Section 2 : Chemistry of the Elements

Comparisons of Metals + Non-metals

Metal Non-metal

Tend to be solids w/ high m.p. + b.p., Tend to have low m.p. + b.p. (carbon
and w/ relatively high densities.
Shiny when they are polished, and
and silicon are exceptions).

om
Tend to be brittle as solids. Even
tend to be easily workable

c
though they are crystalline, they dont

.
have the same sort of shine as metals.
Good conductors of electricity + heat.

ly
Dont usually conduct electricity
(except carbon in the form of graphite

Form cations (+ve) in their

and silicon)

e b
Tend to form anions (ve) in their
compounds.
e
compounds.
Have oxides which tend to be
ALKALINE, reacting w/ acids to give a
.wHave oxides which are ACIDIC or
NEUTRAL.
salt + water.

es
o t
Metalloids (or semi-metals) have some of the properties of metals and some
characteristics of non-metals. They often look like metals, but are brittle like
non-metals. They are neither conductors nor insulators, but make excellent

n
semi-conductors. The prime example of this type of element is silicon.

Electrical k ip
Metal
Good
Metalloid
Conduct
Non-metal
Does not conduct
Conductivity electricity under (except graphite)
certain conditions
Acidity of its Oxide Basic (e.g. MgO, Amphoteric (e.g. Acidic (e.g. CO2,
Na2O) Al2O3) SO2)

20
Section 2 : Chemistry of the Elements

Group 1 - The Alkali Metals

Physical Properties
1) Low b.p. and m.p. and gets LOWER as you go DOWN the group.
2) Densities tend to INCREASE as you go DOWN the group, although not as tidily

om
as group 0. Li, Na & K are all less dense than water they will FLOAT on it.
3) Very soft and are easily cut with a knife, becoming SOFTER as you go DOWN
the group. They are shiny and silver when cut, but tarnish (form coatings of
metal oxide) within seconds on exposure to air.
. c
Chemical Properties
ly
b
1) Extremely reactive, and get MORE REACTIVE as you go DOWN the group (i.e.
as atomic no. ). To stop them from reacting w/ O2 or water vapour in air Li,
Na and K are stored under oil.
e
e
2) Rubidium & Caesium are so reactive that they have to be stored in sealed
glass tubes to stop any possibility of O2 getting at them.

Reaction w/ water
.w
es
Metal + cold water metal hydroxide + hydrogen
If universal indicator used, water would turn purple. Time reaction takes
decreases down the group.

o t
1) Lithium:
n
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
Observation:
ip
- Lithium floats and then whizzes slowly around the surface, fizzing.
k
- DOES NOT MELT since m.p. is higher.

2) Sodium:
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Observation:
- Sodium floats and melts into a small ball and then whizzes around the surface,
fizzing rapidly.
- May ignite with an ORANGE FLAME.

3) Potassium:
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
Observation:
- Potassium floats and melts into a small ball then whizzes around the surface,
fizzing vigorously.
- Burns with a LILAC FLAME and sometimes explodes.
21
Section 2 : Chemistry of the Elements

4) Caesium + Rubidium:
These react even more violently than potassium, and the reaction can be
explosive. Rubidium Hydroxide and Caesium Hydroxide and formed.

Explaining the trend in reactivity in Group 1

As no. of inner occupied electron shells
Outermost electron becomes more shielded
om
the electrostatic force of attraction by the nucleus on the outer electron
down the group.
. c
the outer electron is more easily removed.
more reactive.
ly
Group 7 - The Halogens
e b
These are the most reactive non-metals. In contrast with group 1, reactivity
DECREASES DOWN the group. They are all poisonous and have a similar strong e
smell.

.w
Physical Properties
Fluorine: F2
e s Note:
They all form diatomic

t molecules
Solubility in Water Increases

GAS at room temp. Their compounds w/

COLOURLESS
o
Reactivity Increases

hydrogen are usually

M.P. + B.P. Increases
Volatility Increases

Chlorine: Cl2
GAS at room temp.
n strong acids when

ip
dissolved in water, e.g. HCl.
PALE GREEN They each produce a series
Bromine: Br2

RED-BROWN
Iodine: I2
k
LIQUID at room temp.
of compounds w/ other
elements - chlorides,
bromides etc. - together
they are known as
SOLID at room temp. HALIDES.
DARK GREY Halogens themselves can
react directly w/ metals to
Chemical Properties form metal halides.

Reaction w/ Metal (e.g. Fe/Al)

Iron reacts with the halogens to form iron halides.

2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)

The equation for rest of halogens are similar.

22
Section 2 : Chemistry of the Elements
1) Iron wool w/ Fluorine:
Iron wool immediately bursts into flame.
2) Iron wool w/ Chlorine:
Iron wool reacts strongly to form iron(III) chloride; needs heat to start.
3) Iron wool w/ Bromine:
Iron reacts steadily to form iron(III) bromide; needs continuous heating.
4) Iron wool w/ Iodine:

o
Iron reacts slowly, even with continuous heating, to form iron(III) iodide.m
Displacement reactions involving the halogens
. c
Reacting chlorine with potassium bromide or potassium
iodide solutions.
ly
KBr(aq) + Cl2(aq) 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
The more reactive chlorine displaced the less reactive
bromine from potassium bromide, so bromine water is
e b
formed w/ an orange-brown colour.
KI(aq) + Cl2(aq) 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq) e
.w
The more reactive chlorine displaced the less reactive
iodine from potassium iodide, so iodine water is formed
w/ a dark brown colour.

es
Displacement conclusion table:

o t
n
k ip
Halogen displacement reactions are redox reactions.
When chlorine water reacts w/ potassium iodide:
Each Cl atom in the Cl2 molecule gains an electron to form 2 ve Cl- ions.

Cl2(aq) + 2I-(aq) 2Cl-(aq) + I2(aq)

2 iodide ions lose an electron each and then form a neutral I2 molecule.
A loss of electrons is OXIDATION, a gain of electrons is REDUCTION (OIL RIG).
REDOX REACTIONS: Reactions where OXIDISATION + REDUCTION happen at
the same time. in this reaction chlorine is reduced and iodine is oxidised.

23
Section 2 : Chemistry of the Elements
Oxidising agent: substances which take electrons in redox reactions
Reducing agent: substances which lose electrons in redox reactions.
in this reaction chlorine = oxidising agent and iodine = reducing agent.

Dissociation of Hydrogen Chloride gas

Halogens can combine w/ hydrogen to form hydrogen halides, e.g. hydrogen
chloride + hydrogen bromide.

om
c
Hydrogen chloride has the chemical formula HCl and is a gas at room temp.

.
ly
When HCl is dissolved in water the HCl molecules split up into H+ ions and Cl-
ions this process is called DISSOCIATION. The solution that is formed is HCl

e b
acid, which is an acidic solution because it contains H+ ions.

HOWEVER, if HCl is dissolved in an organic solvent like methylbenzene, it

e
doesnt dissociate into H+ and Cl- ions. This means its not acidic as no H+ ions are
produced.

.w

s
Note: blue litmus paper in HCl acid will turn red/pink.
blue litmus paper in solution of HCl in methylbenzene will stay blue. BUT,

e


t
if there is any moisture on the paper or in the bottle then the HCl can
dissociate and it will behave like an acid again.

o
n
Explain the trend in reactivity in Group 7

ip
No. of inner occupied electron shell
Outermost electron is more shielded + farther from nucleus

the group. k
Electrostatic force of attraction by nucleus on the additional electron down

Outer electron is less easily held by the nucleus.

less reactive.

Group 0 - Noble Gases

The noble gases are all COLOURLESS GASES.
They are also all MONOATOMIC. That means their molecules consist of single
atoms.

Their density INCREASES as you go DOWN the GROUP.

Their b.p. INCREASES as you go DOWN the GROUP.

The inert gases do not react with other elements as they have complete outer
shells which are energetically stable.

24
Section 2 : Chemistry of the Elements
Uses of inert gases

Helium:
Filling airships and balloons. Used as it has very low density and is not
flammable.
Mixing w/ oxygen to form a gas for divers to breath. Used because if a diver

om
breathes normal air, nitrogen dissolves in the blood and can cause a dangerous
problem called nitrogen narcosis in which the diver has symptoms similar to
drunkenness.

. c
Neon:

ly
Fluorescent lights. Used because when an electric current is passed through

with neon.

e b
neon, it gives off a bright light. The advertising signs in our towns are filled

Argon:
e
Filling light bulbs. Used because it is unreactive so the filament does not burn
away.
.w
Xenon:

es
Fluorescent lights. Used because it works just like neon but the light is very
bright and much like daylight.

o t
Car head lights. Only in expensive cars because xenon is expensive.
Strobe lights in discos.
n
The Transition Metals
k ip
These are all typically metal elements.
Good conductors of heat + electricity, workable, strong and mostly with high
densities.
Less reactive than the metals in group 1 + 2

Physical Properties
No clear trends. However, these metals are much denser than other elements.
Very slightly magnetic and some ferromagnetic (e.g. Co).

Chemical Properties
They form coloured compounds.

Uses of Transition Metals

Transition metals and their compounds are often good industrial catalysts.

25
Section 2 : Chemistry of the Elements

Oxygen in the Atmosphere

in air, there is: 78% Nitrogen
21% Oxygen
Nearly 1% Argon
0.04% Carbon Dioxide

Investigation Experiments
om
. c
ly
Using Copper
e b
e
1) Heat an excess of copper in a tube and pass air over it using two syringes, so
it reacts with oxygen to form copper(II) oxide, using up the oxygen.

.w
2) When all the copper has stopped reacting, all the oxygen has been used up.
3) Leave the gas to cool down before reading off how much air is left, as gases

es
expand when they are heated. You can read off the syringes to see how much
oxygen has been used up, then find % of oxygen by taking the initial by the
final volume of air.

Using Iron or Phosphorus

o t
n
1) Soak some iron wool in acetic acid (catalyses reaction) then push wool into

ip
test tube and put thumb over end + invert tube into beaker of water. Mark
starting position of water.

k
2) Level of water will rise over time as iron rusts (forms iron oxide) in oxygen
so iron will remove oxygen from the air. Water rises to fill space oxygen took
up.
3) Mark finishing position of water. Then fill tube up to each mark with water
and pour contents into measuring cylinder to find out vol. of air at start +
end.
4) Use difference between start + end
vol. to work out % of oxygen in air -
it should be around 20%.
5) You can do a similar experiment
with white phosphorus. White
phosphorus smoulders in air to
produce phosphorus oxide.
Calculate the amount of oxygen in
the air the same way as iron.

26
Section 2 : Chemistry of the Elements

Preparation of Oxygen
In the laboratory oxygen can be prepared using the
set up on the left.

Hydrogen peroxide spontaneously decomposes into

water and oxygen:
2H2O2(l) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

om
At room temp. this reaction is very slow and is

. c
speeded up using a catalyst such as manganese(IV)
oxide, MnO2. The reaction is called CATALYTIC
DECOMPOSITION.
ly
e b
The method used is called COLLECTION OVER WATER. This method only works
for insoluble/slightly soluble gases, or gas just dissolves in the water. You can use
a gas syringe to collect pretty much any gas.
e
Oxides
.w
s
Oxygen produces the following oxides during combustion reactions:

e
1) Magnesium Oxide
Magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
o t
n
Burns with a bright white flame in air and the white powder that is formed is

ip
magnesium oxide, which is slightly alkaline when its dissolved in water.

2) Carbon Dioxide
k
Carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide
C(g) + O2(g) CO2(g)
Carbon will burn in air if its very strongly heated. It has an orangey/yellowy
flame and it produces carbon dioxide gas. which is slightly acidic when its
dissolved in water.

3) Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur + oxygen sulfur dioxide
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
Sulfur burns in air or oxygen w/ a pale blue flame and produces sulfur dioxide,
which is acidic when its dissolved in water.

27
Section 2 : Chemistry of the Elements

Preparation of Carbon Dioxide

There are 2 ways in which carbon dioxide can be prepared in a laboratory:

1) Metal Carbonate + Acid

Calcium carbonate (marble chips) is put in
the bottom of a flask and dilute HCl acid is
added. Bubbles form.
Hydrochloric acid + calcium carbonate
om
calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
. c
ly
The carbon dioxide can be collected over

b
water due to its low solubility, in a gas syringe or using downward delivery as
carbon dioxide is denser than air.
e
2) Thermal Decomposition of a Metal e
Carbonate
Thermal decomposition: when a substance
.w
breaks down into simpler substances when
heated.
es
o t
Copper(II) carbonate is a green powder that

n
will easily decompose to form carbon dioxide
and copper(II) oxide when you heat it.

carbon dioxide

k ip
Copper(II) carbonate copper(II) oxide +

CuCO3(s) CuCO(s) + CO2(g)

To do the experiment, heat copper(II) carbonate then collect the gas thats given
off using the downward delivery method.

Uses of Carbon Dioxide

1) Fire Extinguishers + unlike water, doesnt conduct electricity so safe for electric fires.
Carbon dioxide is denser than air smothers a fire preventing oxygen from
getting at it. Also, carbon dioxide does not burn + substances will not burn in it.
2) Carbonated Drinks
Carbon dioxide has a pleasant taste of soda water. Carbonated drinks are made
by dissolving carbon dioxide in them at high pressure. When bottle is opened, it
fizzes as the pressure falls + carbon dioxide can escape from the liquid.
3) Refrigeration of ice-cream, soft fruit + meat in solid state
Solid carbon dioxide looks like ordinary ice, but its colder + sublimes without
going through a messy liquid stage, so its called dry ice.
28
Section 2 : Chemistry of the Elements

The Reactivity Series

This lists the metals by their order of reactivity towards other substances:

om
. c
ly
e b
e
.w
Metals at the top of the series easily lose electrons and form ions. Metals at the
bottom of the series are just the opposite. Ions of these metals more easily gain
electrons + form atoms.

es
o t
1) A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from its oxide
because it will be bond more strongly to the oxygen.
NOTE: REDOX CAN ALSO BE SIMULTANEOUS ADDITION AND REMOVAL OF

n
OXYGEN, therefore this is also a redox reaction

k ip
2) Metal compounds like copper sulfate, zinc chloride and sodium chloride are
metal salts.

3) If you put a reactive metal into a solution of a less reactive salt the reactive
metal will replace the less reactive metal in the salt.

4) If nothing happens the more reactive metal is already in the salt. You can use
displacement reactions to work out where in the reactivity series a metal is
supposed to go.

29
Section 2 : Chemistry of the Elements

Reactions of Metals

Reaction w/ Acids
Metals give up electrons to hydrogen ions in the acids and hydrogen gas is
produced.
metal + acid salt + hydrogen
M + 2H+ M2+ + H2
om
. c
ly
e b
e
.w
es
o t
n
ip
Reactions w/ Water
The metals lose electrons to form positive ions. The electrons are taken by the

k
water molecules which form hydroxide ions and hydrogen gas.
metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen for reactive metals
metal + steam metal oxide + hydrogen for less reactive metals
M + 2H2O M2+(OH-)2 + H2

Potassium, sodium, lithium + calcium will react vigorously w/ water.

Magnesium, zinc + iron wont react w/ water but w/ steam.
Copper, silver + gold wont react w/ either steam or water.

Reactions w/ Oxygen
The metals lose electrons to form positive metal ions. The electrons are taken by
oxygen molecules, forming oxide ions.
metal + oxygen metal oxide
M + O2 2M2+O2-

30
Section 2 : Chemistry of the Elements

Corrosion

Rusting
1. Iron corrodes easily, i.e. it rusts.
2. Rusting only happens when iron is in contact w/ both oxygen (from air) and
water.

om
3. The chemical reaction that takes place when iron corrodes is an oxidation
reaction. The iron gains oxygen to form iron(III) oxide.

. c
4. Water then becomes loosely bonded to the iron(III) oxide and the result is
hydrated iron(III) oxide - which we call rust.

ly
5. Rust is a soft and crumbly solid that soon flakes off to leave more iron
available to rust again.
iron + oxygen + water hydrated iron(III) oxide (rust)

e b
Ways of preventing corrosion
e
1) Barrier methods:

.w
You keep out the water and oxygen by coating the iron with a barrier:

es
- Painting/coating with plastic: ideal for big and small structures alike. Can be

-
decorative too.

o t
Oiling/greasing: this has to be used when moving parts are involved, like on
bike chains.

n
2) Sacrificial method:
ip
This involves placing a more reactive metal w/ the water and oxygen then react

k
this metal instead of w/ the iron.

- Zinc is often used as a sacrificial metal.

- The zinc is more reactive than iron, so zinc will be oxidised instead of the iron.
- A coating of zinc can be sprayed onto the obj. - this is known as galvanising.
- Or big blocks of zinc can be bolted to the iron. This is used on ships hulls, or on
underground iron pipes.

31
Section 2 : Chemistry of the Elements

Tests for Gases + Water

1) Chlorine
Bleaches damp litmus paper, turning it white.
(It may turn red for a moment at first as a
solution of chlorine is acidic.)

2) Oxygen
om
Relights a glowing splint.

. c
3) Carbon Dioxide
ly
b
Turns limewater cloudy when you bubble a gas
through a test tube of limewater.

4) Hydrogen
Makes a squeaky pop w/ a lighted splint.
e e


(Noise comes from hydrogen burning w/
oxygen in air to form water.)
.w
s
te
5) Ammonia
Turns damp red litmus paper

smell).

n o
blue (also has a very strong

ip
6) Water
Turns white anhydrous copper(II) sulfate to blue



k
hydrated copper (II) sulfate crystals. The test will
tell you if water is present but it wont tell you if
the water is pure.

When a substance is pure it means that its only made of one substance. This
means that it has set defined physical properties like b.p. and freezing point.

SO: Pure water will always BOIL AT 100C

FREEZE AT 0C

32
Section 2 : Chemistry of the Elements

Tests for Cations

Flame tests
Clean a piece of nichrome wire into some dilute HCl to clean it.
Hold it to the flame and if it burns without any colour you can dip it into the
sample you want to test.
Various metals burn with different coloured flames:
Lithium, Li+ = crimson-red flame
om
Sodium, Na+ = yellow-orange flame
. c


Potassium, K+ = lilac flame
Calcium, Ca2+ = brick-red flame
ly
Soluble cation tests

e b
Some metal ions form precipitates, i.e. an insoluble solid that is formed when a
hydroxide is added to them.
e
Add a few drops of sodium hydroxide solution to the solution of your sample

.w
compound in a test tube. If you get an insoluble hydroxide you can tell which
metal was in the compound:


Iron, Fe2+ = green precipitate
Iron, Fe3+ = brown precipitate
es


Copper, Cu2+ = blue precipitate

o t
Ammonium, NH4+ = ammonia gas given off
- You can test for the ammonia gas given off by placing damp red litmus
n
paper in it. The damp red litmus paper will turn blue (and it also has a

ip
very strong smell).

33
Section 2 : Chemistry of the Elements

Tests for Anions

Testing for halides

Add dilute nitric acid (HNO3), followed by silver nitrate (AgNO3).
The acid is added to get rid of carbonate or sulfate ions before the test. Both of
these would produce a precipitate, so theyd confuse the results.

om
. c
ly
Testing for sulfate ions
e b
e
Add dilute hydrochloric acid (to get rid of any traces of carbonate or sulfite ions
before the test. Both of these would produce a precipitate, so theyd confuse the

is formed.
.w
results) followed by barium chloride solution to the sample - a white precipitate

es
Testing for carbonate ions
o t
Add dilute hydrochloric acid to the sample then bubble the gas produced through

n
limewater - gas evolved turns limewater cloudy.

k ip

34