A B
R1
+ A
Vs
R2 +
R3 Voltmeter

Vs R3 R2
VOC
R4 B R4
B

Murat Fahrioglu 33
 Thevenin Equivalent Example
Short Circuit Test:
Objective Procedure
The main objective of Short Circuit Test is to a) Short circuit the terminals A
determine the current Isc flowing when the and B of the given circuit,
terminals A and B are shorted b) Measure the current ISC
flowing through the short
R1 Ammeter circuit
A
ISC
+
R2
Vs Vs
R3 ISC = ----------------------
R1 + ( R3 // R4 )

R4
B

Murat Fahrioglu 34
 Thevenin Equivalent Example
Open Circuit Test:
Objective
The main objective of Open Circuit Test is to
determine the voltage at the terminals A and B
when these terminals are open-circuited
R1
A
Procedure
a) Open circuit the terminals of
the given circuit,
b) Measure the voltage VOC
between the terminals A and
B of the given circuit

+
R2 Voltmeter
I voltmeter R2
Vs (negligible)
VOC VOC = -------------------------- Vs
R3 R1 + R2 + ( R3 // R4 )

R4
B

Murat Fahrioglu 35
 Thevenin Equivalent Example
Determination of the Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
by using Open and Short Circuit Tests:
R1
A Procedure
+ a) Divide VOC by ISC and find
Vs RT=Requivalent,
R3 R2
b) VT=Vequivalent = VOC
ISC
R4
B Requiv

}
A
R1
A
+
+
Vequiv
Vs R3 R2
VOC

R4 B
B

Murat Fahrioglu 36
 Example 2
6 4
Find Thevenin and Norton equivalents: i

+ +

v1 12
v 24 V
-
-

Murat Fahrioglu 37
 Example 2
6 4
Find Thevenin and Norton equivalents: i

(Note: Since not specified, assume want the equivalent + +

of the circuit to the right of the open terminals.) 12
v v1
24 V
Solution Step 1 : -
-

1. Open-circuit the terminals (i=0):

i=0 6 4
12
+ + voc v1 24V . 18V vT
v1 12 12 4
voc 24 V
-
-

Murat Fahrioglu 38
 Example 2
6 4
Find Thevenin and Norton equivalents: i

(Note: Since not specified, assume want the equivalent + +

of the circuit to the right of the open terminals.) 12
v v1
24 V
Solution Step 2 : -
-

1. Open-circuit the terminals (i=0):

i=0 6 4
12
+ + voc v1 24V . 18V vT
v1 12 12 4
voc 24 V
-
-

2. Short-circuit the terminals (v=0):

6 12
isc 6 4 R6 12 4
+
6 12
v1 12 4
24 V v1 24V . 12V
- 8
12V voc 18V
isc 2 A RT 9
6 isc 2A
Murat Fahrioglu 39
 Example 2
6 4
Find Thevenin and Norton equivalents: i

(Note: Since not specified, assume want the equivalent + +

of the circuit to the right of the open terminals.) 12
v v1
24 V

Thus, equivalent circuits are: -

-

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit: Norton Equivalent Circuit:

i i

RT=9 + +

v
R N= v
vT=18V 9
iN=2A
- -

Murat Fahrioglu 40
 Example 3 (Johnson & Johnson Exercise 2.6 Page 54)
Find the Thevenin equivalent of circuits to the right of line c-d, to the left
of line a-b, and use the results to find the value of v1 :
2 k a 0.5 k 1 k 1 k
c

- v1 +

6 k 2 k 1 k
12 V
1 mA 4 mA
b d

Murat Fahrioglu 41
 Example 3 (Johnson & Johnson Exercise 2.6 Page 54)
Find the Thevenin equivalent of circuits to the right of line c-d, to the left
of line a-b, and use the results to find the value of v1 :
2 k a 0.5 k 1 k 1 k
c

- v1 +

6 k 2 k 1 k
12 V
1 mA 4 mA
b d

Thevenin equivalent to the right of c-d:

1. Kill sources:
1 k 1 k
c

Req
6 k 2 k 1 k

Murat Fahrioglu 42
 Example 3 (Johnson & Johnson Exercise 2.6 Page 54)
Find the Thevenin equivalent of circuits to the right of line c-d, to the left
of line a-b, and use the results to find the value of v1 :
2 k a 0.5 k 1 k 1 k
c

- v1 +

6 k 2 k 1 k
12 V
1 mA 4 mA
b d

Thevenin equivalent to the right of c-d:

1. Kill sources: 2.2
R11 2 1k
c
1 k 1 k
22
Req
6 k 2 k 1 k

Murat Fahrioglu 43
 Example 3 (Johnson & Johnson Exercise 2.6 Page 54)
Find the Thevenin equivalent of circuits to the right of line c-d, to the left
of line a-b, and use the results to find the value of v1 :
2 k a 0.5 k 1 k 1 k
c

- v1 +

6 k 2 k 1 k
12 V
1 mA 4 mA
b d

Thevenin equivalent to the right of c-d:

1. Kill sources: 2.2
R11 2 1k
c
1 k 1 k
22
Req
6.2
6 k 2 k 1 k
Req R11 6 1.5k RT
d
62

Murat Fahrioglu 44
 Example 3 (Johnson & Johnson Exercise 2.6 Page 54)
Find the Thevenin equivalent of circuits to the right of line c-d, to the left
of line a-b, and use the results to find the value of v1 :
2 k a 0.5 k 1 k 1 k
c

- v1 +

6 k 2 k 1 k
12 V
1 mA 4 mA
b d

Thevenin equivalent to the right of c-d:

1. Kill sources: 2.2
R11 2 1k
c
1 k 1 k
22
Req
6.2
6 k 2 k 1 k
Req R11 6 1.5k RT
d
62

2. Open-circuit terminals (c-d):

1 k 1 k
c

6 k 2 k 1 k
vT voc I RT 4mA 1.5k 6V
voc

4 mA
- d
Murat Fahrioglu 45
 Example 3 (Johnson & Johnson Exercise 2.6 Page 54)
Find the Thevenin equivalent of circuits to the right of line c-d, to the left
of line a-b, and use the results to find the value of v1 :
2 k a 0.5 k 1 k 1 k
c

- v1 +

6 k 2 k 1 k
12 V
1 mA 4 mA
b d

Thevenin equivalent to the left of a-b:

2 k a
1. Kill sources:
short-ckt
voltage
open-ckt
current
Req
RT 2 2k
source source
b

Murat Fahrioglu 46
 Example 3 (Johnson & Johnson Exercise 2.6 Page 54)
Find the Thevenin equivalent of circuits to the right of line c-d, to the left
of line a-b, and use the results to find the value of v1 :
2 k a 0.5 k 1 k 1 k
c

- v1 +

6 k 2 k 1 k
12 V
1 mA 4 mA
b d

Thevenin equivalent to the left of a-b:

2 k a
1. Kill sources:
short-ckt
voltage
open-ckt
current
Req
RT 2 2k
source source
b

2. Open-circuit terminals (a-b):

2 k a
+

12 V
voc vT 2 12V 2k 1mA 14V
1 mA
b -

Murat Fahrioglu 47
 Example 3 (Johnson & Johnson Exercise 2.6 Page 54)
Find the Thevenin equivalent of circuits to the right of line c-d, to the left
of line a-b, and use the results to find the value of v1 :
2 k a 0.5 k 1 k 1 k
c

- v1 +

6 k 2 k 1 k
12 V
1 mA 4 mA
b d

Use the two equivalent circuits to reduce the circuit and find v1:

2 k a 0.5 k 1.5 k
c
0.5k
- v1 + v1 8V 1V
4k
14 V 6V

b d Note the negative sign comes from

the direction of the v1 voltage as given
in the problem.

Murat Fahrioglu 48
 Theoretical Sources
An ideal voltage and current source can theoretically deliver infinite power:

2
v
iL PL S

vs RL
RL
As RL 0, PL

PL i RL
2
S
iS RL
As RL , PL

Murat Fahrioglu 49
 Practical Sources
In reality there are always resistive drops associated with practical voltage
and current sources, which can be modeled using Thevenin & Norton
equivalent circuits respectively.
2
iL vS RL 1 vS2 RL
PL
RS
RL RS RL RL R S 2

vs
RL
As RL 0, PL 0

iL 2
RS
PL iS RL
RS RL RL RS
iS
As RL , PL 0

Murat Fahrioglu 50
 Example (2.7.3 Johnson & Johnson P:61)
An automobile battery in a poor state of charge has an open-circuit voltage of
+11.5 V dc and when loaded by the starter motor, which we model as a 0.8-
resistor, supplies 10 V across the starter motor terminals. Determine the power
delivered to the load and the power being dissipated internally in the source
resistance under these conditions.

Murat Fahrioglu 51
 Example (2.7.3 Johnson & Johnson P:61)
An automobile battery in a poor state of charge has an open-circuit voltage of
+11.5 V dc and when loaded by the starter motor, which we model as a 0.8-
resistor, supplies 10 V across the starter motor terminals. Determine the power
delivered to the load and the power being dissipated internally in the source
resistance under these conditions.

Solution: + vS -

RS
First draw out the circuit: VL2 100
+
10 V 0.8 PL 125W
11.5 V RL 0.8
-

Voltage Division:
0.8 11.5 0.8
10 11.5 RS 0.8 0.12
RS 0.8 10

PS
VS2

11.5V 10V
18.75W
2

RS 0.12

Murat Fahrioglu 52
 Example 2 (2.7.2 Johnson & Johnson P:61)
A 500-mA fuse is located in the wire connecting a power supply to its load. If the
power supply has an open-circuit voltage of +100 V dc and a source resistance
of 30 , what is the range of acceptable load resistances that will not cause the
fuse to blow?

Murat Fahrioglu 53
 Example 2 (2.7.2 Johnson & Johnson P:61)
A 500-mA fuse is located in the wire connecting a power supply to its load. If the
power supply has an open-circuit voltage of +100 V dc and a source resistance
of 30 , what is the range of acceptable load resistances that will not cause the
fuse to blow?

Solution:
30
First draw out the circuit: imax=0.5A
RL
100 V

100
i 0.5 A for the fuse not to blow
30 RL
RL
100 15
2
170 RL

Murat Fahrioglu 54
 Example (Based on N & R Problem 4.74)
When an ammeter is used to measure the current i in the circuit shown
below, it reads 10 A.
a) What is the resistance of the ammeter?
b) What is the percentage of error in the current measurement?

144

Murat Fahrioglu 55
 Example (Based on N & R Problem 4.74)
When an ammeter is used to measure the current i in the circuit shown
below, it reads 10 A.
a) What is the resistance of the ammeter?
b) What is the percentage of error in the current measurement?

Solution:
Note the ammeter needs to be placed in
series with the 50 resistor if it is to
144 measure i.
First, lets simplify the circuit connected to
the terminals of the 50 resistor to a
Thevenin equivalent.

1. Open-circuit @ the 50 terminals (i =0):

Through KCL:

Murat Fahrioglu 56
 Example (Based on N & R Problem 4.74)
When an ammeter is used to measure the current i in the circuit shown
below, it reads 10 A.
a) What is the resistance of the ammeter?
b) What is the percentage of error in the current measurement?

Solution:

2. Short-circuit @ the 50 terminals (vab=0):

144

3. Therefore the reduced circuit is:

The above currents can be calculated

through Ohms and current division.
Then,

Murat Fahrioglu 57
 Example (Based on N & R Problem 4.74)
When an ammeter is used to measure the current i in the circuit shown
below, it reads 10 A.
a) What is the resistance of the ammeter?
b) What is the percentage of error in the current measurement?

Solution:
Given the reduced circuit:

144

a) Since the ammeter measures i =10 A:

Therefore,

b) Actual current (if ammeter was not connected in series):

Murat Fahrioglu 58
 Example (Based on N & R Problem 4.74)
When an ammeter is used to measure the current i in the circuit shown
below, it reads 10 A.
a) What is the resistance of the ammeter?
b) What is the percentage of error in the current measurement?

Question: How would we find RTh through

the Step 3(B) of the Thevenin/Norton
derivation guidelines presented earlier?
144

Murat Fahrioglu 59
 Example (Based on N & R Problem 4.74)
When an ammeter is used to measure the current i in the circuit shown
below, it reads 10 A.
a) What is the resistance of the ammeter?
b) What is the percentage of error in the current measurement?

Question: How would we find RTh through

the Step 3(B) of the Thevenin/Norton
derivation guidelines presented earlier?
144
- Kill independent sources, apply a test
current it, and find R = vt/it

i1 i3
-10it
96

redraw
16 96 144
-10it
+
40
80
144 10
it vt it

i2
-
Murat Fahrioglu 60
 Example (Based on N & R Problem 4.74)
When an ammeter is used to measure the current i in the circuit shown
below, it reads 10 A.
a) What is the resistance of the ammeter?
b) What is the percentage of error in the current measurement?

Question: How would we find RTh through

the Step 3(B) of the Thevenin/Norton
derivation guidelines presented earlier?
144
- Kill independent sources, apply a test
current it, and find R = vt/it

i1 i3 Through KCL and KVL :

96

i2 i1 it 0 ...(1) 10it i1 i3 0 ...(2)
144
96i1 10i2 144i3 ...(3) vt 10i2 ...(4)
-10it
+ vt
RTh 48
10

vt it it
i2
-

Murat Fahrioglu 61
 Example: Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge

Example Please note that the bridge is unbalanced, i.e.

current flows in the ammmeter
Calculate the value of the
unknown resistance Rx in the
unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge
shown on the RHS, if the current
read by the ammeter is 5 Amp. Ammeter
Vs = 100 V
50
Since 5 Amp passes through the
ammeter, the bridge is unbalanced,
hence, cross multiplication of
branches are not equal

Murat Fahrioglu 62
 Example: Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge

Ammeter

Solution

First, take out the ammeter and 50

Ohm resistance connected to
terminals C and D

Murat Fahrioglu 63
 Example: Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge

Ammeter

Solution

Determine the Thevenin Equivalent of

the source side of the circuit, i.e. the
rest of the circuit after the ammeter
and 50 Ohm resistance are taken out

1. Kill all the sources in the given Vs = 100 V

circuit
The Term: Killing Sources
Means Short Circuiting the voltage
source in the circuit on the RHS

Murat Fahrioglu 64
 Example: Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge

Ammeter
Solution

Determine the Thevenin Equivalent of

the source side of the circuit, i.e. rest
of the circuit after the ammeter and 50
Ohm resistance are taken out

2. Calculate the equivalent

resistance of the rest of the circuit

Murat Fahrioglu 65
 Example: Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge

Ammeter
Solution

Determine the Thevenin Equivalent of

the source side of the circuit, i.e. the rest
of the circuit after the ammeter and 50 Req
Ohm resistance are taken out

2. Calculate the equivalent resistance

of the rest of the circuit

Murat Fahrioglu 66
 Example: Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge

Ammeter

Solution

Determine the Thevenin Equivalent of the

source side of the circuit, i.e. the rest of the
circuit after the ammeter and 50 Ohm Req1 Req2
resistance are taken out

Req = Req1 + Req2

= ( RX // Rb ) + ( R1 // R2 )
= (Rx x100)/(Rx+100) +(100 x 20)/(100+20)

Murat Fahrioglu 67
 Example: Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge

Solution Thevenin Equivalent Voltage

Determine the Thevenin Equivalent of VOC

the source side of the circuit, i.e. the rest
of the circuit after the ammeter and 50
Ohm resistance are taken out

2. Restore back the source,

3. Open circuit the terminals C and D
and calculate the Thevenin
Equivalent Voltage

VC = 100 V x 100 /(100 + Rx)

VD = 100 V x 20 / (100 + 20)
VOC = VC VD = 100 (100/(100+Rx)- 100/6)

Murat Fahrioglu 68
 Example: Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge

Solution

Draw the Thevenin Equivalent Circuit Req.= (Rx x 100)/(100 + Rx) + 100/6
C I=5A
VOC = VC VD = 100(100/(100+Rx )-100/6)

Req. = (Rx x100)/(100 + Rx ) + 100/6 50

VOC = 100(100/(100+Rx) -100/6)
+ Ammeter
I = VOC / ( Req. + 50 Ohm )
= (100(100/(100 +Rx) -100/6)) /(Req. +50)
= 5 Amp

D
Solve this equation for Rx

Murat Fahrioglu 69
 Maximum Power Transfer
Maximizing the amount of power transferred from a power source to a load is
important, and is a major focus area in system design. The power not
transferred to the load for useful work is wasted:

- Typically the wasted power goes to generating heat, in which case

system cost may increase due to the addition of a cooling solution

- In mobile systems, battery gets depleted faster if excessive power is

wasted

- In communications, the load needs to receive some minimum amount of

power before the link is healthy (voice/image quality)

- In power utility systems, the electric power lost in generation,

transmission, and distribution becomes very significant if efficiency is low
due to large amounts of power

Murat Fahrioglu 70
 Maximum Power Transfer Condition

Question:
Determine the value of the resistance in the
following circuit in order to transfer maximum power
from the source side to the load side

Given Circuit
R1
A Resistance
RL

+
Vs R2
R3

R4 B

Murat Fahrioglu 71
 Maximum Power Transfer Condition

Question:
Determine the value of the resistance in the
following circuit in order to transfer maximum power
from the source side to the load side
Solution: First simplify the circuit to its Thevenin
Equivalent Form as shown on the RHS
Given Circuit Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Requiv
R1 A
A Resistance Resistance
RL RL

+ +
Vs R2 Vequiv
R3

R4 B B

Murat Fahrioglu 72
 Maximum Power Transfer Condition

Solution: Two Extreme Cases; Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

Case 1 (Resistance is short circuited) Requiv
A I Resistance
RL = 0 RL

In this case the load power will be zero

since; +
P = RL x I2 Vequiv
= RL x (Vequiv / (Requiv + 0))2
= 0 x (Vequiv / Requiv )2 = 0
B
Case 2 (Resistance is open circuited)
RL =
In this case the load power will again tend
to be zero since;
P=xI2
= x (Vequiv /( + Requiv ))2 = 0

Murat Fahrioglu 73
 Maximum Power Transfer Condition

Mathematical Fact Graphical Illustration

120.00
A function passing through zero Extramum point
at two distinct points possesses 100.00

at least one extremum point 80.00

between these points
60.00

40.00

20.00

0.00
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00 20.00 22.00 24.00
-20.00

-40.00

-60.00

-80.00

Murat Fahrioglu 74
 Maximum Power Transfer Condition

Graphical Representation Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

P = RL x I2 = RL x (Vequiv / (Requiv + RL))2

6 Resistance
Power Drawn P (Watt)

Requiv = 5 Ohm I RL
A
5

4
+
3 Vequiv = 10 V
Maximum Power Pmax
2

1 B

0 5 10 15 20
RL (Ohm)
Optimum Value of RL

Murat Fahrioglu 75
 Maximizing Power Transfer
Assume the below model, where the Thevenin voltage source and the resistor
on the left is the equivalent of a more complex circuit delivering power to a
resistive load represented by RL. How should we design the load (RL=?) in
order to maximize the power delivered to it?
RTh

2
vTh RL
pL i RL
2
vTh RL L
RTh RL 2

To find the RL that gives the maximum power:

2vTh
2 2

Th RTh RL 2 RL 0
dpL RL vTh
0 v 2

dRL RTh RL 3 RTh RL 2

RTh RL 2 RL 0 RL RTh

To confirm RL=RTh corresponds to a maximum:

2 2
d 2 pL 6vTh RL 4vTh d 2 pL
when RL RTh , 0 i.e. maximum point
dRL 2
RTh RL RTh RL
4 3
dRL 2
76
Murat Fahrioglu
 Maximizing Power Transfer
Assume the below model, where the Thevenin voltage source and the resistor
on the left is the equivalent of a more complex circuit delivering power to a
resistive load represented by RL. How should we design the load (RL=?) in
order to maximize the power delivered to it?
RTh

For maximum power delivery:

vTh RL
RL RTh

This is a significant result:

To maximize power delivery, the load resistance needs to be matched to the
effective source resistance.

Murat Fahrioglu 77
 Analysis Methods
Will next develop systematic ways of solving any linear circuit
completely.
Linearity is assumed to reduce complexity of the methods
Source function of linear elements: y k x
When discussing dependent sources, we will assume sources of this
nature as well
Also assume proportionality property: K y k ( K x)
Op-Amps in feedback mode will be linear.
The following type of terminal laws also obey linearity and
proportionality:
dx d
yk K y k K x
dt dt

y k x(t )dt K y k K x dt
Murat Fahrioglu 78
 Superposition
Given a circuit with variables xis (currents and voltages), linear
scaling parameters ais, and the net source value ya, KCL or KVL
will result in an equation of type :
a1 x1a a2 x2a ... an xna ya
Similarly, if another source yb is applied to the circuit:
a1 x1b a2 x2b ... an xnb yb
Note ais are unchanged because the linear elements and the
connection among them are unchanged.
If the two sources are applied together, then the response to the
new circuit is the summation of the individual responses:

a1 x1a x1b a2 x2a x2b ... an xna xnb ya yb
Principle of superposition: The overall response of a circuit
containing several sources is the sum of the responses to each
individual source with the other sources killed.
Murat Fahrioglu 79
 Principle of Superposition

Method I1 I1 SC
I5 IS I2
Kill all the sources except one,
Solve the resulting circuit, I6
I4 I3 I2
SC
Restore back the killed source, I7
Kill another source,
Repeate this procedure for all sources, I1 I1 SC
Sum up all the solutions found I5 I2
Vs +
I6 I4 OC I3 I2
I1 I1 Vs + I7
I5 IS I2
I1 I1 + Vs
Vs I5 IS I2
+ I4 I3 I2
I6 I7 SC I4 OC I3 I2
I6 I7

Murat Fahrioglu 80
 Example
Find the current I2 flowing in resistance Ia
R1
R2 in the following circuit by using the +
Principle of Superposition Vs OC R2

Kill the current source and solve the resulting cct

Ia = Vs / ( R1 + R2 )
Kill the voltage source and solve the resulting cct
R1 Ib

R1 I2 SC Is R2
+
Vs Is
R2

Ib = IS x g2 /(g1 + g2 ) g1=1/R1, g2=1/R2

Sum up the resulting currents I2 = Ia + Ib

Murat Fahrioglu 81
 Example : Based on 4.3 (Johnson & Johnson P:123)
Solve for the circuit variables i1 and i2 by applying the principle of
superposition to the two sources.
i2
2

i1

6V 4 3A

Murat Fahrioglu 82
 Example : Based on 4.3 (Johnson & Johnson P:123)
Solve for the circuit variables i1 and i2 by applying the principle of
superposition to the two sources.
i2
2
1. Kill the current source to solve for component a:
i 2a
2 6V
i1 i1a 1A
4 3A i1a (2 4)
6V
6V 4

i2a i1a 1A

Murat Fahrioglu 83
 Example : Based on 4.3 (Johnson & Johnson P:123)
Solve for the circuit variables i1 and i2 by applying the principle of
superposition to the two sources.
i2
2
1. Kill the current source to solve for component a:
i 2a
2 6V
i1 i1a 1A
4 3A i1a (2 4)
6V
6V 4

i2a i1a 1A
2. Kill the voltage source to solve for component b:
2 i 2b
2
i1b 3 A 1A
i1b (2 4)
4 3A
4
i2b 3 A 2A
(2 4)

Murat Fahrioglu 84
 Example : Based on 4.3 (Johnson & Johnson P:123)
Dependent sources are not killed when applying superposition.
Power
i2
2
1. Kill the current source to solve for component a:
i 2a
2 6V
i1 i1a 1A
4 3A i1a (2 4)
6V
6V 4

i2a i1a 1A
2. Kill the voltage source to solve for component b:
2 i 2b
2
i1b 3 A 1A
i1b (2 4)
4 3A
4
i2b 3 A 2A
(2 4)
3. Apply the superposition principle (each response is sum of its components):
i1 i1a i1b 1A 1A 2 A
i2 i2a i2b 1A 2 A 1A 85
Murat Fahrioglu
 Superposition

Dependent sources are NOT killed when using the superposition

method for calculating circuit parameters.

Even in linear circuits power does not superpose since it is not a

linear function of voltage and current. Power needs to be
calculated last once all the components are summed.

Murat Fahrioglu 86
 Example (4.5 Johnson & Johnson P:126)
Find the voltage v and the power dissipated by the 3 resistor.
i1 12 V
+
v 3
-
1 6A
2i1 +
-

Murat Fahrioglu 87
 Example (4.5 Johnson & Johnson P:126)
Find the voltage v and the power dissipated by the 3 resistor.
i1 12 V
1. Kill the current source to solve for component a:
+
3 i 1a
v 12 V
KVL & Ohms Law:
+
1
-
6A va 3 i1a 12 3i1a 2i1a 0
-
+ 1
2i1
- a + i1a 2 A
2i1
- Ohms Law:
v a 3i1a 6V

Murat Fahrioglu 88
 Example (4.5 Johnson & Johnson P:126)
Find the voltage v and the power dissipated by the 3 resistor.
i1 12 V
1. Kill the current source to solve for component a:
+
3 i 1a
v 12 V
KVL & Ohms Law:
+
1
-
6A va 3 i1a 12 3i1a 2i1a 0
-
+ 1
2i1
- a + i1a 2 A
2i1
- Ohms Law:
v a 3i1a 6V
2. Kill the voltage source (independent source only!) to solve for component b:
i 1b
KCL: KVL & Ohms Law:
+
i1b 3i2b 2i1b 0
i 6i 0
vb 3 b b
- 2 1
1
i1b 3(i1b 6) 2i1b 0 i1b 3 A
b
i 2 6A
2i
1
b +
- i i 6
b
2
b
1
Ohms Law: v 3(6 i1 ) 9V
b b

Murat Fahrioglu 89
 Example (4.5 Johnson & Johnson P:126)
Find the voltage v and the power dissipated by the 3 resistor.
i1 12 V
1. Kill the current source to solve for component a:
+
3 i 1a
v 12 V
KVL & Ohms Law:
+
1
-
6A va 3 i1a 12 3i1a 2i1a 0
-
+ 1
2i1
- a + i1a 2 A
2i1
- Ohms Law:
v a 3i1a 6V
2. Kill the voltage source (independent source only!) to solve for component b:
i 1b
KCL: KVL & Ohms Law:
+
i1b 3i2b 2i1b 0
i 6i 0
vb 3 b b
- 2 1
1
i1b 3(i1b 6) 2i1b 0 i1b 3 A
b
i 2 6A
2i
1
b +
- i i 6
b
2
b
1
Ohms Law: v 3(6 i1 ) 9V
b b

3. By superposition of component voltages:

v v a vb 15V

Murat Fahrioglu 90
 Example (4.5 Johnson & Johnson P:126)
Find the voltage v and the power dissipated by the 3 resistor.
i1 12 V
1. Kill the current source to solve for component a:
+
3 i 1a
v 12 V
KVL & Ohms Law:
+
1
-
6A va 3 i1a 12 3i1a 2i1a 0
-
+ 1
2i1
- a + i1a 2 A
2i1
- Ohms Law:
v a 3i1a 6V
2. Kill the voltage source (independent source only!) to solve for component b:
i 1b
KCL: KVL & Ohms Law:
+
i1b 3i2b 2i1b 0
i 6i 0
vb 3 b b
- 2 1
1
i1b 3(i1b 6) 2i1b 0 i1b 3 A
b
i 2 6A
2i
1
b +
- i i 6
b
2
b
1
Ohms Law: v 3(6 i1 ) 9V
b b

3. By superposition of component voltages: 4. Power through the 3 resistor:

v v v 15V
a b v2 152
p 75V
R 3
Murat Fahrioglu 91
 Example (4.5 Johnson & Johnson P:126)
Find the voltage v and the power dissipated by the 3 resistor.
i1 12 V
1. Kill the current source to solve for component a:
+
3 i 1a
v 12 V
KVL & Ohms Law:
+
1
-
6A va 3 i1a 12 3i1a 2i1a 0
-
+ 1
2i1
- a + i1a 2 A
2i1
- Ohms Law:
v a 3i1a 6V
2. Kill the voltage source (independent source only!) to solve for component b:
i 1b
KCL: KVL & Ohms Law:
+
i1b 3i2b 2i1b 0
i 6i 0
vb 3 b b
- 2 1
1
i1b 3(i1b 6) 2i1b 0 i1b 3 A
b
i 2 6A
2i
1
b +
- i i 6
b
2
b
1
Ohms Law: v 3(6 i1 ) 9V
b b

3. By superposition of component voltages: 4. Power through the 3 resistor:

v v a vb 15V Note: Superposition of
component a and b powers
Murat Fahrioglu
does not give the right answer 92
 Example (4.2.3 Johnson & Johnson P:127)
Find v and i1 by superposition in the following circuit:
+
4 4
2
v
12 V 12 V
4i1 +
-
i1
-

Murat Fahrioglu 93
 Example (4.2.3 Johnson & Johnson P:127)
Find v and i1 by superposition in the following circuit:
+
4 4 1. Kill the 1st voltage source (component a):
2
+
v i a
4 a 4
KVL :
12 V 2 3 i
12 V
4i1 + 2
12 4i1a 4i2a 4i1a 0
- va
i2a 3 A
12 V
i1 +
- 4 i1a -
KCL:
i1a -
i2a i1a i3a 3 A...(1)
Ohms: v 2i3 ...(2) va 4i1a 4i2a 4i1a 12...(3)
a a

Using (1) & (2): va 2 (3 i1a ) 6 2i1a ...(4)

Using (3) & (4): 4i1a 12 6 2i1a i1a 3 A va 0V

Murat Fahrioglu 94
 Example (4.2.3 Johnson & Johnson P:127)
Find v and i1 by superposition in the following circuit:
+
4 4 1. Kill the 1st voltage source (component a):
2
+
v i a
4 a 4
KVL :
12 V 2 3 i
12 V
4i1 + 2
12 4i1a 4i2a 4i1a 0
- va
i2a 3 A
12 V
i1 +
- 4 i1a -
KCL:
i1a -
i2a i1a i3a 3 A...(1)
Ohms: v 2i3 ...(2) va 4i1a 4i2a 4i1a 12...(3)
a a

Using (1) & (2): va 2 (3 i1a ) 6 2i1a ...(4)

Using (3) & (4): 4i1a 12 6 2i1a i1a 3 A va 0V

2. Kill the 2nd voltage source (component b):

b
+ KVL : v b
12 2i3
b
4i1
b
4i1
b
4i2
b
i2 0A
b

2 3
i 4 b
i2 4
KCL : i3 i1 . From above: i1b 2 A so, vb 8V
b b

vb
12 V
+
i 1
b 4i1b -

Murat Fahrioglu 95
 Example (4.2.3 Johnson & Johnson P:127)
Find v and i1 by superposition in the following circuit:
+
4 4 1. Kill the 1st voltage source (component a):
2
+
v i a
4 a 4
KVL :
12 V 2 3 i
12 V
4i1 + 2
12 4i1a 4i2a 4i1a 0
- va
i2a 3 A
12 V
i1 +
- 4 i1a -
KCL:
i1a -
i2a i1a i3a 3 A...(1)
Ohms: v 2i3 ...(2) va 4i1a 4i2a 4i1a 12...(3)
a a

Using (1) & (2): va 2 (3 i1a ) 6 2i1a ...(4)

Using (3) & (4): 4i1a 12 6 2i1a i1a 3 A va 0V

2. Kill the 2nd voltage source (component b):

b
+ KVL : v b
12 2i3
b
4i1
b
4i1
b
4i2
b
i2 0A
b

2 3
i 4 b
i2 4
KCL : i3 i1 . From above: i1b 2 A so, vb 8V
b b

vb
12 V
+
i b 4i1b - 3. By superposition of components:
v va vb 8V i1 i1a i1b 1A
1
-

Murat Fahrioglu 96
 Node (Junction)

Definition Circuit Representation of Node (Junction)

A node is a point at which two or more Current I1

branches are connected
Current In
Current I2
Basic Rule

Currents entering a node obey Kirchoffs Current In-1

Current Law (KCL)
Power System Representation of Node (Junction)
i=n

Ii = 0 Current I1
i =1 Current In Current I2

Current In-1

Murat Fahrioglu 97
 Ground Node (Earth Point)

+ V1 + V2
Definition R1 R2
Ground Node is the point
(junction) at which the voltage is
R3 R4
assumed to be zero + + +
All other voltages takes their Vs
references with respect to this V3 V4
ground node
Representation Ground Node

V=0

Murat Fahrioglu 98
 Ground Node (Earth Point)
Definition
Ground Node is the point (junction) at which the
voltage is assumed to be zero
All other voltages takes their references with
respect to this ground node

Ground Node
(Black Terminal )

Measured Node
(Red Terminal )

Many circuit elements are connected to a reference plane that is a metallic base or
chasis. Usually the chasis or reference plane is shorted to the earth itself. We call
this node the ground node or the ground or the reference node.
Murat Fahrioglu 99
 Solution of an Electrical System

Solution of an electrical system means calculation of all node voltages

Node BULGARIA

HABPLE
BLACK SEA BATU
GEORGIA
M AKHALTSIKHE
BABAE R
SKHAMTAB
AT G.O.PA
KTEL A
L AMASRA
DAVUTPAA
ALTINKA
OSMANCA HO
YA ARAMBA
YILDIZT PAAK PA
M.ERELS MRAN EREL BORK
EPE Y
AMBAR YE BOYABAT A GUMRI
ANKIRI DERNE
LI TEPE R
ADA-
REN GEBZE
ADAPAZ YDERE YUSUFEL KARS
TREBOL
ARI AYIRHAN KAYABAI H.UURLU TOZKY
U
BG SNCAN
A BUR OF-SOLAKLI
GLB I
BALIK SA BABEK
ESR SEYTMER GKEKAYA AI DI
TUNBLEK R
KANGAL HORASAN
ZLCE D.BEYAZIT
SOMA
TEMELL KAYSER ERZURUM
KEBA
N BAZARGAN

Line
ALA
MANSA AFYON IRAN
A ELBSTAN
KARAKAYA
KHOY
ZM IIKLAR YELHSAR
R DYARBAKIR
DENZL KONYA
BATMAN ALKUMRUETN
GERMENCK ATATRK
DOANLI
ILISU HAKKAR
YENK SEYDEHR ANDIRIN .URFA
KIZILTEPE
Y YATAAN CZRE PS3
KEMERKY G.ANTEP ZAKHO
ADANA
ERZN
OYMAPINAR ERMENEK
VARSAK
KAYRAKTEPE SKENDERUN
BRECK KESEK IRAQ

2002
TPP (PLANNED)
AKKUYU
ALEPPO - HALEP TPP (EXISTING)
HPP (PLANNED)
HPP (EXISTING)
SYRIA
MEDITERRANEAN SEA 400 kV TL (EXISTING)
400 kV TL (PLANNING)
220 kV TL
154 kVTL

Murat Fahrioglu 100

 Nodal Analysis Method

Select a reference node and define the voltage at each of the

nonreference nodes with respect to the reference node. Call
this the node voltage.

Murat Fahrioglu 101

 Nodal Analysis Method

Select a reference node and define the voltage at each of the

nonreference nodes with respect to the reference node. Call
this the node voltage.

In nodal analysis method, analyze the node voltages first, and

derive the other circuit variables (currents and voltages) next.

Murat Fahrioglu 102

 Nodal Analysis Method

Select a reference node and define the voltage at each of the

nonreference nodes with respect to the reference node. Call
this the node voltage.

In nodal analysis method, analyze the node voltages first, and

derive the other circuit variables (currents and voltages) next.
Node 1
i R Node 2 v v1 v2
v1 v2
v v1 v2
+ + v - + Ohms Law: i G(v1 v2 )
R R
v1 v2 The current from Node 1 to Node 2 through a
- - resistor is the difference in node voltages
v3 divided by the resistance R, or multiplied by the
Node 3
(reference) conductance G.
Murat Fahrioglu 103
Circuits with Current Sources & Resistances
Node 1 v1 R2 v2 Node 2

i1
i2
ig2
ig1 i3
R1 R3

Node 3 (picked as reference)

Murat Fahrioglu 104

Circuits with Current Sources & Resistances
v1 R2 v2
Node 1 Node 2
Node 1 Node 2 R2
v1 v2
i1

i2
ig2
ig1 i3 R1 R3
R1 R3

ig1 ig2
Node 3 (picked as reference)
Node 3
(reference)

Murat Fahrioglu 105

Circuits with Current Sources & Resistances
v1 R2 v2
Node 1 Node 2
Node 1 Node 2 R2
v1 v2
i1

i2
ig2
ig1 i3 R1 R3
R1 R3

ig1 ig2
Node 3 (picked as reference)
Node 3
KCL at Node 1: i1 i2 ig1 0 (reference)
In terms of node voltages: G1v1 G2 (v1 v2 ) ig1 0

Murat Fahrioglu 106

Circuits with Current Sources & Resistances
v1 R2 v2
Node 1 Node 2
Node 1 Node 2 R2
v1 v2
i1

i2
ig2
ig1 i3 R1 R3
R1 R3

ig1 ig2
Node 3 (picked as reference)
Node 3
KCL at Node 1: i1 i2 ig1 0 (reference)
In terms of node voltages: G1v1 G2 (v1 v2 ) ig1 0
KCL at Node 2: i2 i3 ig 2 0
G2 (v2 v1 ) G3v2 ig 2 0

Murat Fahrioglu 107

Circuits with Current Sources & Resistances
v1 R2 v2
Node 1 Node 2
Node 1 Node 2 R2
v1 v2
i1

i2
ig2
ig1 i3 R1 R3
R1 R3

ig1 ig2
Node 3 (picked as reference)
Node 3
KCL at Node 1: i1 i2 ig1 0 (reference)
In terms of node voltages: G1v1 G2 (v1 v2 ) ig1 0
KCL at Node 2: i2 i3 ig 2 0
G2 (v2 v1 ) G3v2 ig 2 0

Rearranging:
(G1 G2 )v1 G2v2 ig1

G2v1 (G2 G3 )v2 ig 2

Murat Fahrioglu 108

Circuits with Current Sources & Resistances
v1 R2 v2
Node 1 Node 2
Node 1 Node 2 R2
v1 v2
i1

i2
ig2
ig1 i3 R1 R3
R1 R3

ig1 ig2
Node 3 (picked as reference)
Node 3
KCL at Node 1: i1 i2 ig1 0 (reference)
In terms of node voltages: G1v1 G2 (v1 v2 ) ig1 0
KCL at Node 2: i2 i3 ig 2 0
G2 (v2 v1 ) G3v2 ig 2 0

Rearranging:

sum of conductances (G1 G2 )v1 G2v2 ig1

connected to node 1
G2v1 (G2 G3 )v2 ig 2

Murat Fahrioglu 109

Circuits with Current Sources & Resistances
v1 R2 v2
Node 1 Node 2
Node 1 Node 2 R2
v1 v2
i1

i2
ig2
ig1 i3 R1 R3
R1 R3

ig1 ig2
Node 3 (picked as reference)
Node 3
KCL at Node 1: i1 i2 ig1 0 (reference)
In terms of node voltages: G1v1 G2 (v1 v2 ) ig1 0
KCL at Node 2: i2 i3 ig 2 0
G2 (v2 v1 ) G3v2 ig 2 0
-ve conductance
Rearranging: Connecting node 1 & node 2

sum of conductances (G1 G2 )v1 G2v2 ig1

connected to node 1
G2v1 (G2 G3 )v2 ig 2

Murat Fahrioglu 110

Circuits with Current Sources & Resistances
v1 R2 v2
Node 1 Node 2
Node 1 Node 2 R2
v1 v2
i1

i2
ig2
ig1 i3 R1 R3
R1 R3

ig1 ig2
Node 3 (picked as reference)
Node 3
KCL at Node 1: i1 i2 ig1 0 (reference)
In terms of node voltages: G1v1 G2 (v1 v2 ) ig1 0
KCL at Node 2: i2 i3 ig 2 0
G2 (v2 v1 ) G3v2 ig 2 0
-ve conductance
Rearranging: Connecting node 1 & node 2

sum of conductances (G1 G2 )v1 G2v2 ig1 current entering node 1

connected to node 1
G2v1 (G2 G3 )v2 ig 2

Murat Fahrioglu 111

Circuits with Current Sources & Resistances
v1 R2 v2
Node 1 Node 2
Node 1 Node 2 R2
v1 v2
i1

i2
ig2
ig1 i3 R1 R3
R1 R3

ig1 ig2
Node 3 (picked as reference)
Node 3
KCL at Node 1: i1 i2 ig1 0 (reference)
In terms of node voltages: G1v1 G2 (v1 v2 ) ig1 0
KCL at Node 2: i2 i3 ig 2 0
G2 (v2 v1 ) G3v2 ig 2 0
-ve conductance
Rearranging: Connecting node 1 & node 2

sum of conductances (G1 G2 )v1 G2v2 ig1 current entering node 1

connected to node 1
G2v1 (G2 G3 )v2 ig 2
-ve conductance
Connecting node 1 & node 2
Murat Fahrioglu 112
Circuits with Current Sources & Resistances
v1 R2 v2
Node 1 Node 2
Node 1 Node 2 R2
v1 v2
i1

i2
ig2
ig1 i3 R1 R3
R1 R3

ig1 ig2
Node 3 (picked as reference)
Node 3
KCL at Node 1: i1 i2 ig1 0 (reference)
In terms of node voltages: G1v1 G2 (v1 v2 ) ig1 0
KCL at Node 2: i2 i3 ig 2 0
G2 (v2 v1 ) G3v2 ig 2 0
-ve conductance
Rearranging: Connecting node 1 & node 2

sum of conductances (G1 G2 )v1 G2v2 ig1 current entering node 1

connected to node 1
G2v1 (G2 G3 )v2 ig 2
-ve conductance
Connecting node 1 & node 2 sum of conductances
connected to node 2 113
Murat Fahrioglu
Circuits with Current Sources & Resistances
v1 R2 v2
Node 1 Node 2
Node 1 Node 2 R2
v1 v2
i1

i2
ig2
ig1 i3 R1 R3
R1 R3

ig1 ig2
Node 3 (picked as reference)
Node 3
KCL at Node 1: i1 i2 ig1 0 (reference)
In terms of node voltages: G1v1 G2 (v1 v2 ) ig1 0
KCL at Node 2: i2 i3 ig 2 0
G2 (v2 v1 ) G3v2 ig 2 0
-ve conductance
Rearranging: Connecting node 1 & node 2

sum of conductances (G1 G2 )v1 G2v2 ig1 current entering node 1

connected to node 1
G2v1 (G2 G3 )v2 ig 2 current entering node 2
-ve conductance
Connecting node 1 & node 2 sum of conductances
connected to node 2 114
Murat Fahrioglu
 Example
Solve for node voltages, and i in the following circuit:
1S i 2S

17 A
7A 5A

3S 3S 1S 4S

Murat Fahrioglu 115

 Example
Solve for node voltages, and i in the following circuit:
v1 1S v2 i 2S v3

17 A
7A 5A

3S 3S 1S 4S

Node picked as reference

Murat Fahrioglu 116

 Example
Solve for node voltages, and i in the following circuit:
v1 1S v2 i 2S v3
Node 1: (3 1) v1 1 v2 2...(1)
17 A
7A 5A

3S 3S 1S 4S

Node picked as reference

Murat Fahrioglu 117

 Example
Solve for node voltages, and i in the following circuit:
v1 1S v2 i 2S v3
Node 1: (3 1) v1 1 v2 2...(1)
7A 5A
17 A
Node 2: (1) v1 (2 3 1) v2 2 v3 5...(2)
3S 3S 1S 4S

Node picked as reference

Murat Fahrioglu 118

 Example
Solve for node voltages, and i in the following circuit:
v1 1S v2 i 2S v3
Node 1: (3 1) v1 1 v2 2...(1)
7A 5A
17 A
Node 2: (1) v1 (2 3 1) v2 2 v3 5...(2)
1S
Node 3: (2) v2 (2 4 1) v3 17...(3)
3S 3S 4S

Node picked as reference

Murat Fahrioglu 119

 Example
Solve for node voltages, and i in the following circuit:
v1 1S v2 i 2S v3
Node 1: (3 1) v1 1 v2 2...(1)
7A 5A
17 A
Node 2: (1) v1 (2 3 1) v2 2 v3 5...(2)
1S
Node 3: (2) v2 (2 4 1) v3 17...(3)
3S 3S 4S

Node picked as reference

3 simultaneous equations w/ 3 unknowns can be solved using few different

methods. The methods are covered in the appendix of the Johnson & Johnson text .
One method involves using matrices as below (Cramers rule.)

Murat Fahrioglu 120

 Example
Solve for node voltages, and i in the following circuit:
v1 1S v2 i 2S v3
Node 1: (3 1) v1 1 v2 2...(1)
7A 5A
17 A
Node 2: (1) v1 (2 3 1) v2 2 v3 5...(2)
1S
Node 3: (2) v2 (2 4 1) v3 17...(3)
3S 3S 4S

Node picked as reference

3 simultaneous equations w/ 3 unknowns can be solved using few different

methods. The methods are covered in the appendix of the Johnson & Johnson text.
One method involves using matrices as below (Cramers rule.)
a) First find determinant, , of the coefficient matrix:
v1 v2 v3
4 1 0
4 6 7 1 2 0 0 2 1
1 6 2 168 (16 7) 145
0 6 0 2 2 4 7 1 1
0 2 7

Murat Fahrioglu 121

 Example
Solve for node voltages, and i in the following circuit:
v1 1S v2 i 2S v3
Node 1: (3 1) v1 1 v2 2...(1)
7A 5A
17 A
Node 2: (1) v1 (2 3 1) v2 2 v3 5...(2)
1S
Node 3: (2) v2 (2 4 1) v3 17...(3)
3S 3S 4S

Node picked as reference

3 simultaneous equations w/ 3 unknowns can be solved using few different

methods. The methods are covered in the appendix of the Johnson & Johnson text.
One method involves using matrices as below (Cramers rule.)
a) First find determinant, , of the coefficient matrix:
v1 v2 v3
4 1 0
4 6 7 1 2 0 0 2 1
1 6 2 168 (16 7) 145
0 6 0 2 2 4 7 1 1
0 2 7
b) Find individual voltages by plugging in the right hand values to respective columns:
2 1 0 4 2 0 4 1 2
5 6 2 1 5 2 1 6 5
17 2 7 0 17 7 0 2 17
v1 1V v2 2V v3 3V

Murat Fahrioglu 122
 Example
Solve for node voltages, and i in the following circuit:
v1 1S v2 i 2S v3
Node 1: (3 1) v1 1 v2 2...(1)
7A 5A
17 A
Node 2: (1) v1 (2 3 1) v2 2 v3 5...(2)
1S
Node 3: (2) v2 (2 4 1) v3 17...(3)
3S 3S 4S

Node picked as reference

3 simultaneous equations w/ 3 unknowns can be solved using few different

methods. The methods are covered in the appendix of the Johnson & Johnson text.
One method involves using matrices as below (Cramers rule.)
a) First find determinant, , of the coefficient matrix:
v1 v2 v3
4 1 0
4 6 7 1 2 0 0 2 1
1 6 2 168 (16 7) 145
0 6 0 2 2 4 7 1 1
0 2 7
b) Find individual voltages by plugging in the right hand values to respective columns:
2 1 0 4 2 0 4 1 2 Find other variables:
5 6 2 1 5 2 1 6
i v2 v3 G 2 A
5
17 2 7 0 17 7 0 2 17
v1 1V v2 2V v3 3V

Murat Fahrioglu 123
 Example
Solve for node voltages.
5i + v -

0.5

5A 1 1 2v
2
i

Murat Fahrioglu 124

 Example
Solve for node voltages.
v1
5i + v - v2 Label reference and non-reference nodes.
0.5

5A 1 1 2v
2
i

Murat Fahrioglu 125

 Example
Solve for node voltages.
v1
5i + v - v2 Label reference and non-reference nodes.
0.5 Node 1: (1 1 2) v1 2 v2 5(1 i)...(1)
5A 1 1 2v Node 2: (2) v1 (2 0.5) v2 2v 5i...(2)
2
i

Murat Fahrioglu 126

 Example
Solve for node voltages.
v1
5i + v - v2 Label reference and non-reference nodes.
0.5 Node 1: (1 1 2) v1 2 v2 5(1 i)...(1)
5A 1 1 2v Node 2: (2) v1 (2 0.5) v2 2v 5i...(2)
i
2
In addition: i v1 by Ohm' s & v v1 v2

Substituting for i and v into (1) and (2): (1) : 9v1 2v2 5
(2) : 9v1 4.5v2 0

Murat Fahrioglu 127

 Example
Solve for node voltages.
v1
5i + v - v2 Label reference and non-reference nodes.
0.5 Node 1: (1 1 2) v1 2 v2 5(1 i)...(1)
5A 1 1 2v Node 2: (2) v1 (2 0.5) v2 2v 5i...(2)
i
2
In addition: i v1 by Ohm' s & v v1 v2

Substituting for i and v into (1) and (2): (1) : 9v1 2v2 5
(2) : 9v1 4.5v2 0

Solving the simultaneous equations: v1 1 V

v2 2 V

Murat Fahrioglu 128

Circuits with Voltage Sources (Supernodes)
The presence of voltage sources reduces the number of
equations and the number of unknowns in nodal analysis by
one per voltage source through supernodes.

Murat Fahrioglu 129

Circuits with Voltage Sources (Supernodes)
The presence of voltage sources reduces the number of
equations and the number of unknowns in nodal analysis by
one per voltage source through supernodes.
Example:
1S 2S

4S
6A 4V
2S

5V
3S 1S

Murat Fahrioglu 130

Circuits with Voltage Sources (Supernodes)
The presence of voltage sources reduces the number of
equations and the number of unknowns in nodal analysis by
one per voltage source through supernodes.
Example:
1S v2 2S

v1
4S Identify all nodes
6A 4V
2S
v3 v5
v4
5V
3S 1S

Murat Fahrioglu 131

Circuits with Voltage Sources (Supernodes)
The presence of voltage sources reduces the number of
equations and the number of unknowns in nodal analysis by
one per voltage source through supernodes.
Example:
Supernode B
1S v2 2S

v1
4S Identify supernodes
6A 4V
2S
v3 v5
v4
5V
3S 1S

Supernode A

Murat Fahrioglu 132

Circuits with Voltage Sources (Supernodes)
The presence of voltage sources reduces the number of
equations and the number of unknowns in nodal analysis by
one per voltage source through supernodes.
Example:
Supernode B KCL on all nodes (nodes 2,3) and
1S v2 2S supernodes (supernode B) except
the supernodes containing the reference
v1
4S
node (supernode A).
6A
Node 2: 5 (1 4 2) v2 4 v3 2 (v4 4) 6
2S 4V
v3 v5
v4
5V Node 3: 4 v2 (4 2 3) v3 2 v4 0
3S 1S
Supernode B: 2 v2 2 v3 (2 1) (v4 4) 2v4 0
Supernode A

Left with 3 equations and 3 unknowns, so this can be solved

easily.

Murat Fahrioglu 133

 Summary of Nodal Analysis Procedure
1. Designate a reference node (preferably with the greatest
number of branches.)
2. Label N-1 nodes to analyze
3. If voltage sources exist, form supernodes (or recognize
relationship between nodes separated by voltage sources)
4. KCL (in terms of node voltages) per each nonreference node
and each supernode that does not contain the reference
node.
currents flowing out of nodes / sup ernodes through resistors
currents flowing in from current sources

5. Relate voltages across voltage sources and all other unknown

variables to the node voltages.

Murat Fahrioglu 134

 Example
i

6A
9S 2S

1S 10 A

+ v-
50 V
+
- 4S
10v

Murat Fahrioglu 135

 Example
i
Step 1: Designate reference node
6A
9S 2S

1S 10 A

+ v-
50 V
+
- 4S
10v

Murat Fahrioglu 136

 Example
v2 i
Step 2: Label N-1 nodes to analyze
6A
9S 2S

1S 10 A
v3 v1
v5
+ v-
50 V
+
- 4S
10v

Murat Fahrioglu 137

 Example
v2 i
Step 3: If voltage sources exist, form
6A Supernodes.
9S 2S

1S 10 A
v3 v1
v5
+ v-
50 V
+
- 4S
10v

Murat Fahrioglu 138

 Example
v2 i
Step 4: KCL (in terms of node voltages) per
6A each nonreference node and each
9S 2S
supernode that does not contain the
1S 10 A reference node.
v3 v1
v5
+ v-
50 V
+
- 4S
10v

Node 1: 2(v1 v2 ) 4v1 10 0 6v1 2v2 10...(1)

Node 2: 6 (v2 10v) 9 (v2 v1 ) 2 0 2v1 11v2 90v 6...(2)
3 unknowns & 2 equations; need one more equation

Murat Fahrioglu 139

 Example
v2 i
Step 4: KCL (in terms of node voltages) per
6A each nonreference node and each
9S 2S
supernode that does not contain the
1S 10 A reference node.
v3 v1
v5
+ v- Step 5: Relate voltages across voltage
50 V
+ sources and all other unknown
- 4S
10v variables to the node voltages.

Node 1: 2(v1 v2 ) 4v1 10 0 6v1 2v2 10...(1)

Node 2: 6 (v2 10v) 9 (v2 v1 ) 2 0 2v1 11v2 90v 6...(2)
3 unknowns & 2 equations; need one more equation:
v 7 7
v 10v v1 v 1 ...(3) Solve: v2 2 V ; v1 V v V
9 3 27
2
i 2(v2 v1 ) A
3
Murat Fahrioglu 140
 Mesh Analysis
Apply KVL around loops in the circuit to solve for currents
first.

mesh

A mesh is a loop that contains

no elements within it.
[ A supermesh is an exception as
will be covered later.]

Note: Nodal analysis is applicable to general circuits with

nonplanar structure. Mesh analysis only applies to planar
circuits (no branch crosses another.)

Murat Fahrioglu 141

 Mesh Current
i1 i2
6 4
1. Apply KVL to the left hand mesh:
3 42 6i1 3(i1 i2 ) 0
i1 i2
42 V 9i1 3i2 42...(1)
10 V
2. Apply KVL to the right hand mesh:
i1-i2
3(i1 i2 ) 4i2 10 0
3i1 7i2 10...(2)

2 independent equations and 2 unknowns can be solved easily:

i1 6 A ; i2 4 A ; i1 i2 2 A

If the circuit has M meshes, then need M independent

equations to solve for M mesh currents.

Murat Fahrioglu 142

 Example
Use mesh analysis to determine the three mesh currents in the
following circuit:

i2
1 2
3
i1
6V
i3
7V
1
2

Murat Fahrioglu 143

 Example
Use mesh analysis to determine the three mesh currents in the
following circuit:
Mesh 1: 7 1(i1 i2 ) 6 2(i1 i3 ) 0
1
i2
2 3i1 i2 2i3 1...(1)
3
i1
6V
i3
7V
1
2

Murat Fahrioglu 144

 Example
Use mesh analysis to determine the three mesh currents in the
following circuit:
Mesh 1: 7 1(i1 i2 ) 6 2(i1 i3 ) 0
1
i2
2 3i1 i2 2i3 1...(1)
3
i1
6V Mesh 2: 1(i2 i1 ) 2i2 3(i2 i3 ) 0
i3
7V i1 6i2 3i3 0...(2)
1
2

Murat Fahrioglu 145

 Example
Use mesh analysis to determine the three mesh currents in the
following circuit:
Mesh 1: 7 1(i1 i2 ) 6 2(i1 i3 ) 0
1
i2
2 3i1 i2 2i3 1...(1)
3
i1
6V Mesh 2: 1(i2 i1 ) 2i2 3(i2 i3 ) 0
i3
7V i1 6i2 3i3 0...(2)
1
2

Mesh 3: 2(i3 i1 ) 6 3(i3 i2 ) i3 0

2i1 3i2 6i3 6...(3)

Solving 3 equations with 3 unknowns, get:

i1 3 A ; i2 2 A ; i3 3 A

Murat Fahrioglu 146

 Example w/ a dependent source
2vx 2 Mesh 1 (right-hand side):
+ 4(i1 i2 ) 2i1 3 0
-

i2 + 4 i1 6i1 4i2 3...(1)

vx
5V 3V Mesh 2 (left-hand side):
-
4
5 2vx 4(i2 i1 ) 4i2 0
i1
4i1 8i2 2vx 5...(2)

Murat Fahrioglu 147

 Example w/ a dependent source
2vx 2 Mesh 1 (right-hand side):
+ 4(i1 i2 ) 2i1 3 0
-

i2 + 4 i1 6i1 4i2 3...(1)

vx
5V 3V Mesh 2 (left-hand side):
-
4
5 2vx 4(i2 i1 ) 4i2 0
i1
4i1 8i2 2vx 5...(2)

2 equations, 3 unknowns; need 1 more equation: vx 4(i2 i1 )...(3)

Murat Fahrioglu 148

 Example w/ a dependent source
2vx 2 Mesh 1 (right-hand side):
+ 4(i1 i2 ) 2i1 3 0
-

i2 + 4 i1 6i1 4i2 3...(1)

vx
5V 3V Mesh 2 (left-hand side):
-
4
5 2vx 4(i2 i1 ) 4i2 0
i1
4i1 8i2 2vx 5...(2)

2 equations, 3 unknowns; need 1 more equation: vx 4(i2 i1 )...(3)

Substitute for vx into (2): 4i1 8i2 8(i2 i1 ) 5
4i1 5 i1 1.25 A
From (1):
3 6(1.25)
i2 2.625 A
4

vx 4(i2 i1 ) 5.5 V

Murat Fahrioglu 149

 Supermesh
Create a supermesh from two meshes that have a current source as
a common element. This reduces the number of meshes by one
for each current source. If the current source is in the perimeter
of the circuit, then the mesh in which it is located is ignored.

Murat Fahrioglu 150

 Supermesh
Create a supermesh from two meshes that have a current source as
a common element. This reduces the number of meshes by one
for each current source. If the current source is in the perimeter
of the circuit, then the mesh in which it is located is ignored.
Example:
i2
1 2
i1 3

7A
i3
7V
1
2

Murat Fahrioglu 151

 Supermesh
Create a supermesh from two meshes that have a current source as
a common element. This reduces the number of meshes by one
for each current source. If the current source is in the perimeter
of the circuit, then the mesh in which it is located is ignored.
Example:
Combine mesh 1 and 3 since there is a current
i2 source at their common boundary:
1 2
i1 3
Mesh 1+3: 7 1(i1 i2 ) 3(i3 i2 ) 1(i3 ) 0
7A
i1 4i2 4i3 7...(1)
i3
7V
1
2

Supermesh

Murat Fahrioglu 152

 Supermesh
Create a supermesh from two meshes that have a current source as
a common element. This reduces the number of meshes by one
for each current source. If the current source is in the perimeter
of the circuit, then the mesh in which it is located is ignored.
Example:
Combine mesh 1 and 3 since there is a current
i2 source at their common boundary:
1 2
i1 3
Mesh 1+3: 7 1(i1 i2 ) 3(i3 i2 ) 1(i3 ) 0
7A
i1 4i2 4i3 7...(1)
i3
7V
1 Mesh 2: 1(i2 i1 ) 2i2 3(i2 i3 ) 0
2
i1 6i2 3i3 0...(2)
Supermesh

Murat Fahrioglu 153

 Supermesh
Create a supermesh from two meshes that have a current source as
a common element. This reduces the number of meshes by one
for each current source. If the current source is in the perimeter
of the circuit, then the mesh in which it is located is ignored.
Example:
Combine mesh 1 and 3 since there is a current
i2 source at their common boundary:
1 2
i1 3
Mesh 1+3: 7 1(i1 i2 ) 3(i3 i2 ) 1(i3 ) 0
7A
i1 4i2 4i3 7...(1)
i3
7V
1 Mesh 2: 1(i2 i1 ) 2i2 3(i2 i3 ) 0
2
i1 6i2 3i3 0...(2)
Supermesh 2 equations, 3 unknowns; add an equation for the
independent source:
i1 i3 7...(3)

Murat Fahrioglu 154

 Supermesh
Create a supermesh from two meshes that have a current source as
a common element. This reduces the number of meshes by one
for each current source. If the current source is in the perimeter
of the circuit, then the mesh in which it is located is ignored.
Example:
Combine mesh 1 and 3 since there is a current
i2 source at their common boundary:
1 2
i1 3
Mesh 1+3: 7 1(i1 i2 ) 3(i3 i2 ) 1(i3 ) 0
7A
i1 4i2 4i3 7...(1)
i3
7V
1 Mesh 2: 1(i2 i1 ) 2i2 3(i2 i3 ) 0
2
i1 6i2 3i3 0...(2)
Supermesh 2 equations, 3 unknowns; add an equation for the
independent source:
i1 i3 7...(3)
Solving, get:
i1 9 A ; i2 2.5 A ; i3 2 A
Murat Fahrioglu 155
 Example
Use mesh analysis to determine the three mesh currents in the
following circuit:
i2
1 2
i1 3
+ vx -
15 A 1
vx
9
i3
1
2

Murat Fahrioglu 156

 Example
Use mesh analysis to determine the three mesh currents in the
following circuit:
Since 15 A source is on the perimeter of
i2 the circuit, eliminate mesh 1 from the
1 2
3 consideration: i1 = 15 A
i1
+ vx - Since i1 is known, can write an equation for
1
15 A vx the dependent source as:
9
i3
vx
2
1 i3 i1 & Ohms Law: vx 3(i3 i2 )
9
These equations lead to:
vx 3(i3 i2 ) 1 2
i3 i1
i2 i3 15...(1)
9 9 3 3
Then, KVL @ Mesh 2: 1(i2 i1 ) 2i2 3(i2 i3 ) 0
i1 6i2 3i3 0
but know i1 : 6i2 3i3 15...(2)
Solving (1) and (2), get: i2 11 A ; i3 17 A
Murat Fahrioglu 157
 Summary of Mesh Analysis Procedure

1. Label M mesh currents (for M meshes) clockwise

convention
2. If the circuit has current sources shared by two meshes, form
a supermesh
3. Write KVL per mesh except if a current source is in the
periphery of the mesh
4. Relate current sources to the mesh currents through KCL
5. Express all other unknown variables in terms of the mesh
currents

Murat Fahrioglu 158

 Example
Find i using mesh analysis:

i 3

11 A 4A
4 5

Murat Fahrioglu 159

 Example
Find i using mesh analysis:

i 3 1. Label 3 mesh currents (for 3 meshes)

clockwise convention
i1 i2 i3
11 A 4A
4 5

Murat Fahrioglu 160

 Example
Find i using mesh analysis:

i 3 1. Label 3 mesh currents (for 3 meshes)

clockwise convention
i1 i2 i3 2. If the circuit has current sources shared
11 A 4A by two meshes, form a supermesh
4 5 (none in this case)

Murat Fahrioglu 161

 Example
Find i using mesh analysis:

i 3 1. Label 3 mesh currents (for 3 meshes)

clockwise convention
i1 i2 i3 2. If the circuit has current sources shared
11 A 4A by two meshes, form a supermesh
4 5 (none in this case)
3. Write KVL per mesh except if a current
source is in the periphery of the mesh
KVL @ Mesh 2 (Mesh 1 and 3 have current sources at the periphery) :
4(i2 i1 ) 3i2 5(i2 i3 ) 0 4i2 4i1 3i2 5i2 5i3 0 4i1 12i2 5i3 0

Murat Fahrioglu 162

 Example
Find i using mesh analysis:

i 3 1. Label 3 mesh currents (for 3 meshes)

clockwise convention
i1 i2 i3 2. If the circuit has current sources shared
11 A 4A by two meshes, form a supermesh
4 5 (none in this case)
3. Write KVL per mesh except if a current
source is in the periphery of the mesh
KVL @ Mesh 2 (Mesh 1 and 3 have current sources at the periphery) :
4(i2 i1 ) 3i2 5(i2 i3 ) 0 4i2 4i1 3i2 5i2 5i3 0 4i1 12i2 5i3 0

4. Relate current sources to the mesh currents through KCL:

i1 11 A & i3 4 A 44 12i2 20 0 i2 2 A i

Murat Fahrioglu 163

 Example
Find i using mesh analysis:

i 3 1. Label 3 mesh currents (for 3 meshes)

clockwise convention
i1 i2 i3 2. If the circuit has current sources shared
11 A 4A by two meshes, form a supermesh
4 5 (none in this case)
3. Write KVL per mesh except if a current
source is in the periphery of the mesh
KVL @ Mesh 2 (Mesh 1 and 3 have current sources at the periphery) :
4(i2 i1 ) 3i2 5(i2 i3 ) 0 4i2 4i1 3i2 5i2 5i3 0 4i1 12i2 5i3 0

4. Relate current sources to the mesh currents through KCL:

i1 11 A & i3 4 A 44 12i2 20 0 i2 2 A i

5. Express all other unknown variables in terms of the mesh currents

(Not applicable in this case.)
Murat Fahrioglu 164
 Example
Apply mesh analysis to the following circuit:
1

+ + 3iy
vx 2 -
2V -
1
2

2vx
9A iy

Murat Fahrioglu 165

 Example
Apply mesh analysis to the following circuit:
1
KVL around Supermesh 1+3+4:
i1
+
vx 2
i2 + 3iy
-
2 2(i1 i2 ) (i3 i2 ) 3iy 2i4 0
i4
2V -
1 but i4 iy 2i1 3i2 i3 5iy 2...(1)
2

i3
2vx
9A iy

Murat Fahrioglu 166

 Example
Apply mesh analysis to the following circuit:
1
KVL around Supermesh 1+3+4:
i1
+
vx 2
i2 + 3iy
-
2 2(i1 i2 ) (i3 i2 ) 3iy 2i4 0
i4
2V -
1 but i4 iy 2i1 3i2 i3 5iy 2...(1)
2

i3
KVL around Mesh 2:
2vx
2(i2 i1 ) i2 3iy (i2 i3 ) 0
9A iy
4i2 2i1 3iy i3 0...(2)

Murat Fahrioglu 167

 Example
Apply mesh analysis to the following circuit:
1
KVL around Supermesh 1+3+4:
i1
+
vx 2
i2 + 3iy
-
2 2(i1 i2 ) (i3 i2 ) 3iy 2i4 0
i4
2V -
1 but i4 iy 2i1 3i2 i3 5iy 2...(1)
2

i3
KVL around Mesh 2:
2vx
2(i2 i1 ) i2 3iy (i2 i3 ) 0
9A iy
4i2 2i1 3iy i3 0...(2)
In addition the following relationships can be extracted from the circuit:
i1 i3 9 A...(3) vx 2(i1 i2 )...(4) iy i3 2vx ...(5)

Murat Fahrioglu 168

 Example
Apply mesh analysis to the following circuit:
1
KVL around Supermesh 1+3+4:
i1
+
vx 2
i2 + 3iy
-
2 2(i1 i2 ) (i3 i2 ) 3iy 2i4 0
i4
2V -
1 but i4 iy 2i1 3i2 i3 5iy 2...(1)
2

i3
KVL around Mesh 2:
2vx
2(i2 i1 ) i2 3iy (i2 i3 ) 0
9A iy
4i2 2i1 3iy i3 0...(2)
In addition the following relationships can be extracted from the circuit:
i1 i3 9 A...(3) vx 2(i1 i2 )...(4) iy i3 2vx ...(5)

(1) (5) represent 5 simultaneous equations with 5 unknowns; therefore, the

parameters of interest can be calculated as:

i1 2 A ; i2 0 A ; i3 7 A ; i4 1 A ; iy 1 A ; vx 4 V

Murat Fahrioglu 169

 Example: N & R AP 4.21 & 4.22
a) Find the value of R that enables the circuit shown to deliver
maximum power to the terminals a,b.
b) Find the maximum power delivered to R.
c) How much power is the 100 V source delivering to the
network under maximum power delivery conditions?
d) Repeat (c) for the dependent voltage source.
e) What percentage of the total power generated by these two
sources is delivered to the load resistor R?

Murat Fahrioglu 170

 Example: N & R AP 4.21 & 4.22 - Solution
a) Find the value of R that enables the circuit shown to deliver
maximum power to the terminals a,b.
First find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit to the left of a-b.
Apply nodal analysis to find the vTh=voc=va with a-b open-circuited:
va (v 20) va (v 100)
KCL @ Node a: 0 2va 2v 120 va v 60...(1)
4 4
(v 20) 100 v (v 20) va
KCL @ Node 1: 0 va 3v 60...(2)
4 4 4

From (1) and (2):

1
voc va 120 V...(3)

Murat Fahrioglu 171

 Example: N & R AP 4.21 & 4.22 - Solution
a) Find the value of R that enables the circuit shown to deliver
maximum power to the terminals a,b.
First find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit to the left of a-b.
Apply nodal analysis to find isc:
v 20 v v 20 100
KCL @ Node 1: 0 v 20 V
4 4 4
20 v 100 v
KCL @ Node a: isc 40 A ...(4)
4 4

isc

Murat Fahrioglu 172

 Example: N & R AP 4.21 & 4.22 - Solution
a) Find the value of R that enables the circuit shown to deliver
maximum power to the terminals a,b.
First find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit to the left of a-b.
Therefore:
v 120 V
From (3) and (4): vTh voc 120 V and RTh oc 3
isc 40 A
Equivalent circuit:
3

120 V
R To maximize power: R RTh 3

Murat Fahrioglu 173

 Example: N & R AP 4.21 & 4.22 - Solution
a) Find the value of R that enables the circuit shown to deliver
maximum power to the terminals a,b.
First find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit to the left of a-b.
Therefore:
v 120 V
From (3) and (4): vTh voc 120 V and RTh oc 3
isc 40 A
Equivalent circuit:
3

120 V
R To maximize power: R RTh 3

b) Find the maximum power delivered to R.

2
120
Maximum Power: p i R
2
(3) 1200 W 1.2 kW
6

Murat Fahrioglu 174

 Example: N & R AP 4.21 & 4.22 - Solution
c) How much power is the 100 V source delivering to the
network under maximum power delivery conditions?
Apply nodal analysis to find i100V (R=3):

v 20 va v v 20 100
KCL @ Node 1: 0 3v va 60 ...(5)
4 4 4
va 20 v va va v 100
KCL @ Node a: 0 10va 6v 360 ...(6)
4 3 4

From (5) and (6): v 40 V & va 60 V

KCL @ Node 2:
1
2 100 20 v 100 v va
i100V 30 A
4 4
p100V (100 V)(30 A) 3000 W
i100V

Murat Fahrioglu 175

 Example: N & R AP 4.21 & 4.22 - Solution
d) Repeat (c) for the dependent voltage source.
100 v va 100 40 60
idependent 20 A pdependent (40 V)(20 A) 800 W
4 4

e) What percentage of the total power generated by these two

sources is delivered to the load resistor R?
va2 602 1200
pR 1200 W % power 100% 31.6%
R 3 3000 800

1
2

i100V

Murat Fahrioglu 176

 Delta-to-Whye (Pi-to-Tee) Equivalent Circuits
The following electrical networks come up in many fields of electrical
engineering. They are most common in Power Engineering and Machine
modeling.
Delta () Interconnection Pi () Interconnection

Wye (Y) Interconnection Tee (T) Interconnection

Also referred to as star
interconnection

Murat Fahrioglu 177

 Delta-to-Whye (Pi-to-Tee) Equivalent Circuits
The following electrical networks come up in many fields of electrical
engineering. They are most common in Power Engineering and Machine
modeling.
Delta () Interconnection Pi () Interconnection

How do we
go from
one to the
other?
Wye (Y) Interconnection Tee (T) Interconnection

Also referred to as star
interconnection

Murat Fahrioglu 178

 -to-Y Transformation
To achieve equivalence, need:
Resistance between terminals a-b (Rab) in -connected circuit
= Resistance between terminals a-b in Y-connected circuit
and the same for the other terminals

Observing parallel and series resistances in the previous page:

Rc Ra Rb R R Rc R R Rc
Rab R1 R2 ; Rbc a b R2 R3 ; Rca b a R1 R3
Ra Rb Rc Ra Rb Rc Ra Rb Rc

Manipulating:
Rb Rc Rc Ra Ra Rb
R1 ; R2 ; R3
Ra Rb Rc Ra Rb Rc Ra Rb Rc

Y-to- Transformation
Again manipulating the original equations above:
R1R2 R2 R3 R3 R1 R1R2 R2 R3 R3 R1 R1R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Ra ; Rb ; Rc
R1 R2 R3

Murat Fahrioglu 179

 Delta-Star Conversion

Formulation Ra = Rba Rac / ( Rba + Rac + Rcb )

Rb = Rcb Rba / ( Rba + Rac + Rcb )
A delta connection can be converted to a
star connection as follows Rc = Rac Rcb / ( Rba + Rac + Rcb )

b b b b

Rb
Rcb Rba

n
Rc Ra
a
c a

Rac c a
c
c

Murat Fahrioglu
 Delta-Star Conversion

A delta connection with identical Simplification

resitances can be converted a star
connection as shown on the RHS RY = R2 / ( R + R + R ) = R / 3

b b b b

R /3
R R

a R /3 R /3
c a

c a
R
c
c

Murat Fahrioglu
 Star-Delta Conversion

Formulation Rba = ( Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Rc Ra ) / Rc
A star connection can be converted to a Rac = ( Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Rc Ra ) / Rb
delta connection as shown on the RHS Rcb = ( Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Rc Ra ) / Ra

b b b b

Rb Please note that the neutral

node is now eliminated Rcb Rba

n
Rc Ra
a
c a
c a Rac
c
c

Murat Fahrioglu
 Star-Delta Conversion

A star connection with identical Simplification

resistances can be converted to a delta
connnection as shonw on the RHS R = ( RY2 + RY2 + RY2 ) / RY = 3 RY

Please note that the neutral

node is now eliminated
b b
b b

RY
3RY 3RY

RY RY a
c a
c a
3RY
c
c

Murat Fahrioglu
 Example (N & R AP 3.8)
Use a Y-to- transformation to find the voltage v in the following circuit:
Solution:
R1R2 R2 R3 R3 R1 ( 20)(10) (10)(5) (5)( 20)
Ra 17.5
R1 20
R1R2 R2 R3 R3 R1 ( 20)(10) (10)(5) (5)( 20)
Rb 35
R2 10
R1R2 R2 R3 R3 R1 ( 20)(10) (10)(5) (5)( 20)
Rc 70
R3 5

Murat Fahrioglu 184

 Example (N & R AP 3.8)
Use a Y-to- transformation to find the voltage v in the following circuit:
Solution:
R1R2 R2 R3 R3 R1 ( 20)(10) (10)(5) (5)( 20)
Ra 17.5
R1 20
R1R2 R2 R3 R3 R1 ( 20)(10) (10)(5) (5)( 20)
Rb 35
R2 10
R1R2 R2 R3 R3 R1 ( 20)(10) (10)(5) (5)( 20)
Rc 70
R3 5

Equivalent circuit:
28

70 +

+ 2A v 35 35

2A v 35 17.5 105 -

-

v (2 A)(17.5) 35V

Murat Fahrioglu 185