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To cite this article: Jean G Chatila & Bassam R Jurdi (2004) Stepped Spillway as an Energy
Dissipater , Canadian Water Resources Journal / Revue canadienne des ressources hydriques,
29:3, 147-158, DOI: 10.4296/cwrj147
Abstract: This paper describes an experimental investigation into the hydraulics of ogee-prole stepped
spillways, examines their viability as an alternative to smooth-back spillways and investigates their
efciency in reducing the downstream energy and length of the hydraulic jump. Tests were performed
in a long rectangular ume with glass walls on both sides. One smooth model was used as a benchmark
for comparison with stepped models made out of a combination of crests and bottoms of different step
heights. Signicant reductions in terminal velocities and total energies were observed, where the stepped
spillway proles tested proved to be very effective in terms of energy dissipation for ows of the order
of the design head or lower. For ows beyond the design head, the effectiveness of the stepped spillway
conguration was reduced and became negligible for heads greater than one and a half times the design
head. It was concluded that the number of steps is the overbearing factor in expending ow kinetic
energy and, therefore, reducing the length of the downstream forming hydraulic jump.
Rsume : Le prsent article dcrit une tude exprimentale sur lhydraulique des dversoirs en marches
descalier en doucine et examine leur viabilit en tant que solution de rechange aux dversoirs dos lisse.
Il est galement question de leur efcacit pour ce qui est de rduire lnergie en aval et la longueur du
ressaut. Des essais ont t mens dans un long chenal rectangulaire anque de parois de verre de chaque
ct. Un modle lisse a t utilis comme point de repre des ns de comparaison avec des modles
en marches descalier fabriqus partir dune combinaison de crtes et de fonds de diffrentes hauteurs
de marche. Des rductions considrables des vitesses limites et des nergies totales ont t observes,
les prols des dversoirs en marches descalier tests stant avrs trs efcaces en fait de dissipation
dnergie pour les dbits de lordre de la chute brute ou dun degr moindre. Pour les dbits dpassant
la chute brute, lefcacit de la conguration du dversoir en marches descalier a t rduite et est
devenue ngligeable pour les hauteurs de chute suprieures une fois et demie la chute brute. Il en a t
conclu que le nombre de marches constitue un facteur dcisif pour ce qui est de lexpansion de lnergie
cintique du dbit et, par consquent, de la rduction de la longueur du ressaut se formant en aval.
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Lebanese American University, P.O. Box 36 Byblos, Byblos, Lebanon.
Submitted February 2003; accepted February 2004. Written comments on this paper will be accepted until
March 2005.
Canadian Water Resources Journal Vol. 29(3): 147158 (2004) 2004 Canadian Water Resources Association
Revue canadienne des ressources hydriques
148 Canadian Water Resources Journal/Revue canadienne des ressources hydriques
into consideration and interpolation/extrapolation of the water depth exceeds a few centimetres, the effects
design curves leads to physically incorrect situations. of the surface tension, and thus the Weber number,
From a computational standpoint, simulating could be disregarded as well. This complies with the
the ow is difcult due to non-linearity and other conditions of the experiments performed in this study.
factors. The ow changes from subcritical upstream of
the crest to supercritical along the spillway and then
it must pass through a hydraulic jump to reach the Flow Regimes
subcritical tailrace channel. Furthermore, the curvature
of the spillway prole may be signicant, thus causing Flow regime over a stepped spillway can either be nappe
pressure variations due to centripetal uid acceleration, or skimming ow. In nappe ows, water from each
which rival the hydrostatic pressure component. Many step hits the step below as a falling jet, with the energy
researchers have discussed the topic of stepped spillways dissipation occurring by jet breakup in the air and
and tried to implement some numerical nite element mixing on the step, with or without the formation of
techniques for solving the ow eld (Chamani and a partial hydraulic jump. When the upstream-directed
Rajarantnam, 1999b; Pegram et al., 1999; Sanchez et ow meets the vertical step wall, it is forced to reverse
al., 2000; Yildiz and Kas, 1998). However, it is crucial direction and a pool is formed. This ow is recirculated
to have reliable data against which mathematical in the pool and joins the downstream-directed ow
models can be calibrated and validated. Chen et al. with a lesser velocity. Rajaratnam (1990) suggested that
(2002) report that stepped spillways have increasingly nappe ow occurs when yc/h < 0.8. A nappe ow regime
become effective energy dissipaters. When the is possible for higher discharges, but this needs a very
hydraulic performance of the overow is clearly known, at slope. In the skimming ow regime, water ows
the energy dissipation could be increased. Thus, it is of down the stepped face as a coherent stream, skimming
great importance to thoroughly examine the hydraulics over the steps and is cushioned by the recirculating
of stepped spillways through experimentation in order uid trapped between them. Skimming ow occurs at
to optimize the energy dissipation, where different moderate to high discharges. No nappe is visible and
step heights have to be tested. the external edges of the steps form a pseudo-bottom
If both gravitational and viscous forces are over which the ows pass. Vortices, which transmit
important, then dynamic similitude requires both shear stresses, develop and large friction losses
Froude and Reynolds numbers be held constant. Thus, characterize skimming ows. Downstream of the point
one degree of freedom in the modelling exercise is lost of inception, a layer containing a mixture of air and
and the length ratio is no longer arbitrary but depends water extends through the uid and the ow becomes
on the choice of the uid viscosity. To overcome this uniform far downstream, where measurements may not
obstacle, the Froude number is held constant since vary for a given discharge. Chanson (1994) reported
gravitational forces are predominant, and the Reynolds that as the skimming ow becomes fully developed
number is maintained in the same ow regime as the stepped spillway behaves similar to a smooth
the prototype. The general modelling laws can be one with high roughness. Rajaratnam (1990) dened
developed and the specic equation involving the the onset of skimming ow for values of the ratio
additional constraint of the Froude number modelling yc/h > 0.80, which is the case throughout the current
introduced. Geometric, kinematic, and dynamic laws experimental program. Although the mechanisms of
of similitude apply in this instance (Prasuhn, 1992). energy loss are quite different between the nappe ow
Rice and Kadavy (1996) report that, according to the and skimming ow regimes, both ows can dissipate a
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, it is recommended that major proportion of the ow energy.
models of large dams and spillways be constructed
to scale ratios of 1:30 to 1:100, and for medium size
structures the Bureau recommends that models should Experimental Setup
not be smaller than 1:60 scale. In 1953, the USBR
recommended that ow heads larger than 3 cm should The tests were performed in the Hydraulics Laboratory
be used in order to avoid surface tension problems. at the Lebanese American University, Byblos Campus,
However, Rice and Kadavy (1996) reported that if Lebanon. Experiments were conducted in a 6.0 m long
ume, 30.4 cm wide and 40.0 cm deep. The walls of the smooth ogee-prole spillway was manufactured and
ume are glass on both sides (Figure 1). An end weir used as a benchmark for comparison purposes.
controlled the position of the downstream forming The literature indicates that step sizes are classied
hydraulic jump. Two pumps supplied the ow into the in either one of two categories: (i) large-step sizes of
channel through calibrated orice meters located in height = 1/20 Hdam, and (ii) small-step sizes of height
the feed pipes into the channel, with two independent = 1/40 Hdam (Sorensen, 1985; Christodoulou, 1993;
valves to control the ow. Discharge was measured Bindo et al., 1993; and Rice and Kadavy, 1996). When
using these meters. The channel was kept at zero slope applied to the experimental spillway models, steps of
throughout the experiments. Depth of water at any 0.6 to 1.3 cm are used. However, these are only general
point was measured using a point gauge with accuracy guidelines for step sizes and in the current study steps
to the nearest millimetre, or division thereafter. In the of 0.5 to 1.5 cm were utilized. As for the stepped model
case of a uctuating water surface prole, average values geometries, bottom 1 (B1) had a total of 14 steps, each
of depths were taken based on several measurements. with a 1.0 cm drop. Bottom 2 (B2) had a total of nine
The models had a height of 25.7 cm, a base length of steps, with a 1.5 cm drop. Crest 1 (Cl) had a total of
29.7 cm, and a width equal to that of the channel. The 19 steps, each with a 0.5 cm drop. Crest 2 (C2) had
hydraulic design charts 111-2-/1 of USACE-WES a total of 12 steps, with a 0.75 cm drop (Figure 2).
were used for the design of the spillway model proles Smaller step sizes were implemented for the crests as
(USACE-WES, 1952). A vertical upstream face and a compared to the bottoms in order to have a smooth
curved surface dened by the radii 0.2Hd and 0.5Hd in ow transition. In general, one has to be careful about
front of the crest centreline were selected. The prole the signicance of scale effects on the experiments and
downstream of the crest centreline is dened by the consequent interpretation of results.
Primary concerns included the amount of energy
xn = KH d1-n y (1) dissipated by the steps, the optimum size of the steps for
maximum energy dissipation and the effect of steps on
the downstream-forming hydraulic jump, which affects
Using K = 2, n = 1.85, Hd = 5.08 cm, yields the following the length of stilling basin required. While conducting
equation for the spillway prole at the crest the experiments, measurements were repeated to
ensure that the results are reproducible with minimal
y = 0.12559x1.85 (cm) (2) measurement errors. In some instances, average values
were considered. The following measurements were
A face slope = 60 (or slope 1.73:1) was used after recorded for a wide range of ows over the smooth
the point of tangency with the crest curve. A smooth and stepped spillway models (Figure 1): (i) water head
transition, at the toe of the spillway, is needed to avoid at the upstream of the spillway, H (m), dened as the
excessive vibration and structural damage. Thus, a upstream vertical difference between crest level and
circular curve, or bucket, tangent to the foundation water level; (ii) water head at the crest of the model
and the spillways terminal downstream slope, is used. spillway, (m); (iii) prole of free surface for different
Steps in the stepped spillway models were discharges; (iv) depth of ow at the bottom or the toe
introduced at a point just downstream of the spillway of the model, Y1 (m), which is the upstream depth of
crest so that the envelope of their tips follows the the hydraulic jump; (v) depth of ow at the downstream
standard smooth prole down to the toe (Figure 2). end of the hydraulic jump, Y2 (m); (vi) differential
Two stepped spillway models, built of plexi-glass, were head across the orice metres, (m), and (vii) length of
used in the study. In general, step geometries may be the hydraulic jump, Lj (m). The longitudinal element
horizontal, inclined or pooled. Horizontal steps were of the jump is, without doubt, the most difcult to
selected in this instance for more effectiveness and ease measure. This is partially due to the differences in
of manufacturing. The models, which had the same opinion as to exactly where the terminus of the jump
overall height and general crest shape, had different lies (Elevatorski, 1959). It was easier to determine
step heights. Since the crest sections of the two models the section at which the hydraulic jump has started
were removable and interchangeable, this permitted than where it ended. In this instance, a dye-tracer,
a wider combination of step heights to be tested. A Rhodamine WT, was dropped at different locations in
the vicinity of the hydraulic jump. The termination of measured data with r = 0.88, the computed value
the hydraulic jump was determined visually through of the slope was 1.54, which is close to the expected
the circulation of the dye. theoretical value for a spillway. Based on the intercept,
a value of C = 2.35 m0.5/s is obtained. This value is
close to that computed by Sorenson (1985) and also
Results and Discussion falls within the range recommended by King and
Brater (1963). Baban (1995) reported a C value of
A major concern for stepped spillways is providing 2.225 when H/Hd > 1.33.
smooth transition ow from the spillway crest to the The available energy in the different models was
rst few steps. Based on experimental observations, computed for each ow condition at the toe of the
the ow at the transition is very good with no spillway close to the upstream end of the hydraulic
undesirable disturbance of ow, no tumbling action, jump. The aim was to determine the efciency of
and no separation of the ow at the break in slope. step conguration in releasing energy. The percentage
This was the case for all discharges and models tested. energy dissipated in each stepped model was calculated
It was seen that there may be some air entrained at low in reference to the available energy for the smooth
discharges but this disappeared at high discharges. model. Figure 4 shows the variation of the percentage
Average ow velocities were calculated from the energy dissipated at the toe of the spillway with H/
measured ow rates and depths using the continuity Hd, the ratio of the ow head (H) to the design head
equation. The discharge over an uncontrolled crest (Hd) of the spillway. Figure 4 shows that model C1B1
structure can be dened as produced the highest value of energy dissipation for
the models under consideration. For ow heads less
Q = CLH 3/2 (3) than 60% of the design head (H/Hd = 0.6), most of the
models produced more than 60% energy dissipation
where C = discharge coefcient (in m0.5/s), L = the crest with model C1B1 reaching up to 80%. All models had
length (in m), and H is as previously dened. relatively low energy dissipation at H/Hd = 1.40. In
Figure 3 shows the variation of the ow rate addition, energy dissipation was in the range of 20 to
with the ow head over different spillway models. 30% for ows around the design head and increased to
Theoretically, such a plot, on a log-log scale, should 30 to 40% for H/Hd in the vicinity of 1.25. The energy
yield a straight line with a slope of 1.5 and an intercept dissipation rate will then decrease with increasing
of log(C L). Based on a regression analysis of the discharge as it reaches a stage where the effect of the
0.020
C1B1 C2B2 C2B1 C1B2 Smooth
Flow Rate, Q (m3/s)
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
0 3 6 9
Flow Head, H (cm)
Figure 3. Variation of Flow Rate with Flow Head over Different Spillway Models.
100
C1B1 C2B2 C2B1 C1B2
80
% Energy Dissipated
60
40
20
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
H/H d
Figure 4. Variation of Percent Energy Dissipated at the Spillway Toe with (H/Hd).
steps is very small and a stepped spillway acts similar Figure 6 shows the variation of the dimensionless
to a smooth one. The amount of energy dissipated for quantity Lj/Hd with H/Hd. It clearly indicates that Lj
various discharges is determined and for all discharges is reduced approximately by 64% or more for model
the ow was found to be a skimming ow. C1B1 as compared to the smooth model. Considerable
Figure 5 shows the variation of the Fr1 at the reduction in Lj is also noticed for all other models. As a
upstream side of the hydraulic jump with H/Hd. This result, the length of the stilling basin is also reduced.
gure shows that for model C1B1 with H/Hd = 0.45, Figure 7 shows the variation of Lj with the difference
Fr1 was reduced by about 82% as compared to the between downstream and upstream depths (Y2Y1) or
smooth model. In general, for all models and with H/ conjugate depths. In general, Lj is about ve to seven
Hd < 1.0, Fr1 was considerably reduced. The reduction times the difference in conjugate depths. Performing
in Fr was not signicant for H/Hd > 1.20 and became a regression analysis on the data plotted in Figure 7
negligible for H/Hd > 1.40. produces a ratio of Lj/(Y2 - Y1) = 5.16 with r2 = 0.84.
This is well within the normally accepted values.
14
C1B1 C2B2 C2B1 C1B2 Smooth
12
Froude Number, Fr1
10
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
H/H d
14
C1B1 C2B2 C2B1 C1B2 Smooth
12
10
8
L j /H d
6
0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
H/H d
70
C1B1 C2B2 C2B1 C1B2 Smooth
60
50
L j , (cm)
40
30
20
10
0
0 3 6 9 12
(Y2-Y1), (cm)
% Energy Dissipated
passing over the spillway and h =
step height, as well as on N, the 60
number of steps. For Yc/h = 2.5, the
stepped surface was very effective in 40
dissipating energy. For values of 2.5 <
Yc/h < 6, the effect is still appreciable. 20
However, for values of Yc/h > 6, the
effect starts to reduce.
0
Using model results, a
2 4 6 8
relation between the ratio Y c/h
Lj/Hd and the parameter Yc/Nh is
presented in Figure 9. This gure
shows that Lj is reduced with Yc/Nh. Figure 8. Variation of Percentage Energy Dissipated with Yc /h.
As the number of steps increases, the
energy dissipated is increased, and Lj
is reduced. A similar conclusion was
reached by Chamani and Rajaratnam
(1994), where they reported that the
number of steps is more important 12
than the size of the steps. C1B1 C2B2 C2B1 C1B2
The results of the study indicated 10
that the model consisting of bottom
B1 and crest C1 (C1B1) produced 8
higher energy dissipation as compared
L j /H d
Elevatorski, E. 1959. Hydraulic Energy Dissipaters, Yildiz, D. and I. Kas. 1998. Hydraulic Performance of
McGraw-Hill Inc., New York. Stepped Chute Spillway. Hydropower and Dams, (4):
6470.
Frizell, K.H. 1991. Stepped Spillway Design for Flow
over Embankment. Proceedings, The 1991 National Young, M.F. 1982. Feasibility Study of a Stepped
Conference Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Nashville, Spillway. Proceedings, Hydraulics Division Speciality
Tennessee, July 29 to August 2, 118-123. Conference, ASCE, New York, 96-106.