ENGLISH GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED COLES EDITORIAL BOARD EEA NOLES OTABI N D Publisher's Note Otabind (Ota-bind). This book has been bound Se aa using the patented Otabind process. You can open this book at any page, gently run your finger down the spine, and the pages will lie flat. Bound to stay openABOUT COLES NOTES COLES NOTES have been an indispensible aid to students on five continents since 1948. COLES NOTES are available for a wide range of individual literary works. Clear, concise explanations and insights are provided along with interesting interpretations and evaluations. Proper use of COLES NOTES will allow the student to pay greater attention to lectures and spend less time taking notes. This will result in a broader understanding of the work being studied and will free the student for increased participation in discussions. COLES NOTES are an invaluable aid for review and exam preparation as well as an invitation to explore different interpretive paths. COLES NOTES are written by experts in their fields. It should be noted that any literary judgement expressed herein is just that -the judgement of one school of thought. Interpretations that diverge from, or totally disagree with any criticism may be equally valid. COLES NOTES are designed to supplement the text and are not intended as a substitute for reading the text itself.Use of the NOTES will serve not only to clarify the work being studied, but should enhance the readers enjoyment of the topic. ISBN 0-7740-0009-0 © COPYRIGHT 2003 AND PUBLISHED BY COLES PUBLISHING COMPANY TORONTO - CANADA PRINTED IN CANADA. Manufactured by Webcom Limited Cover finish: Webcom's Exclusive DURACOATCONTENTS PART ONE: THE PARTS OF SPEECH NAMES AND DEFINITIONS ....... A. NOUNS . . PRONOUNS. . VERBS ..... . ADJECTIVES i . ADVERBS ................. . CONJUNCTIONS ..... Amuyeeumacne G. PREPOSITIONS ..........0.-.-:cese ™mooaon FORMS AND FUNCTIONS niclesursckota eecvoemasesraenee 1B A. NOUNS ......... Ae : ‘ B. PRONOUNS .. C. VERBS ooo PART TWO: VERBALS GERUND A. DEFINITION B, PROPERTIES . C. FUNCTIONS INFINITIVE A. DEFINITION ........... B. PROPERTIES ........ . Bn GFUNCTIONS gccomneag nen cnnmcrnsnaten PARTICIPLE .......... A. DEFINITION B. PROPERTIES C. FUNCTIONS ........ PART THREE: PHRASES AND CLAUSES THE PHRASE A. DEFINITION .. B. KINDS ............ THE CLAUSE . A. DEFINITION 2s . B. KINDS OF CLAUSES . omen = C. FUNCTIONS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES . . Continued .. .CONTENTS (continued) PART FOUR: SENTENCES DEFINITION OF A SENTENCE ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE A. SUBJECT B, PREDICATE C. COMPLEMENT D. MODIFIERS E, INDEPENDANT ELEMENTS KINDS OF SENTENCES A, ACCORDING TO PURPOSE B. ACCORDING TO FORM C. ACCORDING TO STYLE SENTENCE ERRORS A. FRAGMENT B. RUN-ON SENTENCE C. FAULTY ARRANGEMENT D. DANGLING MODIFIERS E, FAULTY PRONOUN REFERENCE F, FAULTY PARALLELISM G. FAULTY COMPARISONS H. SHIFTS IN VIEWPOINT PUNCTUATION . THE COMMA .. THE SEMICOLON THE COLON THE PERIOD THE QUESTION MARK, THE EXCLAMATION MARK, THE DASH, PARENTHESES THE APOSTROPHE QUOTATION MARKS. GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS 43 43 43 43 43 44 44 45 45 45 47 49 49 50 50 52 53 55 57 58 61 61 63 64 65 66 67 68 69NAMES Noun Pronoun Verb Adverb Adjective Preposition Conjunction Interjection PART ONE THE PARTS OF SPEECH NAMES AND DEFINITIONS DEFINITIONS A word that names a person, place, thing, quality, or idea A word that substitutes for a noun A word that expresses action, being, or condition A word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb A word that modifies a noun or a pronoun A word that shows relationship between its object and some other word in the sentence A word that joins words, phrases, or clauses A word that shows surprise or sudden feeling EXAMPLES Jane, city, beauty, book, democracy she, they, which one run, is, seems run rapidly very heavy parcel run very rapidly heavy parcel first one on the table under the table by the table and, but, or, for, nor Oh! Ouch!A. NOUNS PROPER NOUN — Names a particular person, place, or thing! Janice, Canada, Ford, Los Angeles. COMMON NOUN — Names any one of a class of persons, places or things. CONCRETE NOUN — Names something one may see, hear, feel, taste, or smell: tree, bell, soup, perfume, pencil. ABSTRACT NOUN — Names a quality, an idea, or an emo- tion: fear, honesty, equality, liberty, beauty. COLLECTIVE NOUN — Names a group of people or things spoken of as a unit: team, jury, audience, herd, class. PRONOUNS PERSONAL PRONOUN — Refers to a person without naming him: J, you, he. RELATIVE PRONOUN — Introduces an adjective clause and relates it to a person or thing previously named: He is the man who wrote the book of poems shat you bor- rowed from my cousin. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN — Points out persons or things: This is my cousin, and that is his little brother. These are my books and those are yours. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN — Introduces a question: Who is there? What does he want? INDEFINITE PRONOUN — Indicates a person or thing not specifically named: someone, everyone, all, each, few, several, either. REFLECTIVE PRONOUN — Emphasizes the noun or pronoun that precedes it: himself, herself, itself, yourself, themselves. RECIPROCAL PRONOUN — Expresses the mutual action or the relationship of the persons indicated by the subject. Is used only as the object of a verb or the object of a preposition. a. Reference to two persons: each other. The two mountain climbers helped each other. b. Reference to more than two persons: one another The six mountain climbers helped one another.C. VERBS According to position in the sentence MAIN VERB — Performs the principal action or makes the principal statement about the subject: He has been waiting for you. AUXILIARY (HELPING) VERB — Helps the main verb to indicate time, person, or number: I am waiting. The man has been waiting. We have been waiting. They were waiting. Helps the main verb to form the passive voice: The job was done by Mr. Jones. TRANSITIVE VERB — Requires an object to receive its action: she wrote a poem. Martha ate the sandwich. INTRANSITIVE VERB — Does not require an object to receive its action: Judy waited. The children laughed and shouted. COMPLETE — Needs no complement: The angry man swore. The children ran. LINKING — Links the subject with a predicate noun, a pre- dicate pronoun, or a predicate adjective: Mr. Bronson is the coach. The person at the door was he. Mildred seems angry. D. ADJECTIVES According to function DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVE — Expresses a kind, a quality, or a condition of the person or object named: a tall old elm tree. LIMITING ADJECTIVE — Identifies the person or object named, or indicates number or quantity.ARTICLES INDEFINITE ARTICLE — Indicates any one of a class of persons or objects, or the class itself: a boy, an apple, a mammal. DEFINITE ARTICLE — Indicates a particular person, object, or class: the boy, the apple, the reptiles. DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE — Points out specific per- sons or objects: This girl, that woman, these problems, those people. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES CARDINAL — Denotes number: one, two, three, or four lessons. ORDINAL — Denotes order or position: the first, second, third, or fourth lesson. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE — Limits ownership. Is the posses- sive case form of the personal pronoun or the relative pronoun: her hat, their car, his problem, our town, whose pen. RELATIVE ADJECTIVE — Introduces a noun clause and limits a noun ora pronoun in that clause: I know which book he prefers. Let him have whichever one he chooses. INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE — Indicates a person or an object without naming anyone or anything in particular: any man, some books, each student, few boys. INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE — Modifies a noun or a pro- noun by asking a question about it: Which road shall we take? What rules are in force? EXCLAMATORY ADJECTIVE — The word what or the idio- matic expression what a used to modify a noun or a pronoun: What excitement! What a battle! According to position ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE — Expresses an attribute (char- acteristic or quality) of the person or object named. a. Preceeding the noun: a short rope, a careful driver, many unhappy people. b. Following the noun: attorney general, heir apparent, a child stubborn and uncooperative.9 PREDICATE ADJECTIVE — Follows a linking verb and des- scribes or limits the subject: The water seems cold. Marvin was second in line. According to meaning COMMON ADJECTIVE Pertains to any one of a class of persons, places, things, quali- ties, or ideas: a ladylike girl, a country boy, a long story, a totalitarian country. PROPER ADJECTIVE Pertains to a particular person or place, or to a particular class of persons or places. Is always capitalized. Miltonic sonnet, Hawaiian shirt, English people, European politics. According to form SIMPLE ADJECTIVE —A single word that modifies a noun or a pronoun: That is a high building. It is new. DERIVATIVE ADJECTIVE — Made from another part of speech, usually by adding a suffix. a. Froma noun: harmful, childlike, Chinese. b. From a yerb: The present or past participle form of the verb modifying a noun or a pronoun: running water, used car. COMPOUND ADJECTIVE — Two or more words with the effect of one modifier. a. Written as one word: waterproof fabric. b. Two words hyphenated (always placed before the noun): a well-bred person, red-hot iron. c. Two words not hyphenated (always a predicate adjective after linking a verb): He was well bred. The iron was red hot. - OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH — Words performing the func- tions of adjectives but usually used as other parts of speech. a. Noun: a glass house, a cabbage leaf. b. Pronoun: (See Limiting Adjectives). ce. Verb: a blow pipe, a dance band, a glow worm. d. Adverb: an out patient, after effects, inside job.10 PHRASES — Groups of related words, without subject and verb, modifying nouns or pronouns. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE: The cover of the book is torn. (Modifies cover) The woman at the window is a friend of mine. PARTICIPAL PHRASE: Running down the street, Jack stumbled and fell. (Modifies Jack) INFINITIVE PHRASE: The counsellor is the person to help you with a change of program. (Modifies person). SUBORDINATE CLAUSES — Groups of related words with subject and verb, used to modify nouns or pronouns. The book that I read was a story about the Civil War. (Modi- fies book) The man who advertised a car for sale is my uncle. (Modifies man). According to degree POSITIVE DEGREE — Denotes the simple quality of a person, place, or thing: large dog, bright coin, dull knife. COMPARATIVE DEGREE — Denotes the comparison of only two persons, places, or things: My dog is larger than yours. Tom is heavier than Mark. SUPERLATIVE DEGREE — Denotes the comparison of three or more persons, places, or things: Of the three dogs, Andy's is the largest. Karl is the heaviest boy on the team. E. ADVERBS According to function SIMPLE ADVERB — A single word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. a, Modifying a verb: She spoke well. b. Modifying an adjective: She made a very good speech. c. Modifying another adverb: She spoke very well.11 SENTENCE ADVERB — Modifies the whole sentence idea: Perhaps Lawrence knows the answer. Surely they have arrived by this time. INTERROGATIVE ADVERB — Introduces a question: Where is my book? CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB — Connects clauses and modifies their meaning: The boys searched the cave; however, they did not find the treasure. Ellen lost the key to her locker; therefore, she had to ask for a duplicate. According to meaning ADVERB OF TIME, FREQUENCY, OR SUCCESSION — Tells when, how often, in what order: now, soon, frequenily, secondly, lastly. ADVERB OF PLACE OR DIRECTION — Tells where or in which direction: here, north, above, outside. ADVERB OF MANNER — Tells how: slowly, carefully, belli- gerently. ADVERB OF DEGREE, AMOUNT, OR NUMBER — Tells how much or to what extent: nearly, very, much, twice, too. ADVERB OF CAUSE, PURPOSE, OR RESULT — Tells why, for what reason, or with what result: why, therefore, hence, consequently. ADVERB OF ASSERTION, CONDITION, OR CONCESSION — Introduces or qualifies an action: Yes, no, likewise, never- theless, however. According to form SIMPLE ADVERB — A single word modifying a verb, an adjec- tive, or another adverb: The train will arrive soon. He made too many errors. DERIVATIVE ADVERB — Made from another part of speech, usually by adding a suffix. a. From an adjective: smoothly, slowly, carefully.12 b. From the participle of a verb: entertainingly, deservedly, annoyingly. PHRASES — Groups of related words, without subject and verb, modifying verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE: The dictionary lies on the table. (Modifies the verb lies). INFINITIVE PHRASE: Jerry hurried to finish the painting before the rain began. (Modifies the verb hurried) SUBORDINATE CLAUSES — Groups of related words, with subject and verb, modifying verbs, adjectives, and adverbs: When I opened my locker, I found my pen. (Modifies the verb found). According to degree POSITIVE DEGREE — Denotes the simple quality of an action: Tom ran fast. COMPARATIVE DEGREES — Denotes the comparison of only two actions, Bob ran faster than Tom. SUPERLATIVE DEGREE — Denotes the comparison of three or more actions: Of the three boys, Joe ran the fastest. F. CONJUNCTIONS According to function COORDINATING CONJUNCTION — Joins two or more words, phrases, or clauses of equal rank. SINGLE CONJUNCTION: and, but, or, for, nor. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS — Always used in pairs: notonly ... but also both...and whether... or either...or neither... nor13 ADVERBIAL CONJUNCTION — Joins coordinate or inde- pendent clauses and shows their relationship: Kathy studies diligently; consequently, she received good grades. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION — Introduces a dependent clause, usually adverbial: Although the lecture was long, it held the interest of the audience. According to meaning ADDITION (Coordinating) SIMPLE: and CORRELATIVE: not only... but also; both ...and ADVERBIAL: also, besides ALTERNATION SIMPLE: or, nor CORRELATIVE: either ... or; neither ... nor; whether... or CAUSE OR REASON COORDINATING a. Simple: for b. Adverbial: inasmuch as SUBORDINATING: as, because, since COMPARISON (Subordinating) as...as; as well as; as if; much as; so... as; than CONCESSION COORDINATING (ADVERBIAL) however, yet, still, never- theless SUBORDINATING: although, except, that, though CONDITION COORDINATING (ADVERBIAL): provided; provided that, providing SUBORDINATING: if, unless, whether, whether or not CONTRAST COORDINATING (a) Simple: but (b) Adverbial: however, nevertheless, yet, still SUBORDINATING: much as, whereas14 MANNER COORDINATING (ADVERBIAL): thus SUBORDINATING: as, as if, as though, however PLACE OR DIRECTION COORDINATING (ADVERBIAL): here, there SUBORDINATING: where, wherever, whence, whither PURPOSE (Subordinating): in order that; so that; that; lest RESULT OR CONSEQUENCE COORDINATING (ADVERBIAL): accordingly, hence, con- sequently, so, therefore SUBORDINATING: wherefore TIME COORDINATING (ADVERBIAL): afterwards, hereafter, next, thereafter, then SUBORDINATING: after, as long as, as soon as, before, ere, since, when, until, while . PREPOSITIONS SINGLE WORD — Shows relationship between its object and some other word in the sentence: The book is under the table. The children are in the swimming pool. COMPOUND PREPOSITION —A group of words that does the work of a single preposition: in front of; on account of; according to. PREPOSITIONS IN COMMON USAGE SINGLE about beside in regarding above besides into respecting across between like round after beyond of through against by off throughout along concerning on toward around considering over under at despite since underneath before down to upon behind during until with below for unto within beneath from up without15 COMPOUND according to because of for the sake of apart from by means of from above aside from by way of from behind in accordance with instead of in addition to on account of in behalf of outside of in front of regardless of in regard to relative to in spite of with reference to RULE: THE PART OF SPEECH OF ANY WORD IS DETERMINED BY ITS USE IN THE SENTENCE. FORMS AND FUNCTIONS A. NOUNS GENDER — Indicates sex. a. Masculine — Males: Tom, he b. Feminine — Females: Jane, she c. Common — Refers to either sex, or to groups containing members of both sexes: person, they d. Neuter — Without sex: rock, ocean NUMBER a. Singular — Names one person, place, thing, quality, or idea: girl, box, town, evil. b. Plural — Names more than one person, place, thing, quality, or idea: girls, boxes, towns, evils. Rules for the Spelling of Plurals ADDING S$ OR ES — Most nouns form their plurals by add- ing S or ES to the singular forms. (a) Nouns ending in sibilants (S, SS, C, SH, TCH, CH, G, DG, X, Z) add ES, pronounced as an extra syl- lable: dishes, pages, judges, foxes, passes, matches. (b) Nouns not ending in sibilants usually add S: plates, cars, plans, methods.16 NOUNS ENDING IN Y (a) Nouns ending in Y preceded by a consonant change Y to Land add ES: babies, ladies. (b) Nouns ending in Y preceded by a vowel keep the Y and add S: valleys, toys, rays. (c) Proper names ending in Y always keep the Y and add S: Henrys, Toms. NOUNS ENDING IN O (a) Nouns ending in O preceded by a vowel add S: em- bryos, kangaroos, radios. (b) Nouns ending in O preceded by a consonant vary. Most of them add S: halos, zeros, dynamos, Fili- pinos. Some of them add ES: heroes, echoes, potatoes, tomatoes, vetoes, Negroes. Musical terms and instru- ments usually add S: solos, altos, sopranos, pianos, banjos. NOUNS ENDING IN F OR FE (a) Most nouns merely add S: beliefs, sheriffs, roofs, gulfs, chiefs. (b) Some nouns of Old English origin change F to V and add ES: calves, wolves, knives. NOUNS ENDING IN I USUALLY ADD S: skis, taxis. SURVIVALS OF OLD ENGLISH PLURALS (a) Addition of EN: children, brethren, oxen. (b) Internal changes: men, feet, mice, teeth. VARIANTS (Consult the dictionary for spellings. ) (a) Foreign words (b) Compounds (c) Derivatives (d) Collective nouns (e) Numbers and letters of the alphabet (£) Abbreviations CASE — Indicates the relationship between a noun and other elements of the sentence. NOMINATIVE CASE a. Subject of a verb: The children found a dog. b. Predicate noun: Mr. Lee is our teacher.c 17 Appositive —- A word that renames another word in the nominative case: Our dog Fido is lost. ‘That man is Mr. Lee, our teacher. NOUN IN DIRECT ADDRESS — Denotes a person or object spoken by name: Tony, did you hear me? What shall I do, Mr. Lee, if the experiment does not work? POSSESSIVE CASE — Shows ownership. a. b. c Singular nouns — Add apostrophe and S (’s) to form the possessive case: boy’s hat, lady’s purse, Orwell’s novels. Plural nouns — Add apostrophe and S$ (’s) to plural nouns that do not end in S: children’s books, men’s hats, women’s dresses. Add apostrophe without S to plural nouns that end in S: my three cousins’ names, the Joneses’ car. (The S after the apostrophe may also be omitted after singular nouns ending in S, if the sound is awkward: Mr. Howells’ car. With gerunds — Use the possessive form of the noun before a gerund: We approved of Bob’s buying a used car. OBJECTIVE CASE a. b. c d. Direct object of a verb: Andrew swept the sidewalk. Indirect object of a verb: Joseph gave his sister a book of essays. Object of a preposition: Emily is waiting at the library. Appositive — A word that renames another word in the objective case: We found our lost dog, Fido. I gave your pen to your sister Jane. Object of an infinitive: Mr. Martin wants to buy a book. Complement of an infinitive: I found him to be an honest man, Subject of an infinitive: He wants Jack to wash the car. Object of a gerund: Writing a book is difficult. Object of a participle: Having written a book, Mr. Thomas sent it to a publisher. Objective complement: I call Ellen my friend.18 B., PRONOUNS PERSON a. First Person —The person speaking: I, mine, we, our, me, us. b. Second Person — The person spoken to: you, your, yours. c. Third Person — The person spoken about: he, she, they, them. NUMBER a. Singular — Indicates one individual: me, her, it. b. Plural — Indicates more than one: us, them, ours. GENDER a. Masculine — Males: he, him, his. b. Feminine — Females: she, her, hers. c. Common — Either male or female, or groups containing both: we, they, us, them. d. Neuter — Without sex: it. CASE — Indicates the relationship between a pronoun and other elements of the sentence. NOMINATIVE CASE a. Subject of a verb: Who found the dog? We found the dog. b. Predicate pronoun: Betty was one of the first to finish. c. Appositive: Jack, the one who came late, is my friend. POSSESSIVE CASE a. Personal pronouns: Use case forms indicated in the following chart. Do not place apostrophes in possessive case forms of personal pronouns. b. Relative pronoun: whose. Whose marbles are these? ¢. Indefinite pronouns: Add apostrophe and S (’s) to one, everyone, anyone, someone, no one, everybody, anybody, somebody, and nobody. Here is someone's book. d. With gerunds — Use the possessive form of a pronoun before a gerund: The teacher approved of our writing to the newspaper columnist.19 OBJECTIVE CASE (1) Direct object of a verb: I saw him. (2) Indirect object of a verb: Father gave us balloons for the party. (3) Object of a preposition: I lent my pencil to someone. (4) Appositive: I lost my red pen, the one with a fine point. (5) Object of an infinitive: I shall try to find it. (6) Complement of an infinitive: I wanted the winner to be him. (7) Subject of an infinitive: We asked her to bring a salad. (8) Object of a gerund: Telling him is necessary. (9) Object of a participle: Having told him, we waited for his decision. (10) Objective complement: I call Tom one of the best friends I ever had. CASE FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS NUMBER PERSON CASE Nominative Possessive Objective Singular 1. I my, mine me 2. you your, yours you 3 he his him she her, hers her it its it Plural ll. we our, ours us 2. you your, yours you 3. they their, theirs them CASE FORMS OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN NUMBER CASE Singular and Nominative Possessive Objective Plural who whose whom20 AGREEMENT RULE: A PRONOUN MUST AGREE IN NUMBER WITH ITS ANTE- CEDENT. USES OF THE SINGULAR PRONOUN (1) with a singular noun as antecedent: The student forgot his notebook. (2) With an indefinite pronoun, singular in meaning, as antecedent: Everyone must bring his outline to class. (3) With two or more singular antecedents joined by or or nor: Neither Jack nor Tom has completed his job. (4) With one singular and one plural antecedent joined by or or nor if the one nearer the pronoun is singular: Either the two boys or their little brother will tell his parents about the accident. (5) Write a collective noun as antecedent when the group is regarded as a unit: When the committee decides what to do, it will ask the members of the club for help. USES OF THE PLURAL PRONOUN (1) With a plural noun as antecedent: The men have finish- ed their conference. (2) With an indefinite pronoun that is plural in meaning: A few of the students have brought their notebooks and pens. (3) With two or more singular antecedents joined by and: Don and Fred have finished their work. (4) With one singular and one plural antecedent joined by or or nor if the one nearer the pronoun is plural: Either Tomuny or his two brothers will tell their parents about the accident. (5) With a collective noun as antecedent when the indivi- duals of the group are referred to: The team are putting on their uniforms. USES OF THE MASCULINE PRONOUN (1) When the antecedent has common gender: Everyone in the class must follow the direction he has been given. (2) When two or more antecedents of one pronoun are of different genders: Every man and woman must accept his share.21 C. VERBS PRINCIPAL PARTS NAMES (1) Present tense form (present stem) (2) Past tense (3) Past participle (Note: All other forms of the verb are made from these three parts.) PRINCIPAL PARTS OF REGULAR VERBS — Formed by adding ED, D, or T to the present stem. Also called “weak” verbs. Most English verbs are regular. Present Past Past Participle fill filled filled succeed succeeded succeeded bake baked baked mean meant meant PRINCIPAL P A RTS OF IRREGULAR (“STRONG”) VERBS, FORMED BY VOWEL CHANGES: Present Past Past Participle arise arose arisen be was been bear bore borne begin began begun. bid bade bidden bind bound bound bite bit bitten blow blew blown break broke broken choose chose chosen cling clung clung come came come dig dug dug do did done draw drew drawn drink drank drunk22 Present drive eat fall fight find fling fly forbear forbid forget forsake freeze get give go grind grow hang (suspended) hide hold know lie (recline) tide ring tise Tun see shake shine (intr. ) shoot shrink sing sink sit slay sling slink Past drove ate fell fought found flung flew forbore forbade forgot forsook froze got gave went ground grew hung hid held knew lay rode rang rose ran saw shook shone shot shrank sang sank sat slew slung slunk Past Participle driven eaten, fallen fought found flung flown forborne forbidden forgotten forsaken. frozen gotten (got) given gone ground grown hung hidden held known. lain ridden rung risen run seen shaken shone shot shrunk sung sunk sat slain slung slunkPresent Past smite smote speak spoke spin spun spring sprang stand stood steal stole stick stuck sting stung stink stank, stunk stride strode strike struck string strung strive strove swear swore swim swam swing swung take took tear tore throw threw tread trod wear wore weave wove win won wind (turn) wound wring wrung write wrote 23 Past Participle smitten spoken spun sprung stood stolen stuck stung stunk stridden struck strung striven sworn swum swung taken torn thrown trodden, trod worn woven won wound wrung written PRINCIPAL PARTS OF TROUBLESOME VERBS (1) lie (intransitive): to recline lie lay lain (2) lay (transitive): to place or put an object (3) sit (intransitive): to occupy a seat lay laid laid sit sat sat (4) set (transitive): to place or put an object set set set24 (5) tise (intransitive): to get up tise rose risen (6) raise (transitive): to lift an object raise raised raised VOICE — Indicates the relationship of the subject to its verb ACTIVE VOICE (1) Types of verbs (a) Transitive (b) Intransitive (2) Relationships (a) Subject acting: Jack made a garden. (b) Subject being: It is a rock garden. (c) Subject becoming: The garden is growing PASSIVE VOICE (1) Type of verb: transitive only (2) Relationship: subject receiving the action The garden was made by Jack (3) Formation: the past participle of the main verb plus some form of auxiliary verb to be. MOOD — Indicates the manner in which action or state of being is expressed. INDICATIVE MOOD — States a fact or asks a question. I read that book. Whose book is it? SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD — Expresses doubt, uncertainty, im- probability, or wishfulness. (1) In conditional clauses contrary to fact: If I were you, I would not go. (2) In wishes: God be with you. (3) In motions and formal resolutions: I move that the secre- tary write to our Member of Parliament. (4) In formal recommendations, requests, or commands: I insist that everybody share the work. IMPERATIVE MOOD — Expresses command or request in the second person only: Give me the book. Write the first exercise,25 PERSON RULE: THE VERB AGREES WITH ITS SUBJECT IN PERSON. NOUN AS SUBJECT: verb always in third person. PERSONAL PRONOUN AS SUBJECT (1) First Person — Indicates the speaker: I am a student. (2) Second Person — Indicates the one spoken to: You were there. (3) Third Person — Indicates the person or thing spoken of: He is the manager. RELATIVE PRONOUN AS SUBJECT (1) Which Always third person: The book which is on the table is mine. (2) That Usually third person: The book that is on the table is mine. (3) Who May refer to an antecedent in first, second, or third per- son. Requires appropriate verb. I, who am your teacher, will help you. You, who are my student, need help. He, who is the referee, will make the decision. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN AS SUBJECT (1) Usually requires third person form: Who is there? (2) Requires first or second person form with pronouns in first or second person: Who am I? Who are you? NUMBER AND AGREEMENT RULE: THE VERB AGREES WITH ITS SUBJECT IN NUMBER. USES OF THE SINGULAR VERB (1) With a singular subject: The tree shades the walk. (2) With a compound subject joined by and if both parts refer to a single person or thing: The secretary and treasurer is Mary. (3) With a compound subject joined by or or nor both parts are singular: Either Jack or Carl is the chairman. Neither Mary nor Ellen was present.26 (4) With a compound subject joined by or or nor only the part nearest the verb is singular: The girls, the boys, or my mother is using my car. (5) With a collective noun when the group is regarded as a unit: The audience is applauding. (6) With indefinite pronouns singular in meaning: all, an- other, anybody, anyone, each, either, everybody, every- one, most, neither, nobody, none, nothing, one, some, somebody, someone. Each of you is invited. Some of the pie has been eaten. Everyone has problems. Some- one was here. (7) With nouns ending in S$ that are singular in meaning: Politics is a rough game. Economics was my major in college. USES OF THE PLURAL VERB (1) With a plural subject: The trees shade the walk. (2) With a compound subject joined by and: Mary and Ellen are planning a party. (3) With a compound subject joined by or if both parts are plural: The boys and the girls have been invited. (4) With a compound subject joined by or if the part nearest the verb is plural: My mother, the girls, or the boys are using my car. (5) With a collective noun when the individuals of the unit are referred to: The team are straggling onto the field. (6) With indefinite pronouns plural in meaning: both, few, others, several, all, any, most, none, some. Few have waited. Several are here. None of the officers were present. (7) With the second person pronoun you: You are a good student. You are good boys. (8) With some nouns ending in S that are singular in mean- ing: The scissors are missing. Carl’s trousers are at the cleaner’s. TENSE — Indicates the time of an action, of a state of being, or of a condition.TENSE FORMS (1) Present Tense — Going on now: runs (2) Past Tense — Completed in the past: ran 27 ' (3) Future Tense — To be completed in time to come: (4) will run affecting the present: has run Present Perfect Tense — Just completed and_ still (5) Past Perfect Tense — Completed in the past before some other action in the past: had run (6) Future Perfect Tense — To be completed in the future before some other action in the future: shall have run EXAMPLES OF TENSE FORMS TENSE Present: Past: Future: Present Perfect: Past Perfect: Future Perfect: Present: Past: Future: Present Perfect: Past Perfect: Future Perfect: SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE (Active Voice) T tell Iam telling I told I was telling I shall tell I shall be telling Thave told I have been telling Thad told I had been telling I shall have T shall have been told telling (Passive Voice) Iam told I am being told I was told I was being told I shall be told I have been told I had been told I shall have been told EMPHATIC I do tell I did tellTENSE FORMS SHOWING TIME RELATIONSHIPS (1) Present Perfect Tense — Indicates relationship be- tween two events in the present, but need not name both events: I have written my story. (2) Past Perfect Tense — Indicates relationship between two events in the past, both of which must be stated. (a) Stated in verbs: I had finished before you tele- phoned. (b) Stated in substantives naming events: I had finished studying by midnight. (3) Future Perfect Tense — Indicates relationship between two events in the past, both of which must be stated. (a) First event stated in future perfect tense form and second in present tense form with future meaning: Tom will have finished painting the house by the time we arrive. (b) First event stated in future perfect tense form and second in an adverbial phrase: Tom will have finished painting the house by noon. CONJUGATION DEFINITION — Listing the correct forms of a verb in the first, second and third persons; in singular and plural numbers; in active and passive voices; in the six tenses; in indicative, subjunctive, and imperative moods. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE (1) Indicative Mood TENSE NUMBER FORMS Present Singular Iam ‘You are He is Plural We are You are They are Past Singular Iwas ‘You were He was Plural We were You were They wereTENSE Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect 29 NUMBER FORMS Singular I have been You have been He has been Plural We have been You have been They have been Singular I had been You had been He had been Plural We had been You had been They had been Singular I shall have been You will have been He will have been Plural We shall have been You will have been They will have been (2) Subjunctive Mood (a) (b) Present tense — Use the form BE in all three persons, singular and plural: The committee insisted that I (we, you, he, they) be present. Past tense — Use the form WERE in all three per- sons, singular and plural: IfI (we, you, he, they) were ready, the program could begin. (3) Imperative Mood — Use BE in the second person only, singular and plural: Be careful. (4) Verbals (a) (b) (c) Infinitive Present: to be Perfect: to have been Participle Present: being Perfect: having been Gerund Present: being Perfect: having been30 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB SEE (1) Indicative Mood TENSE AND NUMBER Present Singular Plural Past Singular Plural Future Singular Plural Present Perfect Singular Plural Past Perfect Singular FORMS Active Passive Isee Tam seen You see You are seen He sees He is seen We see We are seen ‘You see ‘You are seen They see They are seen Isaw Iwas seen You saw You were seen He saw He was seen We saw We were seen You saw You were seen They saw They were seen I shall see I shall be seen You will see You will be seen He will see He will be seen We shall see We shall be seen You will see You will be seen They will see They will be seen Thave seen I have been seen You have seen You have been seen He has seen He has been seen We have seen You have seen They have seen Thad seen You had seen He had seen We have been seen You have been seen They have been seen Thad been seen You had been seen He had been seenPlural We had seen You had seen They had seen Future Perfect Singular Plural T shall have seen You will have seen He will have seen We shall have seen You will have seen They will have seen (2) Subjunctive Mood (a) Present tense — Use the form SEE in all three per- sons, singular and plural: The committee insisted that I (we, you, he, they) see the film. (b) Past tense — Use the indicative forms. 31 We had been seen You had been seen They had been seen I shall have been seen You will have been seen He will have been seen We shall have been seen You will have been seen They will have been seen (3) Imperative Mood — Use SEE in the second person only, singular and plural: See me about that lesson. (4) Verbals (a) (b) (c) Infinitive Present: to see Perfect: to have seen Participle Present: seeing Past: seen Perfect: having seen Gerund Present: seeing Perfect: having seen32 PART TWO VERBALS GERUND A. DEFINITION A form of the verb made by adding -ing to the present stem: Functions as a noun. B. PROPERTIES Has properties of a verb TENSE (1) Present tense: speaking (2) Perfect tense: having spoken VOICE (1) Active: seeing, having seen (2) Passive: being seen, having been seen COMPLEMENTS (Gerunds in Italic, COMPLEMENTS in Capitalized Italic) (1) Direct object: Playing TENNIS is fun. (2) Indirect object: Reading the CHILDREN astory was a pleasure. (3) Subjective complement: (a) Predicate noun: Being CAPTAIN is an honour. (b) Predicate pronoun: He insisted upon being HIMSELF. (c) Predicate adjective: He insisted upon being CAREFUL with the car. ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS (Gerunds in Italic, MODIFIERS in Capitalized Italic) (1) Simple adverb: Driving CAREFULLY prevents trouble. (2) Prepositional phrase: Driving IN THE RAIN is tiring. (3) Adverbial clause: Driving WHEN YOU ARE TIRED is dangerous.33 Has properties of a noun NUMBER (1) Singular: The writing is undeci pherable. (2) Plural: The writings are undecipherable. CASE (1) Nominative (2) Objective ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS (Gerunds in Italic, MODIFIERS in Capitalized Italic) (1) Simple adjective: CAREFUL driving indicates maturity. (2) Prepositional phrase: The driving OF SOME PEOPLE is erratic. (3) Adjective clause: The writing THAT HE HAS DONE is limited.to reports. (4) Noun in the possessive case: We approve of JOE’S entering a technical school. (5) Pronoun in the possessive case: The audience was not aware of his STUMBLING. Cc. FUNCTIONS As a noun in the NOMINATIVE CASE a. Subject of a verb: Seeing is believing. b. Predicate noun: Seeing is believing. c. Appositive: My job, wrapping packages, is easy. As a noun in the OBJECTIVE CASE a. Direct object of a verb: I like studying. b. Indirect object of a verb: He gave studying his best efforts. c. Object of a preposition: By pruning the tree, we encouraged its growth. d. Appositive: He applied himself to his daily task, studying.34 A. e. Object of an infinitive: He wants to learn typing. f. Subject of an infinitive: He wants engineering to be his major. g. Object of another gerund: Learning typing is difficult. h. Object of a participle: Having learned typing, Betty got a job in an office. i. Objective complement: I call it working. As an element in IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS (expressions peculiar to a language, not always logical) a. Object of a verb: cannot help wishing cannot stop shaking cannot avoid weeping cannot keep going b. Object of a preposition: capable of doing object in doing way of doing point in doing method of doing purpose of doing INFINITIVE DEFINITION A form of the verb preceded by the preposition fo, expressed or understood. Expressed: I want to help you. Understood: Let me (to) help you. . PROPERTIES Has properties of a verb TENSE (1) Present tense: to ask (2) Present perfect tense: to have asked VOICE (1) Active: to ask, to have asked (2) Passive: to be asked, to have been asked COMPLEMENTS (Infinitives in Italic, COMPLEMENTS in Capitalized Italic) (1) Direct object: He wanted to ask a QUESTION.35 (2) Indirect object: I wanted to ask HIM a question. (3) Predicate noun: Bill planned to bea COWBOY. (4) Predicate pronoun: I would not want to be YOU. (5) Predicate adjective: Father asked us to be CAREFUL. (6) Objective complement: lam proud to call him my FRIEND. MODIFIERS (Jnfinitives in Italic, MODIFIERS in Capitalized Italic) (1) Simple adverb: He likes to walk RAPIDLY. (2) Prepositional phrase: Judy like to walk IN THE RAIN. (3) Adverbial clause: I like to walk WHENEVER I CAN. SUBJECT — Always in the objective case: I asked HIM to open the window. Has one property of a noun: CASE a. Nominative b. Objective Cc. FUNCTIONS As a noun in the NOMINATIVE CASE a. Subject of a verb To err is human. b. Predicate noun: To see is to believe. c. Appositive: My job, to supervise the playgrounds, is interesting. As a noun in the OBJECTIVE CASE a. Appositive: I like my job, to supervise the playground. b. Object of a verb: He wants to believe the story.36 c. Object of a gerund: Trying to hurry caused him to fall. d. Object of a participle: Trying to hurry, he stumbled. e. Object of another infinitive: To want to do the right thing is the first step toward acquir- ing moral purpose. As an adjective a. Modifying a noun: The flowers to be watered are in the front yard. b. Modifying a pronoun: Those to be fertilized are in the back yard. c. Predicate adjective: The book is to be studied. As an adverb a. Modifying a verb: I waited to see you. b. Modifying an adjective: He was slow to respond. c. Modifying an adverb: He walked too slowly to keep up. As an element in idiomatic expressions compelled to do inclination to give able to go tendency to frown obligated to pay wish to buy (Note. Do not split an infinitive. Keep the verb and its pre- position together. Say always to try, not to always try.) PARTICIPLE A. DEFINITION A word made from a verb and used as an adjective. (Note: The use of the participle as a verbal must be distin- guished from the use of the past participle as the third principal part of the verb and as the main verb in the perfect tenses. )37 B. PROPERTIES TENSE a. Present tense: a helping verb b. Past tense: a used car c. Perfect tense: Mr. Raymond having mowed the lawn, re- laxed on the porch. VOICE a. Active: mowing, having mowed b. Passive: being mowed, having been mowed COMPLEMENTS (Participles in Italic, COMPLEMENTS in Capitalized Italic) a. Direct object: Having read the STORY, Mary put the children to bed. b. Indirect object: Having read the CHILDREN a story, Mary put them to bed. c. Predicate noun: Being CAPTAIN, Tom made the decision. d. Predicate pronoun: Not being YOU, I cannot solve your problem. e. Predicate adjective: Being CAUTIOUS, Joe delayed his decision. f. Objective complement: Having called him FRIEND, Max hesitated to condemn him. ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS (Participles in Italic, MODIFIERS in Capitalized Italic) a. Simple adverb: Walking RAPIDLY, Elmer soon arrived at the park. b. Adverbial phrase: Walking AT A RAPID PACE, Elmer soon arrived at the park. c. Adverbial clause: Doing AS HE WAS TOLD, Bob soon completed the ex- periment.38 C. FUNCTIONS Asa verb a. Makes an assertion b. Indicates action, condition, or being As an adjective a. Simple adjective (1) Attributive adjective (a) Before a noun: used car, broken dish (b) After a noun: The car driven by Mr. Smith was old. The dish broken by the child was mine. (2) Predicate adjective Describes the subject. Does not express an action. The book is stimulating. The noise is disturbing. She felt satisfied. b. Adjective phrase Waiting in the car, the dog became restless. As an element in idiomatic expressions a. Designates a general truth rather than the action of a specific person or thing: Generally speaking, English is difficult to learn. b. Does not modify a specific noun or pronoun: Judging by the treasurer's report, we are insolvent. c. Is independent of the main clause: Considering everything, we are very lucky.39 PART THREE PHRASES AND CLAUSES THE PHRASE A. DEFINITION A group of related words without subject and verb, functioning as a single unit of expression and used as a single part of speech. B. KINDS According to type a. Prepositional phrase Consists of a preposition, its object, and the modifiers (if any) of the object: The dictionary is on the large table. b. Gerund phrase Consists of a gerund and its complements and modifiers: Walking the dog is a chore. c. Participial phrase Consists of a participle and its complements and modifiers: Having read the new book, he wrote the report. d. Absolute phrase Consists of a noun or a pronoun plus a participle and is grammatically independent of the remainder of the sentence: Darkness having come, we turned on the porch light. e. Verb phrase Consists of the main verb in a sentence and one or more helping verbs: He has been cleaning the storeroom. According to function a. Noun phrases Phrases that perform the functions of nouns in their sen- tences. (1) Gerund phrase: Chasing a cat is Fido’s delight. (Subject of the verb is) (2) Infinitive phrase: Who said, “I do not choose to run”? (Object of the verb choose)40 b. Adjective phrases Phrases that modify nouns or pronouns. (1) Participial phrase: Needing a reference book, Edna went to the library. (Modifies Edna) (2) Prepositional phrase: What is the title of the book? (Modifies title) (3) Infinitive phrase: Jean has a snapshot to show. (Modifies snapshot) c. Adverb (adverbial) phrase Phrases that modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. (1) Prepositional phrase: We went to the art gallery. (Modifies went) (2) Infinitive phrase: The airplane was too high to be identified. (Modifies the adjective high) It passed too quickly to be seen. (Modifies the adverb quickly) THE CLAUSE A. DEFINITION A group of related words containing a subject and a verb and functioning as a unit of thought. B. KINDS OF CLAUSES MAIN (independent or principal) CLAUSE a, Contains the principal idea in a sentence b. Can stand alone as a sentence c. Always expresses a complete thought SUBORDINATE (dependent) CLAUSE a. Contains a subordinate idea b. Cannot stand alone as a sentence c. Depends upon the main clause for its meaning C. FUNCTIONS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES NOUN CLAUSE a. Subject of a verb: What he said was not audible.41 Subjective complement: This article is not what I ordered. Appositive: Jane’s idea, that we should have a paper drive, was rejected. Direct object of a verb or a verbal. I did not hear what he said. Upon hearing what he said, I was angry. Indirect object of a verb or a verbal: Give whoever wants them these magazines. Max tried to assist whoever needed help. Object of a preposition: Give the magazines to whoever wants them. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE a. b. Restrictive Points out, identifies, or tells which one. Necessary to the meaning of the sentence. Not set off by commas. People who drive too fast endanger the lives of others. This is the last play that Shaw wrote. Non-restrictive Adds extra parenthetical, descriptive, or informative ma- terial. Not necessary to the meaning of the sentence. Is set off by commas. Jack, who has a new car, drives very fast. This book, which belongs to the library, is a biography of Lincoln. ADVERB (Adverbial) CLAUSE a. Gives information (1) Time (tells when): When you finish, you may leave. (2) Place (tells where): Put the new sign where the old one was. (3) Manner (tells how): Do as you think best. (4) Cause (tells why): Because he was late, he missed the dance.2 b. Restricts the verb c. (1) Purpose (tells with what intent): We arrived early so that we might get good seats. (2) Condition (tells under what limitations): We shall go if we are invited. (3) Concession (tells with what exceptions or compro- mises): Although I read the book, 1 do not remember the name of the main character. Restricts a modifier (1) Comparison (tells similarities and differences ): She is taller than I am. (2) Degree (tells how much or to what extent): He walked as fast as he could. (3) Result (tells what happened): The cat was so frightened that it climbed a tree.43 PART FOUR SENTENCES DEFINITION OF A SENTENCE A group of words that makes a complete statement and expresses a complete thought. ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE SUBJECT That part of the sentence that tells what the statement is about. SIMPLE SUBJECT The noun or pronoun: The family across the street came from Brazil. COMPLETE SUBJECT The noun or pronoun and all its appositives and modifiers: The family across the street came from Brazil. . PREDICATE The part of the sentence that tells what the subject does or tells something about the subject. SIMPLE PREDICATE The complete verb, including the main verb and its helping verbs: The family across the street has recently come from Brazil. COMPLETE PREDICATE The verb and all its complements and modifiers: The family across the street has recently come from Brazil. COMPLEMENT Something added to a verb to complete its meaning. DIRECT OBJECT Completes the meaning of the verb by naming the receiver of the action. Susan gave Mary a pen. INDIRECT OBJECT Tells to whom or for whom something is done: Susan gave Mary a pen.44 SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT Follows the verb and renames or describes the subject. a. Predicate noun: Mr. Joyce is our drama coach. b. Predicate pronoun: The winner of the contest was she. c. Predicate adjective: The colour of the old house was green. . MODIFIERS Of the simple subject Words, phrases, or clauses that describe or limit the meaning of the noun or pronoun. The zealous salesman arrived promptly. The owner of the store was waiting for him. The man who wrote our textbook was there. Of the simple predicate Words, phrases or clauses that describe or limit the action of the verb: The student walked slowly. They walked across the campus. Although the bell had rung, they did not hurry. Of the complement Words, phrases or clauses that describe or limit the meaning of the complement: We bought the red car. We bought the car in the window. We bought the car that was in the window. Of an appositive Words, phrases, or clauses that describe or limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun in apposition with the subject or the comple- ment. Mr. Thomas, my next-door neighbour, goes to night school. That little boy, the one in the red shirt, won a prize. His sister, the one who sings, taught him a song. . INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS INTERJECTION — Expresses emotion but has no grammatical relationship to the other words in the sentence: Oh, what a mistake he made!45 NOUN IN DIRECT ADDRESS — A name used to attract atten- tion: Kathy, who is your friend? NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE — A participial phrase: containing the noun it modifies, grammatically independent of the re- mainder of the sentence: The rain being over, we went to the circus. KINDS OF SENTENCES A. ACCORDING TO PURPOSE DECLARATIVE SENTENCE — Makes a statement: Walt Whitman wrote many poems in free verse. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE — Asks a question: Why was he called the poet of democracy? IMPERATIVE SENTENCE — Expresses a command or a re- quest: Read his poetry and find out for yourself EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE — Expresses strong or sudden feeling: What a beautiful fountain! B. ACCORDING TO FORM SIMPLE SENTENCE — Contains one independent clause and no subordinate clauses. a. Single subject and single predicate (subject in Italic, PRED- ICATE in Capitalized Italic) Wordsworth WROTE many sonnets. b. Compound subject and single predicate: Keats and Shelley also WROTE sonnets. c. Single subject and compound predicate: Tennyson READ and ADMIRED the poems of Keats. d. Compound subject and compound predicate: Addison and Steele WROTE and PUBLISHED essays. COMPOUND SENTENCE — Contains two or more independent clauses and no subordinate clauses. a. Without a comma When very short clauses are joined by the coordinating con- junction and: The curtain rose and the play began.b. With a comma (1) When long clauses are joined by the coordinating con- junction and: We heard that a famous lecturer was coming to our campus, and we hurried to finish our work so that we might attend his lecture. (2) When clauses of any length are joined by the coordin- ating conjunction but: Joe tried his best, but he did not win the race. (3) When clauses of any length are joined by the coordin- ating conjunction or: You may read the story, or you may write the com- position. c. With a semicolon (1) When there are commas in one or both of the inde- pendent clauses (preferred, but not required): We have written the letters, wrapped the packages, and stamped the envelopes; and now we must go to the post office. (2) When there is no coordinating conjunction between clauses: We knew that the librarian could help us; therefore, we hurried to the library. (Note: A comma placed between two independent clauses where a period or a semicolon is required constitutes a comma fault, usually called a comma splice, a serious error in sentence structure.) COMPLEX SENTENCE — Contains one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause: When we heard the lecture had been postponed, we went to the ball game. (Subordinate clause in Italic) COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE — A combination of the compound and the complex sentence. Contains two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses. When we arrived at the auditorium, we found that the lec- turer had not arrived, and we waited for half an hour.Cc. ACCORDING TO STYLE LOOSE SENTENCE — States the main idea early in the sentence and gives additional details afterwards: He studied poetry at the university and found it very interest- ing. PERIODIC SENTENCE — Withholds the main idea to the end of the sentence: Among the most interesting of the courses he took at the university was a course in poetry. BALANCED SENTENCE — Contains parts similar in structure and length. a. Parallel words (1) Nouns: (2) (3) (4) The great man has || wisdom and courage The great man has | both wisdom | and courage Verbs: The farmer || plowed and || harrowed his field The child could || neither speak || nor hear. The scientist || directed his subordinates, || performed experiments, and || wrote an important book. Adjectives: The tall, || cowboy was || either sad silent || || or shy. Adverbs: Ted works || rapidly and || efficiently.48 b. Parallel phrases (1) Prepositional phrases: Abe knocked the ball|| across the street and || ito the storm drain. (2) Verbal phrases (a) Gerund phrases: Playing tennis and watching television || were Joe’s hobbies. (b) Infinitive phrases: In her algebra class Kate learned to interpret the symbols and to solve the equations. (c) Participial phrases: The boy || running down the street and || calling to his friends is my son. c. Parallel clauses (1) Subordinate clauses Q) (a) Noun clauses: We knew || that the new books had arrived and || that father would be pleased (b) Adjective clauses: I admire a man || who is sincere and who has good judgment. (c) Adverb clauses: No one knows || how the lion escaped or | where he went. Independent clauses: “The evil that men do lives after them; The good is oft interred in their bones.” — Shakespeare “Crafty men condemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them.” — Sir Francis Bacon49 SENTENCE ERRORS A. FRAGMENT A part of a sentence written as a complete sentence. ACCEPTABLE FRAGMENTS a. Exclamations: How terrible! What a nuisance! Bits of dialogue: “Know him?” “Sure do.” “Like him?” “Nope.” Commands (subject understood): Wait. Stop. Sit down. Transitions: On with the dance. To summarize. UNACCEPTABLE FRAGMENTS (Italic) a. Avverbal phrase offered as a sentence: C Fragment: We visited the museum. Hoping to find informa- tion for a term paper. Correction: Hoping to find information for a term paper, we visited the museum. A subordinate clause offered as a sentence: Fragment: We found some excellent books on our topic. Although we did not understand all of them. Correction: We found some excellent books on our topic, although we did not understand all of them. A noun followed by a phrase but lacking a verb: Fragment: We questioned John. John being the night watchman. Correction: We questioned John, the night watchman. A noun followed by a clause but lacking a verb: Fragment: We consulted an expert. A man who had spent many years studying his subject. Correction: We consulted an expert, a man who had spent many years studying his subject.50 B. RUN-ON SENTENCE FUSED SENTENCE — Two independent clauses written as one sentence without the necessary period or semicolon between them: The waves were rough the boat was tossed about like a match stick, COMMA SPLICE — The use of a comma, instead of the neces- sary period or semicolon, between two independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction (also called a comma fault): The waves were rough, the boat was tossed about like a match stick. METHODS OF CORRECTION a. Two sentences with a period between them: The waves were rough. The boat was tossed about like a match stick. b. Compound sentence with a semicolon: The waves were rough; the boat was tossed about like a match stick. c. Compound sentence with a comma and a coordinating con- junction: The waves were rough, and the boat was tossed about like a match stick. d. Complex sentence: Because the waves were rough, the boat was tossed about like a match stick. C. FAULTY ARRANGEMENT MISPLACED ADVERBS — Adverbs often misplaced: only merely, almost, also, even, just, nearly. Error: I only wanted two boxes of cereal. Correction: I wanted only two boxes of cereal. Error: He almost worked three hours. Correction: He worked almost three hours. Error: A child could even solve that problem. Correction: Even a child could solve that problem. RULE: PLACE THE ADVERB AS NEAR AS POSSIBLE TO THE WORD IT MODIFIES.51 SPLIT INFINITIVES Error: After dinner Betty began to immediately do her homework. Correction: After dinner Betty began immediately to do her homework. Error: He did not want fo ever be a lawyer. Correction: He did not want ever to be a lawyer. RULE. DO NOT ALLOW MODIFIERS TO SEPARATE THE VERB OF THE INFINITIVE FROM ITS PREPOSITION. MISPLACED PHRASES Error: Aunt Alice wrote that she would arrive on Wednes- day in her letter. Correction: In her letter Aunt Alice wrote that she would arrive on Wednesday. Error: The President announced that a new ambassador had been appointed at his news conference. Correction: The President announced at his news confer- ence that a new ambassador had been appointed. RULE: PLACE MODIFYING PHRASES AS NEAR AS POSSIBLE TO THE WORDS THEY MODIFY. MISPLACED CLAUSES Error: I read the book during my vacation at home which I had borrowed from the library. Correction: During my vacation at home I read the book which I had borrowed from the library. Error: The boy disappeared into the cave who had been leading the hikers. Correction: The boy who had been leading the hikers dis- appeared into the cave. RULE: PLACE MODIFYING CLAUSES AS NEAR AS POSSIBLE TO THE WORDS THEY MODIFY. AMBIGUOUS MODIFIERS — Modifiers that may refer to either a word that precedes or a word that follows. Error: Father said when the rain stopped the children could go to the park. Correction: When the rain stopped, father said the children could go to the park. Father said the children could go to the park when the rain stopped.52 Error: I offered on Wednesday to help in the library. Correction: On Wednesday I offered to help in the library. J offered to help in the library on Wednesday. RULE: PLACE MODIFIERS IN POSITION THAT CLEARLY INDI- CATE THE WORDS THEY MODIFY AND THE EXACT MEANING OF THE SENTENCE. D. DANGLING MODIFIERS Modifiers that have nothing in the sentence to modify, or that seem to modify the wrong noun or pronoun. DANGLING VERBAL PHRASES a. Participial phrase Error: Entering the classroom, the test had already begun. (The test did not enter the classroom.) Correction: Entering the classroom, we found that the test had already begun. Error: Hearing the bell, the benches were deserted by the students. (The benches did not hear the bell.) Correction: Hearing the bell, the students deserted the benches. b. Gerund phrase, when the gerund follows a preposition. Error: After watching the game, our homework had to be done. (The homework did not watch the game. ) Correction: After watching the game, we had to do our homework. Error: Upon searching the attic, the old vase was found. (The vase did not search the attic.) Correction: Upon searching the attic, Mrs. Ray found the old vase. c. Infinitive phrase Error: To correct your errors in sentence structure, a knowl- edge of grammar is necessary. Correction: To correct your errors in sentence structure, you should have a knowledge of grammar. Error: To succeed in college, regular study habits should be established. Correction: To succeed in college, one should establish regular study habits.53 d. Dangling phrase of result Error: The bus was delayed, thus causing Jane to be tardy. (Causing refers incorrectly to a whole idea instead of to a specific noun or pronoun. It should be eliminated.) Correction: Jane was tardy because the bus was delayed. RULE: WHEN A VERBAL PHRASE IS USED AS A MODIFIER, THERE MUST BE IN THE SENTENCE A PERSON OR A THING TO PERFORM THE ACTION OF THE VERBAL. DANGLING ELLIPTICAL CLAUSES a. Elliptical clause: A clause in which some of the necessary words are implied but not expressed. Correct when the im- plied subject is the same as the subject of the main clause. When only a child, Ellen was frightened by a dog. b. Dangling elliptical clause: An elliptical clause in which the implied subject is different from the subject of the main clause. Error: When only a child, Father took me to visit my grand- mother in Australia. Correction: When only a child, I was taken by my father to visit my grandmother in Australia. Error: When eight years old, his mother died. Correction: When he was eight years old, his mother died. E. FAULTY PRONOUN REFERENCE ERROR IN AGREEMENT — Failure to use pronouns that have the same person, number, and gender as their antecedents. Error: In ancient times a characteristic of man and their fears of the unknown. Correction: In ancient times a characteristic of man was his fears of the unknown. In ancient times a characteristic of men was their fears of the unknown. Error: Somebody left their textbook on the bench. Correction: Somebody left his textbook on the bench. Error: Neither Clara nor Doris has finished their judo exer- cise. Correction: Neither Clara nor Doris has finished her judo exercise.54 Error: During the storm every tree in the park lost their leaves. Correction: During the storm every tree in the park lost some of its leaves. RULE: A PRONOUN MUST AGREE WITH ITS ANTECEDENT IN PERSON, NUMBER, AND GENDER. VAGUE REFERENCE a. Use of a pronoun (usually a relative pronoun) to refer to a whole idea instead of to a specific noun or pronoun. Vague: Susan lost a valuable ring, which made her unhappy. Correction: It was her loss of a valuable ring which made Susan unhappy. Her loss of a valuable ring made Susan unhappy. b. Use of a personal pronoun (it, you, they) as an indefinite pronoun, without a specific antecedent. Vague: They say that some students in this college need remedial English. Correction: The counsellors say that some students in this college need remedial English, and they have provided a course for such students. Vague: In the first chapter it explains parts of speech. Correction: The first chapter explains parts of speech. Vague: You never know what will happen. Correction: One never knows what will happen. (Note: In certain idiomatic expressions the pronoun it may be used without an antecedent: How long did it rain? How far is it to the beach? /¢ is warm today. /t seems that on some days everything goes wrong.) RULE: RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND PERSONAL PRONOUNS MUST REFER TO DEFINITE, EXPRESSED ANTECEDENTS. AMBIGUOUS REFERENCE Reference to either of two antecedents. Ambiguous: Mary told Jane that she was going to be invited to join a service club. Correction: Mary said, “Jane, you are (or I am) going to be invited to join a service club.”55 REMOTE REFERENCE Pronoun too far from antecedent. Remote: He worked on his term paper for several weeks, looking up many references and reading a number of books. Jt was on the exploration of space. Correction: For several weeks, looking up many references and reading a number of books, he worked on his term paper. It was about the exploration of space. (Or, omit “It was,” and make one sentence. ) OBSCURE REFERENCE a. Repetition of pronoun with different antecedents Obscure: Sally’s composition on space travel was long, but it was interesting; however, she made it seem too easy. Correction: Sally’s composition on space travel was long, but it was interesting; however, she made space travel seem too easy. b. Antecedent in minor construction (1) A possessive Obscure: In Faulkner's last novel he wrote about a family in the South. Correction: In his last novel Faulkner wrote about a family in the South. (2) Object of a preposition Obscure: The president of the club is a freshman. Jt is a service club. Correction: The president of the service club is a freshman. RULE: A PRONOUN SHOULD REFER TO AN ANTECEDENT WHICH IS THE SUBJECT OR THE OBJECT IN A CLAUSE, OR WHICH IS SPECIFICIALLY EMPHASIZED. F, FAULTY PARALLELISM USING PARALLEL STRUCTURE FOR IDEAS NOT PARALLEL Faulty: He worked || in a market and || boxing groceries. Correction: He worked in a market boxing groceries.56 Faulty: He was || a fine athlete, || a good student, and || everyone of us liked him. || a fine arhleie and || Correction: He was || a good student || and everyone of us liked him. FAILURE TO USE PARALLEL STRUCTURE FOR PARALLEL IDEAS a. Before and after coordinating conjunctions Faulty: This book tells about || the life of Edison Il and || how he worked. Correction: This book tells about the || life and || work of Edison. b. After each half of a pair of correlatives Faulty: He got ideas || not only from reading good || books, || but also because he took part || in intelligent discussions. Correction: He got ideas || not only from reading good books, || but also from participating in || intelligent discussions. c. With all members of a series or list Faulty: The student worked on || grammar, | || composition, || and || how to improve || reading. Correction: The student worked on || grammar, || composition, l| and || reading improvement. RULE: USE PARALLEL CONSTRUCTIONS ONLY WHEN THE IDEAS OF THE SENTENCE ELEMENTS ARE OF EQUAL RANK AND IMPORTANCE.57 G. FAULTY COMPARISONS ILLOGICAL a. Stating resemblances between things that have nothing in common: Illogical: The president’s job is more important than the secretary. Correction: The president’s job is more important than that of the secretary. (Compare job with job.) Mogical: The food in this restaurant is as good as any other place. Correction: The food in this restaurant is as good as the food in any other place. (Compare food with food.) b. Including in its class or group the object being compared: Illogical: He is faster than any runner on his track team. (He is a member of the team; therefore, he is faster than himself.) Correction: He is faster than any other runner on his track team. Illogical: The University of Toronto is larger than any uni- versity in Southern Ontario. (The University of Toronto is in Southern Ontario; therefore, it is larger than itself.) Correction: The University of Toronto is larger than any other university in Southern Ontario. INCOMPLETE a. Leaving out some of the words necessary to complete the idiom: Incomplete: Joe’s problems are as hard if not harder than mine. Correction: Joe’s problems are as hard as, if not harder than mine. Incomplete: Fort York is one of the oldest, if not the oldest fort in Ontario. Correction: Fort York is one of the oldest forts, if not the oldest fort in Ontario. (When one word in a comparison is plural and one is singular, both must be expressed. ) Incomplete: He drives one of the smallest, if not the smallest car in town. Correction: He drives one of the smallest cars, if not the smallest car in town. Incomplete: Tommy reads faster than his brothers.58 Correction: Tommy reads faster than his brothers read. (When one verb is singular and one is plural, both must be expressed. ) b. Use of SO, SUCH, and TOO without a clause or a phrase to complete the construction: Incomplete: She was so angry. Correction: She was so angry that she wept. Incomplete: It was such a cold day. Correction: It was such a cold day that I shivered. Incomplete: Bob was too tired. Correction: Bob was too tired to study. INCORRECT a. Using the comparative and the superlative degrees in- accurately: Incorrect: Kathy is the tallest of the two sisters. Correction: Kathy is taller of the two sisters. Incorrect: Kathy is the taller of the three girls. Correction: Kathy is the tallest of the three girls. b. Using the comparative and the superlative degrees with inadequate comparisons: Incorrect: Ours is a better product. (Better than what?) Correction: Our product is better than Brand X. Incorrect: I have the best car. Correction: I have the best car on the parking lot. c. Giving comparative or superlative forms to these adjec- tives that have only absolute meanings: unique, empty, square, round, parallel, perfect. H. SHIFTS IN VIEWPOINT Failure to maintain consistency in viewpoint. Needless changing from one viewpoint to another. SHIFT IN TENSE — From past to present or from present to past tense within a sentence or a paragraph, when there is no real change in time: Shift: When the bell rings, every student hurried to his class.Correction: When the bell rang, every student hurried to his class. (Note: Verbs in subordinate constructions are usually made to agree with the verb in the main clause. ) SHIFT IN PERSON — Usually from first or third to second person: Shift: We did our best, but you can’t win every game. Correction: We did our best, but we couldn’t win every game. Shift: A student can increase his accuracy if you learn to use an outline. Correction: A student can increase his accuracy if he learns to use an outline. SHIFT IN NUMBER Shift: Everyone should always do their best. Correction: Everyone should always do his best. Shift: The student needs a college dictionary. They also need a handbook of English. Correction: The student needs a college dictionary. He also needs a handbook of English. SHIFT IN MOOD — Usually from indicative to imperative and vice versa: Shift: You should buy some typing paper; also, buy a new typewriter ribbon. Correction: You should buy some typing paper and a new typewriter ribbon. Shift: Plant the bulbs in the shade; then you must water them every day. Correction: Plant the bulbs in the shade and water them every day. SHIFT IN VOICE — Usually from active to passive, often from passive to active: Shift: Jimmy did his homework after dinner; the lawn had been mowed by him earlier. Correction: Jimmy did his homework after dinner; he had mowed the lawn earlier. Shift: The weekly lecture was given by Dr. Smith; he talked on psychotherapy.60 Correction: Dr. Smith gave the weekly lecture; he talked on psychotherapy. SHIFT IN SUBJECT — Often caused by shift in voice. Shift: Terry likes dancing, and swimming is also one of her favourite activities. Correction: Terry likes dancing, and she also likes swim- ming. Terry likes dancing and swimming. Shift: The boys climbed the hill and soon the camp could be seen. Correction: The boys climbed the hill and soon saw the camp. SHIFT IN DISCOURSE — From direct to indirect and vice versa. Shift: I asked if he had a foreign sports car and, if so, would he sellit to me. Correction: Indirect: I asked if he had a foreign sports car and if he would sell it to me. Direct: I asked, “Do you have a foreign sports car, and if so, will you sell it to me?” SHIFT IN PERSPECTIVE Shift: We stood at the gate admiring the bright colours of the rose garden. In the house the girls were setting the table with their grandmother’s best china and silver. (The perspective shifts from the gate to the dining room. The writer should not describe what he cannot sce from whatever vantage point he has chosen.) Correction: For a few minutes we stood at the gate admiring the bright colours of the rose garden. When we entered the house and were invited into the dining room, we saw that the girls had set the table with their grandmother’s best china and silver. SHIFT IN STYLE — From formal to informal and vice versa. Shift: At the meeting of the represenatives of the Latin American governments, the first speaker started to make a formal speech, but a heckler got his goat and he messed it up. Correction: At the meeting of the representatives of the Latin American governments, the first speaker started to make a formal speech, but he was so disturbed by a heckler that he ended in confusion.61 PUNCTUATION In this streamlined age the tendency is to reduce punctuation to the minimum. For that reason it is all the more necessary that a comma or colon, when it appears, should be used correctly and should aid the reader in quick comprehension of the written statement. So important is the correct usage of punctuation that a legal issue has sometimes turned on the placement of a comma. In the sentences below, “While we were cutting up my aunt arrived for tea.” and “Two miles on the road is worse.” a comma after “cutting up” and “two miles on” makes sense out of nonsense. All such sentences require a comma to indicate where the reader should pause. A stenographer’s skill is tested each day on her knowledge of the rules of punctuation. Many stenographers find great difficulty in deciding the correct punctuation to use. Actually, punctuation is quite logical and it should be easy to decide whether or not a comma would add to clearness. The chief purpose of ali punctuation marks is to present the writer’s thoughts clearly. READ THE COMPLETE SENTENCE OVER TO DECIDE THE PUNCTUATION. PAUSES IN READING ARE THE BEST GUIDE TO THE INSERTION OF THE PUNCTUATION MARKS. These are some examples of frequently used punctuation marks. THE COMMA (,) The comma has the reputation of being the most used and misused of all punctuation marks. Some uses are: 1. To separate a series of three or more words, phrases, or clauses He is reliable, honest, efficient. He is reliable, honest, and efficient. or He is reliable, honest and efficient. The use of the comma after the second item of the series in the second example given above is optional, but the comma should be put in wherever it makes the series clearer to the reader, since otherwise there is a tendency to group the last two items. In the sentence, “There were blue, green, red, and black flags.” a comma is necessary before “and” to make the meaning clear. If two “and’s” occur in the last group the comma should usually be inserted for clarity.62 This report is incomplete; it has not been prepared accord- ing to instructions, and it is indefinite and hard to follow. 2. To introduce a direct quotation, unless it is long or formal. He stated definitely, “This ruling should go into effect on the first of February.” 3. To set off words used in addressing a perso by name or title, Please be assured, sir, of our fullest co-ope. ation. 4. To separate clauses having independent subjects and verbs, unless they are very short. This procedure has been approved by the Minister, and other departments have signified their willingness to co- operate. (Separate subjects.) We both sent in our applications and we plan to work in the same office. (Same subject and second clause contains an idea related to the first. Comma not necessary.) 5. To set off an introductory adverbial clause While we were in conference in September, Mr. Jackson drew this point to our attention. When you leave the building, let the supervisor know. 6. To set off “non-restrictive’ (or non-essential) phrases or clauses. This system, which was introduced only two months ago, has already effected a great saving in time. A “restrictive” phrase or clause, however, is not marked off with a comma. All employees who have been on the payroll for one year or more are to receive a bonus. 7. To set off inserted expressions or parts of a sentence not in the usual order. He will, if he is encouraged, take more interest in his work. 8. To set off contrasted words or phrases. This letter was addressed to Vancouver, not Victoria. 9. To set off sentence modifiers or parenthetical expressions, such as therefore, however, moreover, of course, in the first place, on the other hand, etc. If some of these expressions — also, perhaps, therefore, of course —; do not require a pause in reading, no comma is need- ed except to give particular emphasis.63 He therefore did not submit a report at that time. The expressions, this is, ie., namely, viz., for example, and ¢.g., may be marked off with commas unless they introduce a com- plete sentence, in which case they are preceded by a semi-colon and followed by acomma. Some authorities give the latter rule for all cases. The office contains three pieces of furniture, namely, a desk, a chair and a file cabinet. You are to include in this report all relevant information; that is, serial numbers, dates of issue, etc., are to be given. 10. To set off a phrase with a participial construction (“ing”, “ed”, “en”, etc.) Having finished the work, she checked it for accuracy. 11. To set off expressions in apposition (one descriptive of the other.) He wishes to transfer his contract to his wife, Mrs. J. C. Ross. 12. To set off dates and geographic expressions. Our new office, established June 15, 1966, is at Regina, Saskatchewan, and you should refer your complaint to the manager there. 13. To prevent confusion in reading. While we were eating, the supervisor, who had returned early from luncheon, appeared at the door. THE SEMICOLON (;) The semicolon is useful as an augmented comma to indicate a longer pause and a more abrupt break in the sense of the sentence. It has double the strength of the comma and half that of the period and is used when the parts of a sentence are too closely related to be divided by a period. Its chief uses are: 1. To separate clauses of a compound sentence not joined by a conjunction. The staff is too small; it should be enlarged. He did not report for duty; he went abroad. 2. To give emphasis to separation between clauses or to make the meaning clearer. This does not seem reasonable; but from the evidence we cannot believe otherwise.64 3. To separate a series of clauses and phrases which are already punctuated by commas. He lived in Paris, France, for five years; in Berlin, Germany, for two years; and in Ottawa, Canada, for the rest of the time. 4. To separate compound items, if a comma occurs in the body of the item. The outstanding supporters are: I. C. Ross, Toronto; Alfred Walker, Montreal; W. K. Benton, Ottawa. THE COLON (:) The colon denotes a pause or a degree of separation greater than that expressed by a semicolon, but less than that indicated by the period. It is most often a mark of anticipation, introducing an extract, quotation, illustration, or other additional information. The colon is equivalent to the expressions “namely” and “as follows”, and is often substituted for these expressions. The “dash” (—) is only a weaker relative of the colon and therefore should not be used to follow the colon when indicating a new paragraph. Colons are used: 1. To introduce a list, an illustration, an explanation or a statement. (The best modern usage is the colon only, not the colon and the dash.) The question is: What will the Director give as his judgment? The amendment covers three items: age, residence and citizenship. 2. To introduce two independent clauses if the second is an explanation of the first. These two plans can be easily adjusted: the first can be tried with the group at Vancouver; the second with the group at Victoria. 3. To introduce an extended quotation Mr. Jones spoke as follows: ‘My dear friends, . . .” 4. To introduce a quotation, whea it is in a separate paragraph, or when the quotation is long or formal. The text of the speaker’s address began as follows. Whereas Parliament assembled has seen fit. . . 5. To complete the salutation in a formal letter and the intro- ductory salutation in a written speech. Deat Mr. Justice Blank: Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen:65 6. To separate chapter and verse in Scripture references, and volume and page reference in periodicals. Mark 7: 16 Personnel Journal 30: 421 Note: When you use a colon (or a dash) to introduce a citation or a direct quotation, do not separate the part which precedes the colon (or a dash) from that which follows. Thus you avoid the anomaly of having the text on one page and the citation or quotation on another page. Example: Ortona’s rubble barricades, the thunder of collapsing walls and the blinding dust and smoke darkened the alleys in which Do not Canadians and Germans were locked in grim hand-to-hand End page end page struggle. The daily report of the 76th Corps testified to the here __here __ bitterness of the day’s fighting: In Ortona the enemy attacked all day long with about or one brigade supported by ten tanks, In very hard house- to-house fighting and at the cost of heavy casualties to here his own troops (he) advanced to the market square in the south part of the town. The battle there is especially violent. THE PERIOD (.) Some uses of the period are: 1. To indicate a full stop at the end of a sentence that is not interrogative or exclamatory. We are pleased to learn from your letter that a meeting will soon be held with our District representatives at Regina. 2. To complete an abbreviation. He receives his B.Sc. degree at 2.00 p.m., Tuesday. If an abbreviation occurs at the end of a sentence, do not repeat the period, but add a question mark or exclamation mark if required. Please send the parcel C.O.D. Will you need to send the parcel C.O.D.? Note: The period is not used after certain contractions, such as per cent, dates ending in th, nd, rd, st, Roman numerals. Con- tractions in French that end in the last letter of the word contracted (Mme, Mile) do not require a period. M. (for Monsieur) and similar contractions, require a period. 3. To indicate the omission of a few words in a quoted passage. Three periods are used in the middle of a sentence but four periods are necessary at the end of a sentence.66 Mr. Pollard’s letter reads as follows: “After a thorough investigation of the matter . . . we reached the conclusion that the error was not due to negligence. . . .” THE QUESTION MARK (?) The main uses are: 1. To indicate a direct question. Will you be able to attend the conference to be held in Ottawa? She asked, “Will you be able to attend the conference to be held in Ottawa?” Would you be good enough to have the required papers forwarded not later than the end of the month. (This is a request, not a question. ) 2. To indicate uncertainty. The name of the sender is Mrs. R. Mackie(?). THE EXCLAMATION MARK (!) An exclamation mark is used after an ejaculation which expresses surprise, fear or some other emotion and after any phrase or sentence of command, irony or the like which expresses forceful utterance or strong feeling. However, the exclamation mark should not be used too frequently in writing or it loses its effectiveness. Good gracious! You startled me. How impertinent can she be! The employee asked for a promotion on the ground of his long and outstanding (!) service. THE DASH (—) The dash indicates a sudden break and gives more emphasis than commas or parentheses. It is used singly or in pairs: 1. To enclose a remark inserted in a sentence. The report that you have received — whatever it may contain — was mailed without my official approval. 2. To emphasize a contrast. This matter should be referred to the Department at Ottawa — not to the local Employment Office. PARENTHESES ( ) Parentheses are used to enclose some remark that does not affect the structure of the sentence but illustrates, explains, defines or gives additional information. Parentheses are used principally:67 1. To enclose some remark having little relation to the rest of the sentence, The McLeod Publishing Company (formerly McLeod and Benson), whose address is 220 Riverside, will furnish you with this information. Note: There is no punctuation before the first bracket and the punctuation after the second bracket is only that which would have occurred in the orginal sentence. At the end of a sentence containing parentheses, the period is placed outside the bracket; if a complete sentence is contained in the bracketed material, the period is placed inside the bracket. THE APOSTROPHE (‘) The apostrophe is most frequently used to indicate possession; formation of the plurals of figures and letters; omission of a letter or letters from a word, or of one or more figures from a date. Some uses of the apostrophe are: 1. To form the possessive of singular or plural nouns ending in an s or z sound. person’s, sender’s, book’s, one’s, employer’s, employee’s, children’s, women’s. Note: The possessive of two or more nouns in apposition is indicated by adding an apostrophe and s to the last noun. The member from Toronto’s motion. With Brown, the lawyer’s consent. 2. To form the possessive of singular common and proper nouns of one syllable ending in s or zsound. Charles’s ambition; press’s comments; Burns’s poems; Marx’s followers; boss’s desk. Also Jones’ (or Jones’s) house. 3. To form the possessive of plurals ending in s. authorities’, provinces’. 4. To form the possessive of all plurals ending in an s or z sound including a number of French plurals ending in x which are pronounced in English with a final z sound. consumers’ protest; the boxes’ covers; the Browns’ party; the Joneses’ reunion; the tableaux’ effect; the two chateaux’ guests.68 To indicate plurals of figures and letters. Cross out the 2's and 3’s and the b’s on this sheet. To form the possessive of abbreviations. UNICEF's work; NATO’s plan; John Jr.’s coat; the Brown Co.’s statement. To indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a word or one or more figures from a date. If he isn’t there, we'll go on. It is ten o'clock. Look in the ’66 file. I've told him. Note: An apostrophe is not used in possessive pronouns such as, hers, theirs, yours, his, ours. “Its” should never be written with an apostrophe unless it means “it is”. QUOTATION MARKS (” ”) OR (’’) Quotation marks, double or single, are used to enclose the exact words of a speaker or writer. Such quoted material must be repro- duced exactly as originally given, even to the extent of repeating errors in spelling, grammar or punctuation. Attention may be called to such errors by writing sic (latin for so) in brackets immediately after an error. Some uses of quotation marks are: To enclose a direct quotation. The supervisor said, “I will permit no changes in these tules.” To enclose interrupted quotations or portions of a longer quotation. “You will allow me to explain the case,” he said with a smile, “and then you can discuss it.” In his remarks the commentator emphasized the “Art of Relaxation.” “His eloquence had the effect of music,” said the reporter. “Tt inspired the soul and fired the imagination.” To indicate a quotation within a quotation, both double and single quotation marks are used — double quotation marks for the main quotation and single quotation marks for inside quota- tions. For a third quotation within the matter enclosed by single69 quotation marks double quotation marks are used. Quoted matter should seldom go beyond the three sets of quotation marks. The teacher said, “Arnold Toynbee’s question, ‘Are the breakdowns of civilization due to some loss of command over the environment on the part of their human “men- bers”?’ is one which compels out attention.” 4. To enclose a new or technical word. These articles should be packed in ‘leather-board’ boxes. Note: When a quotation comprises several paragraphs or stanzas of poetry, the quotation marks are placed at the begin- ing of each paragraph or stanza but only at the end of the last paragraph or stanza. The quotation is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas unless the meaning necessitates the use of other punctuation. Accepted practice tends to place the comma and the final period inside the quotation marks. Other punctuation marks are placed inside the quotation marks only if they form a part of the quoted matter. GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS Most of the definitions are followed by sentences illustrating the term defined. In these sentences, words in italics are examples of the term itself; words in SMALL CAPITALS are grammatically related to the italicized words in a way that helps explain the term. For example, in the first illustrative sentence under the term adverb, dili- gently (the word in italics) is an example of an adverb; WORKED (the word in small capitals) is the word modified by diligently. Since worker is a verb, its modifier is an adverb. Abstract noun. The name of a quality, state, action, or idea: honesty, love, hitting, pragmatism, etc. Active voice. When a verb is in active voice, the subject of that verb is acting. NorMaw astonished his teacher. Seven little BIRDS were sitting on the fence. See also voice and passive voice. Adjective. A word that modifies, limits, or describes a noun or pro- noun. We were awestruck by the turbulent WATERS of Niagara Gorge. See predicate adjective and relative clause.70 Adjective Clause. See relative clause. Adverb. A word, phrase, or clause that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb and answers such questions as how, why, where, when, to what degree, under what circumstances, etc. The new committee chairman worKeED diligently. (The adverb diligently modifies the verb worked by telling “how.” ) Your test score is unusually Low. (The adverb unusually modi- fies the adjective low by telling “to what degree.”) Jan tried to READ too rapidly. (Too is an adverb of “degree” modifying the adverb rapidly, which is an adverb of “how” modifying the verb read.) If the U.N. is strong, there May BE peace. (The adverbial de- pendent clause modifies the verb may be by telling “under what circumstances.”) Adverbial clause See dependent clause. Anglicized word. A foreign term, such as bonafide or matinee, that has been adapted to English usage. Antecedent. A noun, pronoun, noun phrase, or noun clause to which a pronoun refers. Beware of the person WHO “knows” everything. (The pronoun who refers to person.) That man will travel to the planets, WHICH was fantasy only a few years ago, can hardly be doubted today. (The pronoun which refers to the noun clause that man will travel to the planets.) Appositive. A word or group of words which renames or explains the noun preceding it. GEORGE WASHINGTON CarVER, the famous Negro scientist, dis- covered many uses for the peanut. (This appositive identifies Carver.) Auxiliary verb. A helping verb, such as be, have, can, may, might, shall, should, would, must, do, etc. This kind of verb helps another verb to indicate tense, mood, or voice. We do not KNow his intentions, but he might be PLANNING an escape. Case. The relationship of a noun, pronoun, or other substantive to other words in the sentence. See nominative, objective, and pos- sessive case.A Clause. A group of related words having a subject and finite verb and which may or may not stand by itself. See independent and de- pendent clause. Collective noun. The name of a group or collection of similar beings of things such as nation, class, bevy, crowd, etc. Comma fault or comma splice. Connecting two independent clauses by a comma alone. See the discussion under comma tule 11 for a full explanation. Common noun. The name applied to any member of a class of per- sons, places, or things, such as girls, city, hammer. Complement. A word or group of words that follows a finite verb or a verbal and that completes the meaning of the sentence. See objective complement and predicate. Complex sentence. A sentence containing one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. Although the enemy kept advancing, JACKSON STOOD LIKE A STONE WALL. AFTER A DAY OF SHOPPING, AGNES HAILED A TAXI, FORGETTING that she had already spent all her money. (The dependent clauses are in italics.) Compound adjective. An adjective composed of two or more related words, such as well-informed person or an I-don’t-care attitude. Many of our once hyphenated words are now combined: near-by has become nearby. When in doubt about the hyphen, consult a dictionary. Compound-complex sentence. A sentence containing two or more in- dependent and one or more dependent clauses. WE ARE ALL LIKE SCHEHERAZADE’S HUSBAND, in that we want to know what happens next, and WE EXPECT A NOVEL TO TELL A story. (The italicized portion of the sentence contains two dependent clauses: in that we want to know and what hap- pens next. The clauses in SMALL CAPITALS are independent.) Compound predicate. Two or more verbs, or simple predicates, gov- erned by a single subject and usually connected by conjunctions. Our cLass drove to Chicago and visited the Lincoln Park Zoo. Compound sentence. A sentence composed of two or more inde- pendent clauses: The team has lost its first two games, YET there is still a chance for a successful season. (Here a coordinating conjunction, yet, connects the two clauses.)a2. Compound subject. Tow or more simple subjects, usually having a common verb. Winston Churchill and Jawaharlal Nehru were notable leaders. Concrete noun. The name of something that can be perceived by the senses: bread, car, coat, house, etc. Conjugation. The inflection or change of form in verbs to indicate tense, voice, mood, number, or person. Conjunction. The part of speech that connects words, phrases, or clauses. See subordinating, coordinating, and correlative conjunc- tion. Conjunctive adverb. An adverb used as a transitional connective be- tween independent clauses. In 1964, 48,000 people were killed in auto accidents; neverthe- less, many reckless drivers are still unalarmed. See semicolon rule 4. Coordinate. Of equal importance or rank, as are the adjectives in the sentence below. Ted was a competent, vigorous, robust athlete. Coordinating conjunction. A connective such as and, but, for, or, etc., used to join words, phrases, and clauses that are logically and gram- matically equal in rank. The house is painted RED and WHITE. Diane can play the PIANO or the ACCORDION. Your task is not TO ALTER the script but TO EXAMINE it. EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES MUST BE EXTENDED TO ALL, or THERE WILL BE A SERIOUS WASTE OF TALENT. Copulative verb. Sce linking verb. Correlative conjunction. Conjunctions used in pairs to connect co- ordinate units. Neither THE MONEY nor THE PLANS were available. (Other cor- relatives are both... and, either... or, not only .. . but also.) Declarative sentence. A sentence which states something as a fact. Grover Cleveland served two terms as President. Declension. The inflection or change of form of a noun or pronoun to indicate case, gender, number, or person. Demonstrative adjective. A word that selects persons or things for special attention.That car has smart styling. (Other such adjectives are these, those, and this.) The demonstrative adjectives may stand alone as pronouns, and they are therefore also called demonstrative pronouns. That is a car with smart styling. Demonstrative pronoun. Sce demonsirative adjective. Dependent clause. Any clause that is part of another clause or that modifies an element of another clause. Such clauses are always in- troduced either by a subordinate conjunction, such as if, because, after, although, etc., or by a relative pronoun, such as who, whom, which, etc. The introductory conjunction indicates that the clause is dependent on some other clause and therefore cannot stand alone. Every sentence must have at least one clause that is not dependent; this is called a main or independent clause. A dependent clause is also called a subordinate clause. Whether it rains or snows Is not our immediate concern. (The dependent clause is the subject of the main verb is.) Present-day scientists DO not KNOW whether there is life on Mars. (The dependent clause is the direct object of the main verb.) There is a MAN who has two jobs. (The dependent clause modi- fies the noun man.) If our present plans materialize, WE WILL HAVE a new gym- nasium within two years. (Here the dependent adverbial clause of “circumstance” modifies the main verb.) Derivation. The tracing of the development of a word from its original elements. For example, the word bibliophile comes from the Greek word biblion meaning “book” and another Greek word philos mean- ing “loving.” Diction. A person’s choice of words or manner of expression. Direct address. A grammatical construction in which a writer or speaker addresses someone directly. Henry, it is time for church. Hurry up, Bill. Direct object. The person or thing receiving the direct action of a transitive or action verb. Mary ATE the candy. (The object is a noun.) The speeding baseball nit him on the head. (The object is a pronoun.) We always ENJOY swimming in the ocean. (The object is a gerund phrase.)74 Authorities did not KNow where the money was hidden. (The ob- ject is a dependent clause.) Direct quotation. In a direct quotation the writer or speaker quotes verbatim, or word for word, what another person has said. William Jennings Bryan said, “You shall not press down upon the brow of labour this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.” See indirect quotation. Ellipsis. This is the term for an expression that is incomplete gram- matically but clear in meaning because the omitted words can be inferred [You] Get busy. Whenever [it is] possible, you should brush your teeth after meals. This is also the term for an omission in a quotation which has been shortened: “My country, tis of thee . . . of thee I sing. .. .” This is also the term for the three periods designating such an omis- sion. When four periods appear in such a construction, the first three are the ellipses and the fourth is a regular period marking the end of a sentence. See the rules for the ellipsis. Epithet. An adjective, noun, or phrase expressing a characteristic quality of a person or thing. An epithet accompanies a name or occurs in its place. WILLIAM the Conqueror won the battle of Hastings in 1066. Man’s best friend often bites the postman. Exclamatory sentence. One that expresses strong feeling or emotion, such as fear, shock, surprise, etc. Run for your lives! The roof is falling. Did we ever have fun at the fair! Expletive. The word it or the word there when either of them intro- duces a verb which precedes the subject. The word expletive means “filler.” There WERE many PAVILLIONS at Expo 67. It Is his DESIRE to attend college. (Both it and there are not parts of speech but merely rhetorical devices to introduce the verbs are and is.) Finite verb, A verb form that can serve as the predicate of a sentence. Unlike participles, gerunds, or infinitives — which are all verbals — the finite verb makes a complete assertion and can easily be changed in form to agree in person, number, or tense.75 The missile moves toward the moon. The technicians are launching the rocket. For comparison, see gerund, infinitive, participle. Fragment. A group of words written as a sentence but lacking an in- dependent clause and therefore not a grammatical sentence. After giving up hope. (This fragment, a prepositional phrase, has neither subject nor finite verb and is not, therefore, a sentence.) After giving up hope, we finally heard the good news. (Here is the same fragment worked into a legitimate sentence.) While I was dining at the inn. (This fragment, an adverbial clause, has a subject, J and a finite verb, was dining, but be- cause it is introduced by the conjunction while, it is incomplete in meaning and is not, therefore, a sentence.) While I was dining at the inn, news of the storm arrived. (This is the same fragment worked into a sentence.) That he was unsuited jor the job. (This fragment, a noun clause, is incomplete in meaning.) That he was unsuited for the job was quite evident. (The same fragment has been worked into a sentence.) There are times when fragments, such as elliptical constructions, are permissable as sentences, but the context must provide an implica- tion of the complete thought. Inexperienced writers should be careful in using such constructions. Gender. The sex associated with a noun, often dictating the form of pronouns and modifiers related to the noun. Feminine gender: woman, girl, sister, her, she, etc. Masculine gender: man, boy, son, him, he, etc. Common gender: either male or female or both: student, pro- fessor, children, etc. Neuter gender, neither male nor female: house, book, lake, etc. Gerund. A verb form, or verbal, ending in ing and used as a noun. (Compare with participle.) Some of its uses are as follows: Subject of verb: Reading good books 1s commendable. Direct object: Some slow students DESPISE reading. Object of preposition: The thought oF reading was repugnant. Predicate nominative: Her favourite PASTIME was reading. Apposite: His main Task, reading, was becoming a burden. Nominative absolute: Reading being so much fun, I rarely watch television.76 Gerund phrase. A phrase including a gerund and either an object or modifiers or both. Visiting museums of natural history is fascinating. (Museums is the object of the gerund visiting.) Swimming at the beach is most enjoyable. (The gerund swimming is an adverbial modifier of “where.”) Grammar. That science dealing with the funtional classification of words, or parts of speech, in a sentence; the change in form, or in- flection, of words; and the relationships of words within a sentence, or syntax. Idiom. An expression that is grammatically peculiar or whose mean- ing cannot be completely determined by examining its parts: how do you do, take heart, fly into a rage, make no bones about it. Imperative mood. That mood of a verb which expresses a command or directive. Glen, be prepared for that examination. Please permit me to help you. Indefinite pronoun. A pronoun without a definite antecedent; that is, a pronoun not referring to a particular person or thing. Each of the students is capable of doing the job. Several received “A”s. Independent clause. (also called main or principal clause). A clause that could form a complete sentence. There will be many disappointments before a lasting peace is secured. (The independent clause forms a complete thought by itself; but the dependent clause does not.) Indicative mood. An objective statement of a fact or a question that is answerable by such a statement. These flower bulbs require special care. Are these strawberries ripe? See subjunctive and imperative mood. Indirect quotatien. A quotation in which the meaning of the original speaker is expressed but without repeating his words exactly. Professor Smith said that all reports would be typed. (The fol- lowing version of the same sentence is a direct rather than an indirect quotation: “All reports will be typed,” Professor Smith said.) See direct quotation.Infinitive. A verbal usually preceded by to and used as a noun, adjec- tive, or adverb. To write Is apleasure. (The infinitive is the subject of the verb.) The guerrillas BEGAN fo attack the enemy. (The infinitive is the direct object.) The President’s DESIRE is to eradicate poverty. (The infinitive is the predicate nominative. ) The prisoners were ABOUT to escape. (The infinitive is the object of a preposition. ) We have work to do. (The infinitive is used as an adjective modifying work.) Glen stupIED hard to become a space cadet. (The infinitive is used as an adverb 07 “why” modifying the verb.) Infinitive phrase. A phrase consisting of an infinitive and either an object or other adjuncts and modifiers. The second, third, and sixth sentences in the preceding set of examples contain infinitive phrases. In the second sentence, for example, the word enemy. is the object of the infinitive to attack. Inflection. In grammar, a change in the form of a word to indicate its function in the sentence or to modify its meaning. Some languages are more highly inflected than others. English makes relatively little use of inflection. The addition of s to a noun to indicate plural number, and ’s to indicate possessive case, are examples of inflec- tion. Other examples of inflection in English are the changes in form of verbs to indicate tense (they sing; they sang) and the forms of possessive and personal pronouns to indicate gender (this coat, her hat, she woke, ask him.) See also Conjugation and declension. Interjection. An emotional expression of dismay, surprise, anger, etc. without grammatical function within the rest of the sentence, or standing completely alone. Hurrah! We have won a great victory. Wow, that was a close shave! Interrogative pronoun. A pronoun introducing a question. Who goes there? Whom did you see at the fair? Interrogative sentence. A sentence that asks a question. It is punc- tuated with an interrogation point, or question mark. Where is your favourite resort?78 Intransitive verb. A verb which does not require an object, or receiver of action, to complete its meaning. I will travel this summer. (Here the intransitive verb is modified by an adverbial unit.) Many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive, depending on whether they possess an object. See transitive and linking verb. Inverted, or transposed, adverbial clause. A dependent clause that is removed from its natural grammatical order in a sentence and placed at the beginning for emphasis. Natural order: We have postponed the senior examination be- cause another event is scheduled. Inverted: Because another event is scheduled, we have postponed the senior examinations. (In both cases the adverbial clause of “why” modifies the verb have postponed in the main clause.) Linking, or copulative, verb. An intransitive verb used to link a sub- ject with it predicate complement. DANIEL WEBSTER was a great ORATOR. (This verb links a subject with a predicate nominative.) The BLossom is becoming bright RED. (This verb links a subject with a predicate adjective.) Aside from forms of the verb zo be, the main linking verbs are be- come, seem, look, appear, feel, sound. Main clause. See independent clause. Modifier. A word or group of words which describe, limit, or qualify another word or group of words. Most modifiers are adjective or adverbial units. A green SEDAN WAS RACING down the highway. (Green modifies or limits, the meaning of the noun sedan. Down the highway is an adverbial unit of “where” modifying the verb phrase was racing.) Mood, or mode. The distinction of form in a verb to indicate the man- ner of the action conceived. Sce indicative, imperative, and sub- junctive mood. Nominative absolute. A construction consisting of a noun and a par- ticiple and used to express time, cause, or circumstance of action. It is called absolute because it is grammatically independent of the rest of the sentence, although it serves as an adverbial modifier. The time having arrived, we left for school. (The main clause is “we left for school.” The nominative absolute is composed of the noun time and the participle having arrived.)Nominative case. That case of nouns and pronouns when used as subjects, predicate nominatives, or appositives of such. The boy was a child prodigy. (Boy is the subject of the verb.) She was an 1.Q. of 160. (She is the subject of the verb.) It was she who discovered the plot. (She is the predicate nomina- tive.) We Boys attempted to challenge the other team. (We is the appositive of the subject boys.) Nonrestrictive. Not essential to the meaning of the rest of the sentence. Our company representative, having surveyed the situation, sent in his report. (Here the participial phrase is used as an adjec- tive and is not necessary for clarity. It merely adds an ex- planatory note.) Bill, who is lazy, usually gravitates toward easy courses. (Here we have a relative dependent clause, but it is not necessary for clarity. Compare with restrictive.) Noun. The name of a person, place, thing, idea, action, or quality. See proper, common, collective, concrete, and abstract noun. Noun clause. A dependent clause used as a noun. That you attempt the solution 1s most important. (The noun clause is the subject of the verb.) Scientists BELIEVE that many heavenly bodies have life. (The noun clause is used as a direct object.) Objective case. The case of a noun or pronoun when it serves as a direct or indirect object of a verb or the object of a preposition. Give him the award. (Him is the direct object.) The novel was written BY him. (Him is the object of the pre- position.) Objective complement. A noun or an adjective that follows a direct object and completes the meaning of a verb. Members elected LesteR PEARSON leader of the Liberal party. (The complement tells something about the direct object Lester Pearson.) Most people like their clDER cold. (Here the complement is an adjective telling something about the direct object.) Parenthetical expression. An interrupter such as perhaps, moreover, however, etc., which has little grammatical function in a sentence except to explain, qualify, or emphasize. In the broad sense it is any kind of interrupter and may be an appositive or explanatory unit. Your performance is, to fell the truth, exemplary.80 There are, perhaps, many exceptions to this rule. Many parenthetical remarks serve as transitional expressions. Parsing. The process of analyzing and describing the grammatical form and function of a word or group of words in a sentence. The parsing of the following sentence appears below it. She enjoys reading romantic poetry. Parsing: She is a personal pronoun, feminine gender, third per- son, singular number, nominative case, subject of the verb enjoys. Reading romantic poetry is a gerund phrase, object of the verb enjoys. Romantic is a descriptive adjective, positive degree, and modifies the noun poetry. ial phrase. A verbal adjective phrase consisting of a participle and objects or modifiers. The highway leading to the right is closed. (The participle is fol- lowed by an adverbial modifier.) That rookie playing left field is my uncle. (Here the participle playing has an object. In both sentences the participle modifies the noun before it.) Participle. A verb form used as an adjective. The present participle is formed by adding ing to the verb. Note that the same verb form when used as a noun is called a gerund (see gerund). The past participle is usually formed by adding d or ed, although many verbs taken other endings (n, en, t) or change their spelling to form the past participle. The chastened CHILD, trying not to cry, ran to his room. (Chas- iened, a past participle, and trying, a present participle, both modify the noun child.) Passive voice. When a verb is in the passive voice, the subject of that verb receives the effect of the action expressed by the verb. NorMan was admonished by his teacher. SUCH HEROISM will be long remembered. Phrase. A group of related words without both subject and predicate, and used as a single part of speech, such as a noun, adjective, or adverb. See gerund, infinitive, participial, prepositional, and verb phrase. Possessive case. The case that normally denotes ownership or posses- sion. Ted’s car was in need of repair. (Ted owns the car.) Our cat caught its tail in the screen door. (Our and its are pos- sessive pronouns.)81 Predicate. That part of a clause which makes an assertion about the subject. It contains a finite verb, modifiers, and any complements. Stormy weather raged throughout the South. (The complete predicate is composed of the finite or main verb plus its adverbial modifier. ) Predicate adjective. An adjective in the predicate which describes the subject. Mount FuJivama is beautiful. (Beautiful complements or de- scribes the subject, showing that a predicate adjective is one form of a predicate complement.) Predicate nominative, or predicate noun. A noun or pronoun in the predicate that describes the subject. JOHN is a tennis player. (The predicate nominative, connected to the subject by linking verb is, completes the meaning of the predicate.) Preposition. A word which shows the relationship between its object and another word in the sentence. He is a MAN of strong WILL. (The preposition shows the relation- ship between its noun object will and man.) Several jets WERE CRASHING through the SOUND BARRIER. (The preposition through shows the relationship between its noun object sound barrier and the verb phrase were crashing. This prepositional phrase is an adverbial unit modifying the verb phrase.) Prepositional phrase. See preposition. Principal clause. See independent clause. Pronominal adjective. A pronoun which modifies a noun. Each of the following pronouns is actually functioning as an adjective to modify the noun it precedes. Personal pronoun: That is her car. Relative pronoun: The man whose ESSAY won made a speech. Interrogative pronoun: Which BooK do you desire? Demonstrative pronoun: That HOUSE is for sale. Indefinite pronoun: Any car will do. Pronoun. A word that takes the place of a noun. He is a man who never loses hope. (He is a personal pronoun; who is a relative pronoun.) It is a difficult task. (Jt takes the place of the name of the task.) See also demonstrative, interrogative, relative, indefinite, reflex- ive, and reciprocal pronoun.82 Proper noun. The name of a particular person, place, or thing: Jack Dempsey, New York, Islam, Toronto. Reciprocal pronoun. A pronoun indicating the interaction between persons or things. The girls saw each other every day. They like to help one another do the gardening. Reflexive pronoun. A compound personal pronoun which receives an action and reflects it back to the subject. He PRAISED himself. (Himself is a direct object.) Catherine BouGut herself a new hat. (Herself is an indirect ob- ject.) The members of the musical troupe directed attention To them- selves. (Themselves is the object of the preposition.) Relative clause. A dependent clause used as an adjective. It is some- times called an adjective clause. StTuDENTs who follow these instructions will succeed. (The rela- tive clause modifies the subject students. All relative clauses are introduced with relative pronouns.) Relative pronoun. A pronoun which introduces a relative dependent clause: who, whom, that, which, whomever, whoever. (Who serves as a relative pronoun in the preceding example.) Restrictive. Denotes a phrase or clause that is essential to the meaning of the sentence. The MAN ¢o see is Mr. Knotts. (This restrictive infinitive phrase designates a particular man and only him.) People who are incessant critics are often reluctant to accept responsibility. (This restrictive clause eliminates all people who are not incessant critics from the judgment expressed in the sentence and so is an essential part of the sentence. Remove the clause, and the meaning changes.) Run-on sentence. Two or more independent clauses without any punc- tuation or link. See comma rule 11 for a full explanation. Sentence. A group of words having a subject and predicate and ex- pressing a complete thought. Sce simple, complex, and compound sentence. Simple sentence. A sentence made up of only one independent or main clause. Printing was invented by the Chinese. Subject. The person, place, thing, or idea about which the predicate states something. In the sentence given in the example above print- ing is the subject of the verb phrase was invented.83 Subjective complement. A predicate adjective or predicate nominative which follows a linking verb and completes the meaning of the sub- ject. See predicate adjective, predicate nominative, and comple- ment. Subjective mood. That mood of a verb expressing a wish, doubt, sup- position, or condition contrary to fact. I wish that she were more studious. (wish) If he be so greedy, then we must act accordingly. (doubt) If I should be gone, get my assignment. (supposition) Provided that she were younger, the admission would be less. (condition contrary to fact) Subordinating clause. See dependent clause. Subordinating conjunction. A word that introduces a noun or ad- verbial clause and connects it to the main clause. While we were climbing the mountain peak, we TOOK every pos- sible precaution. (The subordinating conjunction while intro- duces an adverbial clause of “when” that modifies the verb took. See also noun clause.) Substantive. Any word, phrase, or clause used as a noun. Syntax. The study of sentence structure, or the relationship of words to each other in a sentence. Transitional expression. Words, like therefore, furthermore, and in fact, which link the thought of one sentence or paragraph to an- other. Transition involves many techniques. Transitive verb. An action verb that requires a direct object to receive its action. Big league players often hit a BALL over a distance of 350 to 400 feet. Some verbs can be both transitive or intransitive. See intransitive verb. Verb. A word which asserts action, being, or state of being. See transi- tive, intransitive, and linking verb. Verb phrase. A verb unit made up of two or more words. Every effort should have been made to avert the Pearl Harbor catastrophe. Vocative. A noun of direct address. There are, Glen, many vocations for college graduates. (The speech is directed towards Glen.) Voice. The property of a verb which indicates whether its subject is performing or receiving the action. 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