TMS SMT en FR Mandatory Read Lectures Oblig - Pougnet Jan 2017 PDF

9310 Talent Management Systems / Systmes de Management du Talent
Dr. Stephanie POUGNET Ms/Mlle. Camille VIAL

stephanie.pougnet@ehl.ch camille.vial2@ehl.ch
Collection of MANDATORY READINGS for Students

Catalogue des LECTURES OBLIGATOIRES pour Etudiants
February 2017 / Fvrier 2017
Case Studies concerned / Case studies

Chapter / Chapitre Readings / Lectures* Page
concernes
A. Robbins & Judge (R&J) 1 Accor (ABC) 2
I TMSs external &
internal alignment.
B. Bowen & Lawler (B&L) 2 Disney (ABCDEF) 5
C. Meloun 3 - Ritz Carlton (ABCDEFGH) 7

II - Job Analysis &
4 - Apples Jobs (ABCDEFGHIJ)
Manpower Planning.
D. Mathis, Jackson & Valentine (MJV) 9
5 Taj (ABCDEFGHIJK)
0 Lakotel (ABCDEFGHIJKL)
6 Google (ABCDEFGHIJKL)
E. Raub & Streit (R&S) 11
III - Hiring process. F. Fernandez & Pougnet (F&P) 13
G. Cohen & Veled-Hecht (C&VH) 16
H. Murray-Gibbons & Gibbons (MG&G) 18
IV - Working contexts. I. Banner & Blasingame (B&B) 21
J. Schein 23
V PA & balanced
K. Bohlander & Snell (B&S) 26
scorecard.
VI Comp.&Ben. and
L. Werner, Schuler & Jackson (WSJ) 30
T&D.
* Abstracts specifically selected for students on pedagogical purpose. Please refer to complete and original versions for further learning.
* Extraits spcialement choisis pour les tudiants dans un but pdagogique. Merci de se rfrer aux versions originales pour approfondir lapprentissage.
EhL 9310 - Collection of Mandatory Readings / Catalogue des Lectures Obligatoires Dr. Pougnet - Page 1 / 35
Chapter / Chapitre Readings / Lectures* Case Studies concerned / Case studies concernes
4 - Apples Jobs
3 - Ritz Carlton
A. Robbins & Judge
0 - Lakotel
6 - Google
2 - Disney
1 - Accor
I TMSs external & internal
5 - Taj
alignment. [Robbins, S. & Judge, T. (2014). Organizational
Behavior. Harlow, England: Pearson.]
[Managers and Organizations]

Managers get things done through other people. They make decision, allocate resources, and direct the
activities of other to attain goal. Managers do their work in an organization, which is a consciously
coordinated social unit composed of two or more people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to
achieve a common goal or set of goals. By this definition, manufacturing and service firms are organizations,
and so are schools, hospitals, churches, military units, retail stores, police departments, and local, state, and
federal government agencies. The people who oversee the activities of others and who are responsible for
attaining goals in these organizations are managers (sometimes called administrators, especially in not-for-
profit organization). []
Because organizations exist to achieve goal, someone has to define those goals and the means for achieving
them; management is that someone. [] All managers are required to perform duties that are ceremonial and
symbolic in nature. [] All managers also have a leadership role. [] The sales manager who obtains
information from the qualitycontrol manager in his or her own company has an internal liaison relationship.
When that sales manager has contacts with other sales executives through a marketing trade association, he
or she has an outside liaison relationship. [] All managers, to some degree, collect information from outside
organizations and institutions []. Managers also act as a conduit to transmit information to organizational
members. This is the disseminator role. In addition, managers perform a spokesperson role when they
represent the organization to outsiders. [] In the entrepreneur role, managers initiate and oversee new
projects that will improve their organization's performance. As disturbance handlers, managers take
corrective action in response to unforeseen problems. As resource allocators, managers are responsible for
allocating human, physical, and monetary resources. Finally, managers perform a negotiator role, in which
they discuss issues and bargain with other units to gain advantages for their own unit. []
Researchers have identified a number of skills that differentiate effective from ineffective managers []:
Technical skills: The ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise.
Human skills: The ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people, both individually and in
groups.
Conceptual skills: The mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations. Decision making, for
instance, requires managers to identify problems, develop alternative solutions to correct those problems,
evaluate those alternative solutions, and select the best one. []
[Environment]
An organizations environment includes outside institutions or forces that can affect its performance such as
suppliers, customers, competitors, government regulatory agencies, and public pressure groups. Dynamic
environments create significantly more uncertainty for managers than do static ones. [] A dynamic
environment with a high degree of unpredictable change makes it difficult for management to make accurate
predictions. [] Simple environments [] are homogeneous and concentrated. Environments characterized
by heterogeneity and dispersion [] are complex and diverse, with numerous competitors. [] Thus,
organizations that operate in environments characterized as scarce, dynamic, and complex face the greatest
degree of uncertainty because they have high unpredictability [].
The more scarce, dynamic, and complex the environment, the more organic a structure should be. The more
abundant, stable, and simple the environment, the more the mechanistic structure will be preferred. []
[Strategy]
An innovation strategy strives to achieve meaningful and unique innovation. It is a strategy that emphasizes
the introduction of major new products and services. Obviously, not all firms pursue innovation [] An
organization pursuing a cost-minimization strategy tightly controls costs, refrain from incurring unnecessary
expenses, and cuts prices in selling a basic product. []
Because structure is a means to achieve objectives, and objectives derive from the organization's overall
strategy, it's only logical that structure should follow strategy. If management significantly changes the
organization's strategy, the structure must change to accommodate. [] Innovators need the flexibility of the
organic structure, whereas cost minimizers seek the efficiency and stability of the mechanistic structure. []
[Structure]
An organizational structure defines how job tasks are formally divided, grouped, and coordinated []. There
are two extreme models of organizational structure. One we'll call the mechanistic structure. It's generally
synonymous with the bureaucracy in that it has highly standardized processes for work, high formalization,
and more managerial hierarchy. The other extreme, the organic structure, looks a lot like the boundaryless
organization. It's flat, has fewer formal procedures for making decisions, has multiple decision makers, and
favors flexible practices.
[The mechanistic structure] [The organic structure]

The bureaucracy is characterized by [] The boundaryless organization seeks to
specialization, strictly formalized rules and eliminate the chain of command, have
regulations, tasks grouped into functional limitless spans of control, and replace
departments, centralized authority, narrow departments with empowered teams. []
spans of control, and decision making that By removing vertical boundaries,
follows the chain of command. [] Its management flattens the hierarchy and
primary strength is its ability to perform minimizes status and rank. Cross-
standardized activities in a highly efficient hierarchical teams (which include top
manner. Putting like specialties together in executives, middle managers, supervisors,
functional departments results in economies and operative employees), participative
of scale, minimum duplication of people and decision-making practices, [] are
equipment, and employees who can speak examples of what General Electric is doing
"the same language" among their peers. [] to break down vertical boundaries. []
Standardized operations and high Functional departments create horizontal
formalization allow decision making to be boundaries that stifle interaction among
centralized. [] functions, product lines, and units. The way
We use the term work specialization, or to reduce them is to replace functional
division of labor, to describe the degree to departments with cross-functional teams
which activities in the organization are and organize activities around processes.
divided into separate jobs. [] []
Amazons Mechanical Turk program, Another way to lower horizontal barriers is
TopCoder, and others like it have facilitated a to rotate people through different functional
new trend in micro-specialization in which areas using lateral transfers. This approach
extremely small pieces of programming, data turns specialists into generalists. []
processing, or evaluation tasks are delegated High employee autonomy and
to a global network of individuals by a empowerment to make decisions means
program manager who then assembles the supervision must be very light in order for
results. [] the company to compete and take
The chain of command is an unbroken line of advantage of business opportunities
authority that extends from the top of the specific to one employee's region, which
organization to the lowest echelon and the rest of the company cannot see. []
clarifies who reports to whom. [] Authority This doesn't work for people "who are
refers to the rights inherent in a managerial uncomfortable with ambiguity []. The
position to give orders and expect them to be necessary lack of hierarchy means some
obeyed. To facilitate coordination each workers may feel underappreciated. [] An
managerial position is given a place in the employee might have to cope with
chain of command, and each manager is conflicting demands or priorities from
given a degree of authority in order to meet several superiors [].
his or her responsibilities. The principle of In decentralized organizations,
unity of command helps preserve the concept decentralized decision making is pushed
of an unbroken line of authority. [] down to the managers closest to the action
In centralized organizations, top managers or even to work groups. []
make all the decisions, and lower-level
managers merely carry out their directives. Decentralized organization are better for
[] avoiding omission errors (lost
opportunities). []
Centralized organizations are better for
avoiding commission errors (bad choices)
Some individuals want work that makes minimal intellectual demands and provides the security of routine;
for them, high work specialization is a source of job satisfaction. The question, of course, is whether they
represent 2 percent of the workforce or 52 percent. Given that some self-selection operates in the choice of
careers, we might conclude that negative behavioral outcomes from high specialization are most likely to
surface in professional jobs occupied by individuals with high need for [] diversity. []
Job candidates who prefer predictability are likely to seek out and take employment in mechanistic structures,
and those who want autonomy are more likely to end up in an organic structure. []
Our conclusion: To maximize employee performance and satisfaction, managers must take individual
differences, such as experience, personality, and the work task, into account. Culture should factor in, too.
[Culture]
Organizational culture refers to a system of shared meaning held by member that distinguishes the
organization from other organizations. []
Organizational culture represents a perception the organization's members hold in common. We should
therefore expect individual with different backgrounds or at different levels in the organization to describe
its culture in similar terms. [] Organizational culture shows how employees perceive the characteristics of
an organization's culture, not whether they like them-that is, it's a descriptive term. []
A dominant culture expresses the core values a majority of member share and that give the organization its
distinct personality. []
First, culture has a boundary-defining role: It creates distinctions between one organization and others.
Second, it conveys a sense of identity for organization members. [] Culture is the social glue that []
shapes employees' attitudes and behavior. []
In a strong culture, the organizations core values are both intensely held and widely shared. []
Exhibit 1
External Simple, predictable Complex, unpredictable

Environment
Strategy Cost minimization / Volume Innovation / Differentiation
maximization
Structure Mechanistic: Tight control, extensive Organic: A loose functioning, low
work specialization, high formalization, specialization, low formalization,
high centralization decentralized
Culture Conventional, impersonal, Personalizing, team-oriented and

individualistic but communitarian collaborative but differentiating
Management Control of profiles to fit positions Involvement by fitting positions to
profiles
B. Bowen & Lawler
4 - Apples Jobs
3 - Ritz Carlton
0 - Lakotel
6 - Google
2 - Disney
1 - Accor
I TMSs external & internal
5 - Taj
[Bowen, D. E. & Lawler, E. E. (1995). Organizing for
alignment. service: Empowerment or production line? In Glynn, W.
J. & Barnes, J. G. (eds.), Understanding services
management: (pp. 269-294). New York: Wiley.]
Two very different approaches dominate the recent literature in management (Lawler, 1992). They
represent competing paradigms or models of how organisations should be managed. The oldest, most-
established approach has been variously referred to as top-down, pyramidal, hierarchical, mechanistic,
and bureaucratic, but perhaps is best described as the control-oriented approach. The second approach
has been called the commitment approach, but is now more frequently referred to as the involvement-
oriented approach. []
[] Both the empowerment and production-line approaches have their

advantages, and as shown in Table [1], both fit certain situations. For all
situations, the key is to present the face that best meets the needs of both
employees and customers. []
Table 1 (adapted from Bowen & Lawler, 1995, p 292).

Business External Predictable, few surprises Unpredictable, many surprises
Environment
Basic Business Low cost, High volume Differentiation, customized
Strategy
Type of Specialized, low task variety, high Generalists, high task variety, low
positions task identity. task identity.
Individualistic job. Team work.
Type of X-type: low social growth needs, Y-type: high social growth needs,
profiles low interpersonal needs and high interpersonal needs and skills,
skills, look for equity. look for diversity.
[Control Approach]
Its origins are in Weber's (1947) bureaucratic model of management. It relies upon layers of hierarchy
to control and co-ordinate the workplace. The control model also has strong roots in Taylor's (1911,
1915) principles of scientific management. It claims that the work of low-level participants should be
standardised, specialised, and simplified. Workers are told exactly how to do their jobs. Managers are
the only ones who are expected to think, co-ordinate, and control. The control model peaked in
popularity in the 19605 and 1970s. In the US, companies like AT&T, Exxon, Kodak, IBM, and General
Motors appeared to have perfected the approach and they prospered. Levitt described how service
operations can be made more efficient by applying the logic and tactics of manufacturing. His
recommendations included: Simplification of tasks; Clear division of labour []; Little decision-
making discretion afforded to employees. In short, management designs the system and employees
execute it.
McDonald's is a good example. Workers are taught how to greet customers, and ask for their order
(including a script for suggesting additional items). There is then a set procedure for assembling the
order (for example, cold drinks first, then hot ones), placing various items on the tray, and placing the
tray where the customers need not reach for it. Next, there is a script and a procedure for collecting
money and giving change. Finally, there is a script for saying thank you and asking the customer to
come again (Tansik, 1990). This production-line approach gives the organisation control over, and
uniformity of, the customer- server interaction. It is easily learned, so workers can be quickly trained
and put to work.
What are the gains from a production-line approach to service? Efficient, low-cost, high-volume
profitable service operations-with satisfied customers.
[Involvement Approach]
The involvement approach has its origins in pioneering works on participatory management by Argyris
(1964), McGregor (1960) and Likert (1961). For example, McGregor made a case for Theory Y
management which rests on the assumption that individuals can be trusted and motivated to perform
well if they are given interesting and challenging work. Another foundation for the involvement
approach was the work in the 1970s on job enrichment (Hackman and Lawler 1971; Hackman and
Oldham 1976) that emphasized how task characteristics like autonomy and skill variety could be
satisfying to employees with high-growth-need strength. [] The model is visible in companies like
General Mills, Federal Express, Sun Microsystems.
Empowerment is a "state of mind" that is produced by high-involvement management practices.
Employees don't just suddenly feel empowered because managers tell them they are. [] It is possible
to give employees a brief rush of adrenaline through a speech by a charismatic leader about how they
are the front line of the organisation and critical to its effectiveness, but this rush of adrenaline passes
unless organisational structures, practices, and policies constantly and continually send a message that
employees are empowered in order to deal effectively with customers. []
Empowering employees [] can lead to the sort of spontaneous, creative breaking of the roles on the
front lines that can turn a potentially frustrated or angry customer into a satisfied one. []
What are the costs of empowerment? A greater monetary investment in selection and training []; Higher labour
costs []; Slower or inconsistent service delivery []; Employees may give away the store or simply "make bad decisions
[].
Employees will respond positively to empowerment only if they have strong needs to grow and to
deepen and test their personal competencies at work. A chequered history of job enrichment efforts
has taught us not to assume that everyone wants more autonomy, challenge or responsibility, at work.
Some employees simply prefer a production-line approach. Lastly, empowerment that involves
teamwork such as self-managing work-groups requires that employees are also interested in dealing
with their social and affiliation needs at work. It also requires that employees have good interpersonal
and group process skills.
Which Approach Is Better? []

Federal Express and UPS present two very different "faces" to the customer and behind these faces are
two different management philosophies and organisational cultures. Federal Express is a high-
involvement, horizontally co-ordinated organisation which responds to customers with empowered
employees who are encouraged to use their judgment above and beyond the rule-book. UPS is a top-
down, traditionally controlled organisation, in which employees face customers directed by policies and
procedures that are based on industrial engineering studies of how all aspects of service delivery should
be carried out and how long they should take.
In 1990, Federal Express became the first service organisation to win the highly coveted, Malcolm
Baldrige National Quality Award. The company's motto is "people, service, and profits". There are
self-managing work teams, gain-sharing plans, and empowered employees seemingly consumed
with providing quality service to their customers - whose individual needs for pick-up time and
locations, and destinations, are flexibly and creatively serviced.
At UPS, referred to as "Big Brown" by its employees, the company's philosophy was clearly stated
by Jim Casey when he founded the company: "Best Service at Low Rates". Here, too, we find
turned-on people and profits. But we do not find empowerment. Instead we find controls, rules, a
detailed union contract and carefully studied work methods. []. In fact, rigid operational
guidelines help to guarantee the customer reliable and low-cost service.
[] Both the empowerment and production-line approaches have their

advantages, and as shown in Table [1], both fit certain situations. For all
situations, the key is to present the face that best meets the needs of both
employees and customers. []
C. Meloun
4 - Apples Jobs
3 - Ritz Carlton
0 - Lakotel
6 - Google
2 - Disney
1 - Accor
II - Job Analysis & Manpower
5 - Taj
[Meloun, J.M. (2008). Job analysis: The basis for all
Planning. things HR. In Tesone, D. (Ed.), Handbook of hospitality
human resource management (pp. 23-37). Burlington,
MA: Elsevier.]
[Job analysis]
A job analysis is the actual process of gathering information about jobs. From this information, both a job
description and a job specification may result [].The job description highlights the work duties required of
the position, often including a description of the working condition, whereas the job specifications focus on
the requirements demanded by the employee who fills this position. []
[Positions & job descriptions]

[] A job family is comprised of two or more jobs that share common duties, but are sufficiently different from
each other not to be considered as one job. For example, a hotel might have the job family of clerical workers,
including front desk employees, reservationists, rooms manager, night auditor, accounts pay and receivable
clerks. Next comes a job, which consists of a group of positions that have similar duties. Positions are also
composed of duties, but only one person holds a position. To clarify, a waiter/waitress is a job, but in a given
restaurant, there may be 22 such positions. Only one person occupies each of those 22 positions. As mentioned,
jobs and positions are made up of duties, which is the highest level of actual work requirements. Duties are
comprised of many tasks. Further, tasks are constituted by job elements that are at the level of actual
movements required to complete the task. To demonstrate: someone employed in a small travel agency may
be responsible for the work duty of communicating with customers. This breaks down into a number of tasks,
including answering the phone. Said particular task may be further dissected into numerous elements, such as
reaching out to grasp the headset, lifting the headset to one's head, and placing the headset on one's head
with the earpiece on an ear, etc. []
[Profiles & Job specifications]

KSAs, KSAOs, and KSAPCs (a.k.a. competencies) are common acronyms referencing the knowledge, skills,
abilities, and other or personal characteristics that a job demands [].
The simplest definitions of each follow: knowledge is knowing how to perform the work, but not actually having
performed it. Skills involve actually being able to perform the work, and ability references having the emotional,
physical, intellectual, and psychological ability to perform the work, but neither having done the work, nor
having been trained to perform the work (Clifford, 1994). Other may include years of experience, certain
educational requirements or other credentials. Typically, however, other refers to personal characteristics
such as motivation. [] Keep in mind that having an ability and knowledge does not guarantee skill as often
skills take time to develop and imply a certain acceptable level of proficiency. Think of all the golfers who
physically can hit a tiny ball with a club and all the readers of Golf Digest and the like, but those who have
mastered true skill number few.
Turning focus to a hospitality example, a hotel front desk employee may have just attended a class on how to
use new rooms-tracking software, but because the employee has not actually used the software, this
exemplifies knowledge. When the employee puts the knowledge garnered into use, then this becomes a skill.
Abilities are a bit different as they are forward focused, emphasizing potential capabilities and not current
states of affair. Let us slightly modify the example to a job seeker applying for a front desk position. If the
candidate had low computer anxiety, good eyesight, adequate finger / hand / arm coordination, sufficient
memory, etc. to handle using the room-tracking program, such would constitute an ability to master the
software. []
[Conducting job analyses]

Conducting job analyses let an organization know what jobs comprise the organization and what associated
skills are demanded for those jobs. Finding skill deficiencies suggests direction for workforce planning. Once
human resource needs are determined, naturally the recruitment of qualified talent and the selection of such
individuals ensues. []
How should the job analysis data be collected?
There are a variety of different means for collecting the job analysis data. It is not difficult to see that
the best collection means is by way of triangulation. This simply means utilizing more than one means of data
collection to better approximate the truth, in this case about the job. Each method of performing a job analysis
inherently has advantages and disadvantages. Triangulation allows some of the disadvantages to be offset by
using another collection method as well as capitalizing on the advantages of the different methods. []
Perhaps one of the easiest ways of collecting job analysis data is by means of self-report by an
incumbent - someone who currently holds a position in the job to be analyzed. The person may complete a
step-by-step work diary of everything done over a couple of days, including the durations and detailed
descriptions of each. This can be time consuming and expensive as employees are losing valuable productivity
time by recording every move. A faster, and less expensive option for this is to have incumbents complete a
structured questionnaire that directs employees to focus their answers on the major work duties, tasks, etc.
of the job. Allowing workers to complete this at home or as their schedule permits is an advantage for the
organization. Perhaps the most widely used such structured interview survey is the Position Analysis
Questionnaire (PAQ) which is comprised of 194 job elements that are evaluated on an ordinal scale of one to
five on each of six scales (i.e. importance to the job, extent of use, etc.) (McCormick, Jeanneret & Mecham,
1972). []
Another means of self-report involves a job analyst interviewing an incumbent about what he /she
does in his/her position. Compared to the PAQ, this method is more time-consuming as it takes not only the
employees time, but also the job analyst's. However, one advantage lies in the ability of the information taker
to gain immediate clarification when an ambiguous work duty, task, or KSA is presented. The other plus of
utilizing this technique is that some jobs that involve much cognitive work can be analyzed. Often, this takes
the form of the "think aloud" technique (Ericsson & Simon, 1993). Employees will verbalize the step-by-step
thinking process they use when they are doing a cognitive task. []
While there are a great many advantages to the self-reported means of data collection, there is a
sizable disadvantage and that is observed when incumbents tend to inflate aspects of their positions. In
particular, research shows incumbents tend to add importance to the KSAs required to perform the job, when
compared with job analysts and supervisors who also rated the same position (Morgeson, Delaney-Klinger,
Ferrara, Mayfield & Campion, 2004). [] In order to combat the self-reported inflation that often occurs, there
are a couple of techniques that get around this problem. One of them is direct observation of the worker in
action. This prevents the employee from saying his work is so much more important than it is [].
Another job analysis collection method is to have the job analyst actually perform the work. This only
works for jobs that are easily learned and that do not involve hazardous consequences for poor performance
(i.e. tour bus driver). While this gives the job analyst an excellent idea of the working conditions and necessary
KSAs, there may not be the exposure to infrequent occurrences such as end-of-year inventory duties of kitchen
staff.
Utilizing the critical incidents technique (CIT) is yet another data collection technique. It differs from
other techniques by focusing on either outstandingly good or bad performance of employees in that particular
position. These critical incidents end up forming anchors on rating scales of work behavior for that particular
job. Other than taking a great deal of time to compose, the main disadvantage is that the embedded emphasis
on extreme work performance, by definition omits typical behavior on the job, which is the whole point of
conducting a job analysis.
There are variants of the above, often involving an incumbent's supervisor(s). However, it is important
to remember that sometimes supervisors are unaware of what their supervisees do, or, worse yet, they are
under severe misimpressions. [] It is generally considered best that the incumbent is the subject matter
expert (SME) for the position. Yet, it is standard procedure in conducting a job analysis to have the final product
reviewed by one or two people, often supervisors, to verify accuracy. []
For more information on jobs and job analyses

An excellent resource for so many aspects of jobs is called O*NET and found at www.online.onetcenter.org .
[] The US Department of Labor manages this online source that includes databases, job families, taxonomies,
questionnaires, career exploration tools, etc. []. Thus, there are many available resources to aid you in your
understanding of the job analysis process.
4 - Apples Jobs
3 - Ritz Carlton
D. Mathis, Jackson & Valentine
0 - Lakotel
6 - Google
2 - Disney
II - Job Analysis & Manpower
5 - Taj
[Mathis, R.L., Jackson, J.H. & Valentine, S. (2014).
Planning.
Human Resource Management: Essential Perspectives.
Mason, OH: South-Western, Cengage Learning.]
The steps in the HR planning process are shown below.
Forecasting uses information from the past

and present to predict expected future
conditions. []
Forecasting Methods and Periods

Methods for forecasting Human Resources
range from a manager's best guess to a
rigorous and complex computer simulation.
Despite the availability of sophisticated
judgmental and mathematical models and
techniques, forecasting is still a combination
of quantitative methods and subjective
judgment. The facts must be evaluated and
weighed by knowledgeable individuals, who
use the mathematical models as tools and
make judgments to arrive at decisions.
HR forecasting should be done over three
planning periods: short range, intermediate
range, and long range. The most commonly
used planning period of six months to one
year focuses on short-range forecasts for the
immediate HR needs of an organization. []
Forecasting the Demand (Need) for Human Resources

The demand for employees can be calculated for an entire organization and/or for individual units
in the organization. For example, a forecast might indicate that a firm needs 125 new employees
next year, or that it needs 25 new people in sales and customer service, 45 in production, 20 in
accounting and information systems, 2 in HR, and 33 in the warehouse. The unit breakdown
obviously allows HR planners co better pin point the specific skills needed than does the aggregate
method.
Demand for Human Resources can be forecast by considering specific openings that are likely to
occur. The openings (or demands) are made when new jobs are being created or current jobs are
being changed. Additionally, forecasts must consider when employees leave positions because of
promotions, transfers, turnovers, and terminations
Forecasting the Supply (Availability) of Human Resources

Once HR needs have been forecast, then availability of qualified individuals must be identified.
Forecasting availability considers both external and internal supplies. Although the internal
supply may be somewhat easier to calculate, it is important to calculate the external supply as
accurately as possible.
External Supply: The external supply of potential employees available to the organization can be
identified. Government estimates of labor force populations, trends in the industry, and many more
complex and interrelated factors must be considered. Such information is often available from state
or regional economic development offices. The following items may be included: Net migration
into and out of the area []; Individuals graduating from schools and colleges [];
Technological developments and shifts; Actions of competing employers; Government
regulations and pressures []
Internal Supply Figure 2-7 shows in general terms how the internal supply can be calculated for a
specific employer. [] In forecasting the internal supply, data from replacement charts and
succession planning efforts are used to project potential personnel changes, identify possible
backup candidates, and keep track of attrition (resignations, retirements, etc.) for each department
in an organization.
[]
Attracting and retaining the

right talent is an ongoing
challenge as the needs of the
business change over time.
[]
Organizations need to plan for
both the quantity and quality of
the workforce over the
planning horizon. Having
sufficient workers with the
right qualifications is essential
to achieve the strategic plan. If
the firm employs too many
people for its needs, a talent
surplus exists, and if too few, a
talent shortage. [] An
organization may face a
surplus in some parts of the
business while facing a
shortage in others [].
E. Raub & Streit
4 - Apples Jobs
3 - Ritz Carlton
0 - Lakotel
6 - Google
2 - Disney
5 - Taj
III Hiring process [Raub, S., Streit, E-M. (2006). Realistic recruitment. An
empirical study of the cruise industry. International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management. 18 / 4.
278-289.]
[...]
The HRM literature describes two rather different approaches to recruitment.
The traditional approach is often compared to the work of a salesperson. From this viewpoint, the
ultimate goal of recruitment is to attract a maximum number of applicants to the recruiting organization.
Providing incomplete or even biased information about the job and/or the organization may be seen as
an acceptable means for reaching this goal.
Beginning in the mid-1970s, researchers (e.g. Wanous, 1975, 1978) started to criticize this approach and
hypothesized that its benefits in terms of attracting large numbers of candidates may be more than
outweighed by its negative consequences for the selection and retention of those candidates. Following
the lead of Wanous (1975), many HRM scholars pointed out that an unrealistic presentation of job-related
information may lead to a rude awakening when newly hired employees discover the reality of the job.
The larger the gap between what has been promised during recruitment and what the employees
experience during their first weeks and months on the job, so they argue, the higher the likelihood that
they will be frustrated, dissatisfied, and unproductive. In the end, many of them may quit rapidly.
As an alternative to traditional recruitment, Wanous (1975, 1992) proposed that recruiters engage in a
realistic approach. The key idea of a realistic job preview is that recruiters provide balanced and
honest information about both the negative and positive aspects of the job and the organization. While
this is likely to lead to a decrease in the number of applicants, it would also have a number of beneficial
consequences (Meglino and DeNisi, 1987; Wanous, 1978, 1992). For instance, those who are not seriously
interested in and/or qualified for the job may decide not to apply. Moreover, candidates may expect less
from the job and therefore be less likely to be disappointed or to feel misled by the organization. They
may also develop effective strategies for coping with the negative sides of the job. As a result, so the
argument of realistic recruitment goes, candidates will be more satisfied in their jobs and turnover will
decrease.
A large number of empirical studies have confirmed that realistic recruitment does indeed lead to reduced
turnover (e.g. Dean and Wanous, 1984; Meglino et al., 1993; Phillips, 1998, for a meta-analysis). For the
purposes of the present study, some additional research results are worth noting:
[]
Realistic recruitment does not mean that recruiters should communicate negative information only.
Indeed, a combination of both reduction (i.e. negative) and enhancement (i.e. positive) previews
seems to work best (Meglino et al., 1988).
The message source seems to play an important role in the process. Information received from job
incumbents is perceived as more credible than information from other sources (Colarelli, 1984).
The medium also has an impact on the effectiveness of realistic recruitment. In general, audio-visual
previews are more effective than written documentation (Premack and Wanous, 1985; Phillips, 1998)
[].
Methodology
[...] two cruise lines and five recruitment agencies agreed to participate in the research. [] For the second
part of the study we relied on a convenience sample drawn from employees of a European cruise line. []
We were interested in finding out how much knowledge recruiters possess about the reality of work life
on board and what types of information they communicate to candidates during the interview. In a second
step we were interested in identifying additional media that recruiters may use to reinforce their message.
Finally, we focused on candidates' use of and attitudes towards different media as well as on their
satisfaction with the information received during recruitment. [...]
Realistic recruitment from the recruiters' perspective
In this section we will highlight the most important findings derived from interviews with recruitment
agencies and recruitment departments of cruise lines. Overall, these results indicate that recruiters do
indeed attribute great importance to providing realistic information about the job and the recruiting
organization. They also indicate that recruiters are generally quite knowledgeable about the jobs and
ships they recruit for. Recruiters go to great length to provide realistic information about a variety of
potentially relevant elements. They also use a variety of other media to complement information provided
during the interview. [...]
Analysis of the interviews reveals that most recruiters acknowledge the importance of having detailed
information and if possible first-hand experience of the working conditions on board the ships they
are recruiting for. Every recruitment agency in our sample replied that all their recruiters possess work
experience on-board cruise ships and thus provide candidates with information based on their own
personal experience. [...]
Research indicates that candidates perceive job incumbents as the most credible sources of job-related
information (Colarelli, 1984). Thus, recruiters having personal work experience and extensive knowledge
of the work context are likely to be perceived as credible by the candidates. Due to the particular
characteristics of the industry, in particular the geographical dispersion of recruitment agencies and
workplaces (i.e. ships), candidates are not generally given the opportunity to talk directly to job
incumbents. In the absence of this possibility, having recruiters with first-hand knowledge of the
workplace is likely to be the next best solution in terms of source credibility. [...]
Without any exception, recruiters in our sample communicate the administrative constraints linked to
work on a cruise ship. These include various types of visa requirements, requirements for medical
examinations and regulations regarding transportation to and from the port of embarkation. Widespread
consensus also reigns on the need to communicate details about difficult living conditions, the general
work context and possible restrictions employees have to face. Difficult living conditions may include
small cabin sizes, the need to share cabins or limited facilities for crew members. The general work
context may be characterized by long working hours, restrictive overtime regulations and severe
limitations to the number of days off. Restrictions may include deck restrictions for staff and potentially
also restrictions on the consumption of alcoholic beverages.
[...]
Realistic recruitment from the candidates' perspective

[...] The first part of the survey focused on identifying the different media through which candidates
obtained information during the recruitment process. [...]. The fact that the interview appears in the
number one spot confirms the enormous practical relevance of job interviews, not only as a selection tool
but also as a means of communicating relevant information about job and employer to potential future
hires. In addition to the job interview, four out of five respondents indicated that company videos and
company presentations provided important information. A little more than 70 percent added written
information by the employer to the list. An interesting result concerns the importance of the internet. A
total of 57 percent of respondents indicated that they obtained additional important information through
the company's website.
[...] The second part of the survey asked respondents to evaluate their satisfaction with different types of
information communicated during recruitment. [...] The greatest satisfaction is perceived for information
about the living conditions on board as well as about general characteristics of the work context. This
result is highly consistent with the results obtained from our sample of recruiters. Almost all of them
indicated that the specific challenges and constraints of life on board are one of the key pieces of
information they communicate to candidates.
Discussion
[...] Our research illustrates that recruitment in the industry appears to be aligned with the fundamental
principles of the realistic recruitment approach. [...] Our study also reveals that candidates are
increasingly demanding. Most use a variety of different media to obtain information about their potential
work environments. In addition, they carefully analyze potential gaps between the promise made
by the recruiter and the reality of work life on board. If there is a significant negative deviation, many
are critical towards the information they received during recruitment and express their discontent rather
openly.
[...]
F. Fernandez & Pougnet
4 - Apples Jobs
3 - Ritz Carlton
0 - Lakotel
6 - Google
2 - Disney
5 - Taj
III Hiring process [Fernandez, S. & Pougnet, S. (2014). Pratiques de
slection dans les htels en Suisse / Selection Practices
in Swiss Hotels. Annuaire de LHtellerie Suisse. Bern:
Lhtelleriesuisse. 106-109.]
FR EN
[] []
On sait depuis plusieurs annes que certaines mthodes d'valuation It has been known for years that certain personnel selection and
du personnel sont plus fiables que d'autres. En effet, une synthse evaluation methods are more reliable than others. In fact, a
des travaux de recherche conduits sur plus de 85 ans et publie en review of research conducted over more than 85 years and
1998 a montr que certains tests et certaines mthodes de published in 1998 has shown that some selection tests and
slection permettent de prdire la future performance des some selection methods can predict the future performance
employs au travail. A lissue des recherches ralises, un rsultat of employees at work with relatively high validity. Following
plus crucial encore doit tre retenu : les entreprises qui se fient des research carried out, an even more important result must be
mthodes de slection valides sont plus productives, ont de meilleurs retained: companies that rely on valid selection methods are
rsultats financiers et enregistrent des taux de turnover du personnel more productive, have better financial results and record the
plus bas. Malgr les preuves fournies par les chercheurs, des lowest staff turnover rates. Despite the evidence provided by the
enqutes ont montr que certaines des mthodes les plus efficaces researchers, surveys have shown that some of the most
sont encore peu utilises et que leurs bnfices sont mconnus des effective methods are still little used and that their profits are
recruteurs. [] unknown by recruiters. []
Entre mars et mai 2013, nous avons envoy un questionnaire portant Between March and May 2013, we sent a questionnaire
sur les pratiques de slection aux 1447 htels 3, 4 et 5 Etoiles concerning the selection practices in the 1447 hotels 3, 4 and 5
rfrencs par hotelleriesuisse. 184 htels ont rpondu, stars referenced by hotelleriesuisse. We obtained answers from
principalement via leurs directeurs gnraux et directeurs des 184 hotels. These are generally the Hotel Directors and HR
ressources humaines. Les questions poses portaient sur la managers who responded to the questionnaire. The questions
frquence laquelle les recruteurs utilisent les huit mthodes de asked concerned the frequency at which recruiters use the eight
slection suivantes: following selection methods:
le CV / Ia lettre de motivation, Screening of CV / application letter,
les rfrences, Reference checks,
l'entretien, Interviews,
l'observation du candidat en situation de travail, Work sample observations,
l'analyse du parcours du candidat au travers d'un formulaire Application form analysis,
de candidature, Personality tests,
les tests de personnalit, Intelligence and logic tests,
les tests d'intelligence et de logique, Handwriting analysis (graphology).
I'analyse de l'criture (graphologie). Although there are more existing selection methods than the
Bien qu'il existe plus de mthodes que les huit mentionnes, nous eight methods mentioned in our survey, we chose to focus on
avons choisi de nous focaliser sur les plus connues et celles ayant fait the most famous and those having been the subject of plenty of
l'objet de suffisamment de publications sur leur efficacit et leur publications on their effectiveness and their popularity among
popularit chez les praticiens. [] practitioners.
Lentretien, le CV / lettre de motivation et la vrification des rfrences Job interviews, CV / cover letter screening and reference checks
semblent presque toujours utiliss par les rpondants de notre seem almost always used by respondents to our survey. This
enqute. Ce rsultat confirme ce qui a t observ dans dautres confirms what has been observed in other sectors and in other
secteurs et dans dautres pays. [] Mme si le CV / lettre de countries. [...] Even if the resume / cover letter screening, and
motivation, ainsi que les rfrences semblent souvent utiliss, reference checks appear often used, evidence of their
les preuves de leurs efficacit et capacit prdire la effectiveness and ability to predict employee performance
performance des employs restent limites. [] remains limited. [...]
On distingue habituellement les entretiens structurs des Experts usually distinguish between structured interviews
entretiens non structurs. Dans les entretiens structurs, un and unstructured interviews. In structured interviews, a set of
ensemble de questions identiques sont poses chaque candidat et identical questions are asked to each candidate in the same
de la mme faon. Ces questions sont bases sur des critres de way. These questions are based on specific selection criteria,
slection prcis, et prpares partir des descriptifs de poste et de and prepared from the job descriptions and profile description or
profils issus dune analyse du travail. Les rponses des candidats job specifications that stem from a job analysis. The candidates'
sont ensuite compares laide dune grille dvaluation. answers are then compared by using an evaluation grid.
Dans les entretiens non structurs, le recruteur a lentire libert de In unstructured interviews, the recruiter has complete freedom
poser les questions quil souhaite chaque candidat et de les to ask the questions he wants to each candidate and to analyze
analyser comme bon lui semble. En l'occurrence, il a t montr que the answers in the way he wants. In this case, it was shown in
les recruteurs ont une prfrence pour les entretiens non structurs. many studies that recruiters have a preference for non-
Pourtant, les tudes ont prouv que les entretiens non structurs structured interviews. Yet, studies have also shown that it takes
prdisent avec 4 fois moins de russite la performance au travail about four unstructured interviews to equal the reliability
que les entretiens structurs. Dans le cadre de notre enqute, afin and predictive validity of one structured interview. As part of
dvaluer dans quelle mesure les recruteurs utilisent des entretiens our investigation to assess whether Swiss hotel recruiters use
structurs ou non, nous avons pos un ensemble de questions sur la structured interviews or not, we asked a series of questions
manire dont ils conduisent les entretiens. En effet, diffrentes about how they conduct the interviews. Indeed, various
composantes peuvent contribuer rendre les entretiens plus objectifs components can help to make the selection interviews more
et donc structurs. II est intressant de vrifier dans quelle mesure objective and thus structured. It is interesting to ascertain the
les recruteurs de l'chantillon adoptent ces techniques de extent to which recruiters in our sample adopt these interviews
structuration des entretiens []. Dans de nombreux cas, les structuring techniques [...]. In many cases, recruiters actually
recruteurs dclarent valuer de manire subjective les rponses say that they subjectively evaluate the answers given by the
apportes par les candidats au cours des entretiens. Au final, les candidates during the interviews. Finally, unstructured selection
entretiens de slection non structurs pratiqus ne peuvent gure interviews practiced can hardly be used to predict the future
servir prdire la performance future des candidats. [] performance of the candidates at work. [...]
La plupart des rpondants notre questionnaire dclarent utiliser Most respondents to our survey say they use the observation
lobservation des candidats en mises en situation de travail pour of work samples or try-out performed by candidates to
valuer les candidats. Cependant, ils sont moins nombreux lutiliser assess them. However, they are less likely to use it
de faon systmatique. Cette mthode regroupe en principe plusieurs systematically. This method comprises in principle several
techniques : les priodes dessai, les chantillons de travail et les techniques: professional test / try-out periods, work samples and
assessment centers. Les tudes montrent que ces mthodes sont assessment centers. Studies show that these methods are
efficaces pour prdire la performance au travail lorsqu'elles sont effective in predicting job performance when they are
conduites selon un protocole dfini. Les chantillons de travail sont a conducted according to a defined protocol. Work samples are a
fortiori la meilleure mthode pour prdire la performance au travail, fortiori the best method for predicting work performance,
surtout pour des postes qui requirent une exprience pralable. La particularly for positions that require prior experience. The
raison en est que la situation dvaluation et la future situation de reason is that the work situation assessed in a work sample or y
travail sont identiques, contrairement dautres mthodes dans try-out period and future work situations are the similar, unlike in
lesquelles les candidats doivent dcrire et non dmontrer leurs other methods in which applicants must describe in discourse
comptences, comme cest le cas lors dentretiens ou dans les CV. and not demonstrate in practice their competencies, as is the
[] case in interviews or in CVs. [...]
Environ trois quarts des recruteurs interrogs dclarent utiliser les About three quarters of recruiters surveyed report using the
formulaires de candidature, aussi appels fiches biographiques. application forms, also known as biographical and biodata
Mais il est comparativement rare que ces formulaires soient utiliss forms. But it is comparatively rare for these forms to be used
systmatiquement. Les formulaires sont souvent considrs comme consistently by recruiters. The application forms are often
une alternative au CV, posant des questions prcises sur le parcours considered as an alternative to CVs, asking specific questions
scolaire et professionnel des candidats. Ils permettent toutefois de about the educational and professional background of
collecter des informations de manire plus objective et facilitent le candidates. However, they allow collecting more objective
processus de comparaison des qualits entre les candidats. Les information and facilitating the comparison process between the
tudes ont montr que ces formulaires, dans des conditions qualities of candidates. Studies have shown that these biodata
prcises de format et dusage, constituent un bon prdicteur de forms, when built in specific structured format and set in
la performance au travail et du risque de turnover des employs. proper conditions of use, can be a good predictor of job
[] performance and can help minimize the risk of employee
turnover. [...]
Contrairement aux mthodes mentionnes prcdemment, les tests Unlike the previously mentioned methods, personality tests
de personnalit seraient utiliss par un faible nombre de rpondants seem to be used by a small number of respondents. It looks like
et il serait trs rare que ces tests soient utiliss de manire it is all the more very rare for the few personality test users
systmatique. Le principe de ces tests est le suivant : les candidats surveyed to use them. The principle of these tests is as follows:
rpondent une srie de questions qui portent sur leur manire de se candidates answer a series of questions on how they behave in
comporter dans diffrentes situations de la vie quotidienne ou en various situations of everyday life or professional context. The
contexte professionnel. Leurs rsultats sont ensuite compars des results are then compared to standards, that is to say the
normes, cest--dire aux rponses de centaines ou milliers dindividus response that were given by hundreds or thousands of
ayant pralablement rpondu au mme test. Plusieurs tudes ont individuals who have previously responded to the same test.
montr que certains aspects de la personnalit mesurs dans ces Several studies have shown that some aspects of personality
tests, tels que la conscience professionnelle et lintgrit, sont measured in these tests, such as conscientiousness and
de bons indicateurs de la performance au travail. integrity, are good indicators of job performance.
Une des critiques les plus souvent adresses ces tests rside One of the criticisms often directed toward these tests by
cependant dans la possibilit pour les candidats de manipuler les practitioners, however, is related to the assumed possibility for
rsultats aux tests. Sil a effectivement t dmontr que certains candidates to manipulate test results. If there has indeed been
candidats parviennent donner une image exagrment positive shown that some candidates manage to give an overly positive
deux-mmes dans ces tests, de nombreuses stratgies ont t image of themselves in these tests, many strategies have been
dveloppes afin de limiter les risques de trucage. De ce fait, les developed by researchers to limit the risk of faking. Therefore,
tests de personnalit restent capables de prdire la performance personality tests remain able to predict the future performance
future des employs. [] of employees. [...]
Tout comme les tests de personnalit, les tests de logique et Just like the personality tests, logic and intelligence tests like
dintelligence Cf. GMAT - seraient utiliss par une minorit des the GMAT general mental ability test seem to be used by
rpondants. Par ailleurs, seulement 3.3 % des rpondants disent a minority of respondents. Furthermore, only 3.3% of
les utiliser de manire systmatique. Ces tests sont pourtant de respondents say they use them systematically. Yet these
meilleurs prdicteurs de la performance au travail que les tests are better predictors of job performance that any
informations collectes travers dautres mthodes telles que screening of information collected through other methods
les entretiens non structurs, les rfrences ou le CV / lettre de such as unstructured interviews, reference checks or CV /
motivation. En effet, seuls les rsultats obtenus par la mthode cover letter screening. Indeed, only the results obtained by
des chantillons de travail prdisent aussi bien la performance the selection method of work samples / try-out simulations
au travail. Bien que de prime abord, les tests de logique et predict job performance with similar high level of validity.
dintelligence peuvent sembler ne pas tre en relation avec une Although the logic and intelligence tests may not seem to be
quelconque tche ou performance au travail, les rsultats de ce type related to any task or work performance at first glance, the
de tests refltent deux qualits indispensables la russite results of such tests reflect two qualities that are essential for
professionnelle : la capacit apprendre rapidement de nouvelles professional success: the ability to learn new procedures quickly
procdures et la capacit rsoudre des problmes nouveaux. De ce and the ability to solve new problems or problem-solving skills.
fait, la majorit des tudes conduites ce jour ont montr que les Therefore, the majority of studies conducted to date have shown
individus qui russissent bien ce type de tests cognitifs tendent that individuals who do well in such cognitive tests tend to be
tre plus efficaces au travail. Ce rsultat est dautant plus marqu more effective at work thereafter. This result is all the more
lorsque lemploi est jug complexe car ncessitant de nombreuses significant and measurable when the employment / position
connaissances et/ou une longue exprience. Toutefois, mme dans considered is complex as it requires a lot of knowledge and / or
les professions pour lesquelles il nest pas ncessaire davoir fait consistent experience. However, even in occupations for which
dtudes, les rsultats aux tests dintelligence prdisent la it is not necessary to have formal education, results in
performance au travail. Une tude rcente a ainsi montr dans deux intelligence tests predict job performance. A recent study has
chanes de restaurants aux Etats-Unis que les serveurs qui shown in two restaurant chains in the United States that the
obtenaient les meilleurs scores un test de logique taient jugs par waiters who obtained the best scores to a logical test were also
leurs superviseurs plus performants au service et plus impliqus en judged by their supervisors to be top performing and more
moyenne (Tracey, J. B., Sturman, M. C., & Tews, M. J. , 2007). [] involved on average in their service duties (Tracey, JB, Sturman,
MC , & Tews, MJ, 2007). [...]
Lanalyse de lcriture / graphologie serait la moins utilise de The analysis of handwriting / graphology is the least used of
toutes les mthodes investigues. Ce rsultat est rassurant car il all investigated selection methods. This result is reassuring
nexiste actuellement aucune preuve ni de lutilit ni de la validit de because there is currently no evidence of usefulness or validity
cette mthode pour prdire lefficacit au travail []. of this method for predicting effectiveness at work [...].
Cette tude montre ltat actuel des pratiques de slection dans un This study shows the current state of selection practices in a
nombre important dhtels en Suisse. Les rsultats obtenus sont large number of hotels in Switzerland. The results are similar
similaires ceux observs dans les enqutes effectues dans to those observed in investigations conducted in other
dautres pays et dautres industries. Les CV / lettre de motivation, countries and other industries. CV / cover letter screening, job
lentretien et les vrifications de rfrences restent les outils interviews and reference checks remain the tools that recruiters
privilgis des recruteurs alors que dautres outils comme les tests de prefer the most using, while other tools such as logic and
logique et dintelligence, les tests de personnalit et les entretiens intelligence tests, personality tests and structured interviews
structurs semblent utiliss dans une plus faible mesure. Les seem used in a smaller extent. The most commonly used
pratiques de slection les plus couramment utilises sont aussi selection practices are also often the less efficient in the end to
souvent les moins efficaces. Alors que la slection dun personnel predict future employees performance. While the selection of
comptent devient une tche de plus en plus difficile, et que la guerre qualified personnel is becoming an increasing challenging task,
des talents se fait plus rude avec les prvisions de pnurie de main and while the war for talent is tougher considering forecasts of
duvre qualifie, il est dornavant indispensable que les recruteurs skilled labor shortage, it is now essential that recruiters use
utilisent les mthodes ayant dmontr leur efficacit prdire la selection methods that have been proven effective so
performance professionnelle. consistently in predicting job performance.
G. Cohen & Veled-Hecht
4 - Apples Jobs
3 - Ritz Carlton
0 - Lakotel
6 - Google
5 - Taj
III Hiring process [Cohen. A. & Veled-Hecht, A. (2010). The relationship
between organizational socialization and commitment in
the workplace among employees in long-term nursing
care facilities. Personnel Review. 39 / 5. 537-556.]
Conceptual framework and research hypotheses []

Many definitions of commitment have been offered, but it is well accepted that commitment
reflects feelings such as attachment, identification, or loyalty to the object of the commitment (Morrow,
1983, 1993). [] From the beginning, lack of organizational commitment or loyalty has been cited as
an explanation for employee absenteeism, turnover, reduced effort, theft, job dissatisfaction, and
unwillingness to be relocated (Morrow, 1993).
[] We know that socialization is a mechanism that can affect the commitment levels of
employees, particularly newcomers (Ashforth and Saks, 1996; Saks et al., 2007). Organizations,
scholars, and practitioners should therefore be very interested in understanding this relationship. This
study is aimed at addressing this important research issue. It will examine the relationship between
organizational socialization and various commitment foci [].
Organizational socialization refers to the process by which newcomers make the transition from
being organizational outsiders to being insiders (Bauer et al., 2007). Through this process, employees
acquire knowledge about and adjust to new jobs, roles, work groups, and the culture of the
organization in order to participate better as an organizational member (Haueter et al., 2003; Saks
et al., 2007). While socialization can occur at every stage, the socialization of newcomers or new
hires in particular is considered crucial. It is at the initial point of entry into the organization where
learning and adjustment issues are most important and problematic (Gregersen, 1993).
Effective socialization can have lasting and positive effects, enhancing person-
organization fit and person-job fit as well as organizational commitment. Socialization can affect
a variety of constructs that reflect newcomer adjustment because broadening the knowledge of new
hires about the work setting reduces the uncertainty and anxiety inherent in the early work experience
(Ashforth and Saks, 1996; Cooper-Thomas and Anderson, 2002).
The first hypothesis, presented in the following, is already well accepted, based on previous
research. It focuses on the relationship between organizational socialization and organizational
commitment, defined as affective attachment to the organization (Cohen, 2003), a relationship that has
been examined in a number of previous studies (e.g. Gruman et al., 2006; Heimann and Pittenger, 1996;
Klein et al., 2006; Riordan et al., 2001). Based on this body of work, newcomers who are more
socialized should be more committed than their less-socialized peers. This is because socialization
involves giving employees information through structured experiences, which can help them overcome
their anxiety, confusion and concern about their roles which in turn can increase their attachment to
and identification with the organization (Allen and Meyer, 1990; Jones, 1988). []
Method
The sample for this study was employees of three long-term nursing care facilities in the north of Israel.
Employees were included in the study if they had worked no more than three and a half years in their
organization. We chose the 3.5-year cut-off to ensure that we would be able to measure the effects of
socialization. Both the career and the socialization literature suggest that the first and second years in
an organization are a time of transition, when individuals focus on becoming effective in their work
role, understanding its formal demands, and getting to know potential commitment targets within the
workplace (Gregersen, 1993). Employees need this time to establish themselves in their roles and
become familiar with the values and goals of various stakeholders within the organization. []
Questionnaires were distributed to 155 employees []. One hundred and nine usable questionnaires
were returned []
Organizational socialization: This variable was measured by applying the 10-item scale developed
by Haueter et al. (2003). This scale follows the content approach to socialization, meaning that
socialization is viewed as a learning process (Saks and Ashforth, 1997), and the scale measures the
content that was actually learned and internalized (Chao et al., 1994). The scale measures not only
the factual information the employees have gathered about the organization, but also their
adjustment to and understanding of how to behave in the organization. A socialized employee
should know the basic responsibilities of employees and the expectations of organizational members.
Note that the scale focuses on the organization, rather than other possible foci of socialization such
as the job or workgroup. The items in the scale are:
1. I know the specific names of the products/services produced/provided by this organization.
2. I know the history of this organization (e.g. who founded the company and when, original
products/services, how the organization survived tough times).
3. I know the structure of the organization (e.g. how the departments fit together).
4. I understand the operations of this organization (e.g. who does what, how sites, subsidiaries
and/or branches contribute to the organization).
5. I understand this organizations objectives and goals.
6. I understand how various departments, subsidiaries, and/or sites contribute to this organizations
goals.
7. I understand how my job contributes to the larger organization.
8. I understand how to act to fit in with what the organization values and believes.
9. I know this organizations overall policies and/or rules (e.g. compensation, dress code, attitudes
about smoking, travel expense limitations).
10. I understand the internal politics within this organization (e.g. chain of command, which is
influential, what needs to be done to advance or maintain good standing).
[]
Results []
Hypothesis 1 expected that socialization would be positively related to organizational commitment.
This hypothesis was supported. Step 2 in the regression for organizational commitment showed that
organizational socialization added 21 per cent to the explained variance for organizational commitment.
The direction of the relationship was as expected. []
Discussion
The goal of this study was to examine the relationship between organizational socialization and various
commitment forms. []
Bearing in mind that commitment is considered a fairly stable concept, and that organizations have a
great deal of control over the socialization process for new employees, organizational socialization can
be an important tool for shaping employees commitment in its early stages. In other words, given
evidence of a strong relationship between socialization and commitment, managers can use this
knowledge to help boost employees organizational commitment not only by offering fair treatment
and good conditions at work, but also by a well-planned organizational program designed to socialize
new employees.
Some of the specific findings of this study deserve specific attention. First, organizational socialization
as defined and measured here was related to all the commitment foci studied, indicating that a strong
socialization one that imparts both broad knowledge about the organization and comfort with the
interpersonal relationships needed for success can affect not only organizational commitment per se
but also other commitment forms equally vital to the organization, such as job involvement and
commitment to the work group. This means, in turn, that different commitment forms in the workplace
can also be affected at very early stages of employment. [] The attitudes of employees toward
various aspects of the organization and the work setting can be shaped at the early stages of
employment, and the outcomes of socialization are likely to remain regardless of the later
experiences of employees in the organization.
4 - Apples Jobs
3 - Ritz Carlton
H. Murray-Gibbons & Gibbons
0 - Lakotel
6 - Google
5 - Taj
IV Working contexts [Murray-Gibbons, R. & Gibbons, C. (2007). Occupational
stress in the chef profession. International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management. 19 / 1. 32 42.]
Introduction
Occupational stress depends on an appraisal of the situation and on the coping strategies one can draw
on. Increasing evidence over the last 15-20 years has documented the marked occupational stress
experienced by chefs and within the hospitality and leisure industry generally, compared to other
occupational groups. Within the hospitality industry a large proportion of employees work short hours
due to their part-time status. However, overtime is common with a higher than average number of
people working in excess of 65 hours a week (Smith and Carroll, 2006).
According to the National Skills Task Force (1999) report, employees within the hospitality and leisure
industry earn 68 per cent of average earnings in Northern Ireland and, in relation to the chef profession,
skill shortages and unattractive terms and conditions are commonly cited reasons for recruitment and
retention difficulties. Dissatisfaction with pay and treatment by supervisors were important sources of
stress, followed closely by length of hours worked and pressures on work. []
In an interview survey of UK chefs, Johns and Menzel (1999) reported widespread physical violence
and psychological abuse in kitchens. This varied from kicking, pushing and throwing objects, to
deliberate burning with hot food or equipment. The study drew a link between such acts and the stressed
work environment, both in terms of the physical conditions, such as a crowded, hot and noisy
environment, and the psychological ones, such as the pressure to conform to the norms in the kitchen.
Such norms include [] the notion that the head chef is an artist, whose aggressive behaviour is
born out of artistry and creativity, with the tacit agreement that such aggressive tactics are necessary
to motivate junior chefs and other kitchen staff. []
One manifestation of the adverse effects of occupational stress is burnout. This is defined as a
psychological syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and reduced personal achievement
that can occur among individuals who work with other people (Maslach, 1993, p. 76). []
Rowley and Purcell (2001) examined occupational stress and burnout within the hospitality industry
for a Northern Ireland Skills Task Force (2002) report. Of all the occupational groups surveyed, chefs
were amongst the highest in burnout. Common coping responses included increased consumption of
foods high in sugars, fats and caffeine and increased alcohol intake and other drug use. Fatigue, high
emotional exhaustion and low personal achievement were also characteristic. Similar results were also
found by Ledgerwood et al. (1998), Buick and Thomas (2001) and Conte et al. (2001).
Implicit in these findings is the feeling of being out of control. []
In a survey of employees, chefs and managers employed in four Canadian hotels (n=161), major
stressors included role ambiguity; workload pressures and low decision latitude or a lack of control
over their work (Zohar, 1994). A lack of control over demands was seen as a strong predictor of work
stress. This supports the Lazarus and Folkman (1984) cognitive model of stress that where perceived
demands exceed the resources one can draw on to cope, distress will follow. The stress is the result of
being in charge but not in control and is supported by Karasek and Theorells (1990) demand-control-
support model, the most cited model of occupational stress. []
Taken together, there is considerable evidence of occupational stress within the hospitality and leisure
industry and within the chef profession. Sources of stress include the norms in the kitchen, hours
worked, unsociable hours and the pace of work, together with feeling out of control, being unqualified
or working alongside unqualified people. Behavioural responses include increased physiological stress
and burnout. Coping responses were often ineffective but there is evidence that social support and
perceived control can buffer against the adverse effects of stress. []
Method
[]
Participants
One hundred and fifty questionnaires and tests were distributed, by post, to chefs through two main
databases the Northern Ireland Chef and Cooks Association and the Northern Ireland Tourist Boards
Hotels, Restaurants and Pubs database. A further ten respondents were recruited from a chef
exhibition and competition held at Newry and Kilkeel Institute. Forty completed tests and
questionnaires were returned. Thirty respondents were male and ten were female; 67.5 per cent fell
within the 22-40 year age cohort and 22.5 per cent fell within the 41-49 year age cohort.
The instruments
A questionnaire was constructed by the authors to measure the extent to which stress was experienced,
the factors contributing to stress and the effects of stress and reference was made to coping responses.
[] Goldbergs (1978) 12-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) was used as measure of the
adverse effects of stress. It focuses not on life-long traits but on breaks in behaviour, on the signs of an
inability to continue to carry on ones normal healthy functions, and the appearance of new
distressing phenomena. The GHQ continues to be one of the most widely used measures of the
consequences of stress.
Results, analyses and discussion

[]
Of the total respondents 80 per cent worked full-time and almost all had a professional qualification.
Age was normally distributed. Six years was the average time spent in their present post and 16.5 years
the average time as a chef. [] In terms of hours worked, 39.5 per cent worked in excess of 40 hours
a week. A further 35 per cent worked up to an additional ten hours a week unpaid and 20 per cent
worked 11-21 hours unpaid. []
Absenteeism due to stress was very low (only two out of 40 replied yes to this). Cooper (1998)
identifies presenteeism, not absenteeism, as an increasingly common sign of stress. []
Among the most frequently cited stress factors were excessive workload and staff shortages [], and
it is likely that they are related a shortfall in the latter inevitably increases workload. Similarly, a
number of stress factors have in common an implicit problem in the nature of communication with
management, such as a lack of feedback on performance, being undervalued and insufficient
management support. Clearly it appears that there is a greater need for chefs to be consulted and
informed more and for their output and work and frequent good will (i.e. unpaid work) to be
acknowledged. It appears that increased communication could also be extended in the kitchen (poor
communication between staff).
Limited promotion prospects are an issue for many and it is important to make available opportunities
where circumstances allow. Many of the respondents were not the head chef, and increasing the amount
of rotation in work could well combat its repetitive aspects and may offer more prospects for promotion,
in at least making a chef more qualified for opportunities when they occur.
Almost a quarter of respondents (22.5 per cent, n = 9) reported some experience of being bullied or
harassed at work. This result would seem to confirm earlier findings (Johns and Menzel, 1999) and
clearly there is a need to challenge the norms condoning aggressive tactics in the kitchen.
Despite the substantial numbers who reported working without a contract (35 per cent, n = 14) and
who experienced a marked increase in their work, the majority have maintained a considerable level
of control over their work [].
Abstract of
Table II
The correlation between GHQ and poor communication supports the earlier finding that a lack of
feedback on performance and insufficient management support contribute to stress.
That bullying and threats of violence were among the strongest correlations with GHQ implies
pressures at work and communication problems are a real issue [].This supports the work of Leith
(2002), who found that 95 per cent of workers compensation claims for workplace trauma were related
to managers abuse of employees.
Conclusions and recommendations

In interpreting these results it is important to bear in mind a number of limiting variables. An important
one is the impact of the wider environment and the history of political violence in the province on the
stress and coping behaviour of people, whatever their profession. Whilst this study was done more than
a decade after the Peace Agreement, divided communities remain and the uncertainties of a return to
political violence may have had some affect on the stress and coping patterns observed. However, this
has to be offset against some of the positive effects of the peace, not least the surge of tourism and the
dramatic increase in employment opportunities within the hospitality industry. []
A further problem in interpreting reported stress levels is that:
ego-defensive processes [such as the use of denial] lead to the under-reporting of sources of stress
which imply personal failure or deficiencies (Caspari, 1976).
It may be that the reported stress may be an underestimate of actual stress levels. []
Not only will a supportive environment make one feel more valued and want to communicate, it will
be a critical step in tackling the problem of bullying and, for some, threats of violence, as well as
challenging the norm of aggressive behaviour in the kitchen. []
It would be useful to broaden the measures of stress to include well-being measures (for example, by
including physiological as well as the self-reported measures of stress), to explore more fully the
coping strategies used and to consider sources of job satisfaction, and eustress, or the stress that
enhances performance as well as the distress that inhibits it.
Practical implications
Chefs and managers need to challenge the acceptance of aggressive tactics in the kitchen, and they
would do well to encourage more open communication. Chefs should be appointed not just on their
competence in food preparation but on their ability to motivate and be supportive. It is imperative that
a chef or manager find some time periodically to offer support to those in their charge. Only a few
minutes is needed but it is important that it is the right kind of support offered it might be tangible
support in completing a task or information related to some aspect of performance or an
acknowledgement of good work done. Such support will meet an important employee need and is
likely to improve commitment and motivation.
Managers should consider, perhaps in the appraisal process, the benefits of job rotation and variety in
work and an appraisal also provides a forum in which to offer support. Given the legislative
requirements, under the Health and Safety Executive, on employers to consider employee stress, the
appraisal process provides an opportunity to consider an employees coping style, and to challenge
occasions where an individual might engage in behaviours that increase ill-health but which they
perceive do not, such as the [respondents] here who engaged in excessive eating, drinking, smoking
and not exercising.
4 - Apples Jobs
I. Banner & Blasingame
0 - Lakotel
6 - Google
5 - Taj
IV Working contexts [Banner, D. K. & Blasingame, J. W. (1988). Towards a
developmental paradigm of leadership. Leadership &
Organization Development Journal. 9 / 4. 7-16.]
A good leader, Ackerman argues, makes sure that the energy does not become blocked within an organisation;
that everyone within it is "charged". The notion of excellence and its relationship to leadership has been a hot
topic area of late. The best-selling book, In Search of Excellence, emphasised the leader's role in setting the
corporate tone in creating and sustaining the culture [45]. A newer work discusses the leader's job of
matching culture with strategy to create excellence in an organisation [46]. These authors also stress the
vision and purpose themes. []
Interest in the process of leading others has existed throughout the history of social science research.
Behavioural scientists have, in the past 50 years, analysed leadership in various organisational settings. []
Researchers have developed theories and models to explain this phenomenon, but these theories often
contradict and overlap each other. It would appear there is no one best way to be a successful leader. []
Yet, we briefly explore the historical development of leadership theories, pointing out some of the potentials
and pitfalls of these approaches. []
While it would be impossible to review thoroughly all of the approaches to the study of leadership in this article,
it is important to chart the progress of theory building [].
[1. Trait theories: effective leaders have specific traits]

The first approach to leadership theory sought to find universal personality traits that good leaders had to
some greater degree than ineffective leaders. The underlying assumption here would seem to be that leaders
are born, not made. One of the earliest trait researchers (who began his work during the Second World War)
has demonstrated, as late as 1974, that certain traits, e.g. nurturing behaviour, personal integrity, intelligence
and maintaining standards of performance, were related to effective leadership [3]. There are advocates of
the trait theory who contend that the physical stature of a person affects ability to influence followers, e.g.
in 12 leadership investigations, nine found leaders to be taller than followers, two found them shorter, while
one concluded that height was not the most important factor [4]. A research study by Ghiselli [5] reports on
several personality factors that are related in most, though not all, cases of effective leadership. He found that
leaders who have the drive to act independently and who are self-assured are successful in achieving
organisational objectives. []
There are several shortcomings to this approach. First, the trait theory of leadership ignores the leadership
situation, e.g. the interaction between the leader and the follower. Second, except for Ghiselli, trait theorists
do not specify the relative importance of traits. Third, and perhaps most important, the research evidence is
inconsistent. For every study that supports the idea that a particular trait leads to improved effectiveness,
there seems to be another one that shows a negative relationship, or no relationship at all.
One recent, "neo-trait" research deserves mention at this point. Bennis [7] conducted a longitudinal five-year
study of 90 of the most successful, effective leaders in the public and private sectors. What he discovered was
four common traits or competencies that the successful leaders shared:
(1) the management of attention leaders manage attention through a compelling vision that can
mobilise action;
(2) the management of meaning to make their dream and visions apparent to others, they must
communicate effectively so that followers may personally enrol in the vision;
(3) the management of trust people would much rather follow a leader they can count on, one who is
ideologically and behaviourally consistent over time, and
(4) the management of self good leaders know themselves, their strengths and skills, and employ them
effectively.
[] As Bennis [7] noted, the leader makes people feel important and significant; the attention phase initiates
this process. Bennis also found that learning and competence matter (leaders value mastery). Stogdill [4], in
his trait research, found that maintaining (and communicating) standards of performance was crucial to good
leadership. []
[2. Behavioural theories: effective leaders display an employee-centred behaviour]
The behavioural school of leadership concentrates on styles of leadership, e.g. autocratic, democratic, laissez-
faire or alternatively, task/production oriented, people/relationship oriented. [] Likert [11], in his studies at
the Institute for Social Research, [] found that supervisors who practised general supervision and were
employee-centred had higher morale and greater productivity than those supervisors who practised close
supervision and were more job or production centred.
Researchers in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s [] gave support to the idea of an ideal or normative leadership
behaviour [] that actively involves subordinates in goal setting through participative management
techniques []. This concept has both an intellectual and moral appeal. [However] most leadership researchers
today would argue that no one leadership style is right for every manager under all circumstances.
[3. Contingency theory: effective leaders adapt their leadership style to situations]
The contingency or situational approach prescribes that the correct leadership style to use is contingent on
such factors as the leader-member relationship, the followers themselves, the organisational culture or
climate, and other environmental factors. [] In a now classic article, Tannenbaum and Schmidt [15]
suggested a leadership continuum (from boss-centred to subordinate-centred leadership) which represented
various levels of the use of authority by the leader and, conversely, various levels of freedom for subordinates.
They argued that, in choosing the right leadership style for a situation, leaders needed to consider forces
within themselves (e.g. value system, their confidence in subordinates, their own leadership inclinations),
forces in the subordinates (e.g. their need for independence and increased responsibility, their expectations
with respect to shared decision making) and forces in the situation (e.g. the type of organisational culture, the
pressure of time, the nature of the problem itself).
Fiedler proposed another contingency theory [16]. For him, [] a leader must assess the situation in terms of
its favourableness (good leader-member relations, high task structure, strong position power) or, at the other
end of the continuum (poor leader-member relations, low task structure, weak position power), in order to
select an appropriate style. Fiedler found that extremely favourable or unfavourable situations required task-
oriented, autocratic leadership, while those situations he called moderately favourable (between the extremes)
seem to favour a relationship-oriented style. Fiedler's model implies that managers can enhance their
leadership effectiveness if they carefully choose situations suitable to their dominant style, or [] the leader
can change style to match the situation. []
Lastly, we come to a situational theory that has attracted considerable attention in recent years []. It is a
situational approach which emphasises the maturity level of the followers. The leader must adapt his/her
style to the situation (the primary feature of which is the maturity of the followers). Follower maturity is
defined as the subordinate's willingness and ability to take responsibility for job completion, the achievement
motivation level, and his/her relevant task knowledge and experience [].
The Hersey-Blanchard Life Cycle model postulates that the appropriate leadership style depends primarily
on this one situational factor (maturity): []
1. At a stage of relative immaturity, the employee needs to know how to do the job []. Several studies
have shown that workers often appear unmotivated to do their work simply because they do not know
what to do. []
2. This stage is characterised by high enthusiasm and motivation by the employee. However, without
proper channelling, this energy can produce results detrimental to the organisation. []
3. Now, the focus moves to work context. Issues such as "How does what I do fit into the 'big' picture?"
begin to emerge. In this stage, we see the manager beginning the shift from strictly task orientation to
a more participative style. []
4. The employees are considered to be highly mature, i.e. high achievers with good task skills and a
willingness to take personal responsibility for results. []
[Reference list]
3. Stogdill, R.M., Handbook of Leadership: A Survey of Theory and Research, Wiley and Sons, New York, 1974, p. viii.
4. Stogdill, R.M., "Personal Factors Associated with Leadership", Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 25, 1948, pp. 35-71.
5. Ghiselli, E.E., "Managerial Talent", American Psychologist, Vol. 18, 1963, pp. 631-42.
7. Bennis, W., "Transforming Our Work Ethic: Four Traits of Leadership", Education Network News, Vol. 3, 1984, pp. 1-3.
11. Likert, R., New Patterns of Management, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1961 12. Wheeler, W.R. and Csoka, L.S., "Leader Behavior: Theory and
Study", in A Study of Organizational Leadership, Harrisburg, Penn, Stackpole Books, Office of Military Leadership, 1976, p. 311.
15. Tannenbaum, R. and Schmidt, W.H., "How to Choose a Leadership Pattern", Harvard Business Review, Vol. 36, March 1958, pp. 95-101.
16. Fiedler, F.E., A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967.
45. Peters, T.J. and Waterman, R.H., Jr., In Search of Excellence, Harper and Row, New York, 1982.
46. Hickman, C.R. and Silva, M.A., Creating Excellence, New American Library, New York, 1984.
4 - Apples Jobs
J. Schein
0 - Lakotel
6 - Google
5 - Taj
IV Working contexts
[Schein, E. H. (1985). Organizational culture and
leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.]
[I] Culture formally defined (p. 17)
[] as a pattern of shared basic assumptions that was learned by a group as it solved its problems
of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and,
therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those
problems. [] (p. 8) [] Culture is to a group what personality or character is to an individual. We can
see the behavior that results, but often we cannot see the forces underneath that cause certain kinds
of behavior. Yet, just as our personality and character guide and constrain our behavior, so does
culture guide and constrain the behavior of members of a group through the shared norms that are
held in that group. []
(p. 25) [] Culture can be analysed at several different levels, with the term level
meaning the degree to which the cultural phenomenon is visible to the observer. Some of the
confusion surrounding the definition of what culture really is results from not differentiating the levels
at which it manifests itself. []
[1] At the surface is the level of artifacts, which includes all the phenomena that one sees,
hears, and feels when one encounters a new group with an unfamiliar culture. Artifacts include the
visible products of the group, such as the architecture of its physical environment; its language; its
technology and products; its artistic creations; its style, as embodied in clothing, manners of address,
emotional displays, and myths and stories told about the organization; its published lists of values; its
observable rituals and ceremonies []
[2] Beliefs and values at [] conscious level will predict much of the behavior that can be
observed at the artifacts level. But if those beliefs and values are not based on prior learning, they may
also reflect only what Argyris and Schn (1978) have called espoused theories, which predict well
enough what people will say in a variety of situations but which may be out of line with what they will
actually do in situations in which those beliefs and values should, in fact, be operating. Thus, a company
may say that it values people [], but its record in that regard may contradict what it says. If the
espoused beliefs and values are reasonably congruent with the underlying assumptions, then the
articulation of those values into a philosophy of operating can be helpful in bringing the group together,
serving as a source of identity and core mission. But in analyzing beliefs and values one must
discriminate carefully between those that are congruent with underlying assumptions and those that
are, in effect, either rationalizations or only aspirations for the future. [] Espoused beliefs and values
often leave large areas of behaviour unexplained, leaving us with a feeling that we understand a piece
of the culture but still do not have the culture as such in hand. To get at that deeper level of
understanding, to decipher the pattern, and to predict future behavior correctly, we have to
understand more fully the category of basic underlying assumptions. []
[3] [Basic assumptions] When a solution to a problem works repeatedly, it comes to be taken
for granted. What was once a hypothesis, supported only by a hunch or a value, gradually comes to be
treated as a reality. We come to believe that nature really works this way. [] In fact, if a basic
assumption comes to be strongly held in a group, members will find behavior based on any other
premise inconceivable. [] Basic assumptions, in this sense, are similar to what Argyris has identified
as theories-in-use the implicit assumptions that actually guide behavior [] (Argyris, 1976;
Argyris and Schn, 1974). []
Any groups culture can be studied at these three levelsthe level of its artifacts, the level of
its beliefs and values, and the level of its basic underlying assumptions. If one does not decipher the
pattern of basic assumptions that may be operating, one will not know how to interpret the artifacts
correctly or how much credence to give to the articulated values. In other words, the essence of a
culture lies in the pattern of basic underlying assumptions, and once one understands those,
one can easily understand the other more surface levels and deal appropriately with them. []
[II] How does culture form? (p. 15)
(p. 15) In [] formal groups an individual creates the group or becomes its leader. This could
be an entrepreneur starting a new company, [], or a manager taking over a new department of an
organization. The individual founder [] will have certain personal visions, goals, beliefs, values,
and assumptions about how things should be. He or she will initially impose these on the group
and/or select members on the basis of their similarity of thoughts and values. We can think of
this imposition as a primary act of leadership, but it does not automatically produce culture. All
it produces is compliance in the followers to do what the leader asks of them. Only if the resulting
behavior leads to successin the sense that the group accomplishes its task and the members feel
good about their relationships to each otherwill the founders beliefs and values be confirmed and
reinforced, and, most important, come to be recognized as shared. What was originally the founders
individual view of the world leads to shared action, which, if successful, leads to a shared recognition
that the founder had it right. The group will then act again on these beliefs and values and, if it
continues to be successful, will eventually conclude that it now has the correct way to think, feel, and
act. []
With continued reinforcement, the group will become less and less conscious of these
beliefs and values, and it will begin to treat them more and more as non-negotiable
assumptions. As this process continues, these assumptions will gradually drop out of
awareness and come to be taken for granted. As assumptions come to be taken for granted they
become part of the identity of the group; are taught to newcomers as the way to think, feel, and
act; and, if violated, produce discomfort, anxiety, ostracism, and eventually excommunication. []
Therefore, [] culture consists of non-negotiable valueswhich I am calling assumptions. []
(p. 225) [] Firms are created by entrepreneurs who have a vision of how the concerted effort
of the right group of people can create a new good or service in the marketplace. [] Founders usually
have a major impact on how the group initially defines and solves its external adaptation and internal
integration problems. [] Founders not only have a high level of self-confidence and determination,
but they typically have strong assumptions about the nature of the world, the role that organizations
play in that world, the nature of human nature and relationships, how truth is arrived at, and how to
manage time and space (Schein, 1978, 1983). []
(p. 246) Taken together, the six primary embedding mechanisms shown in Exhibit 13.1
are the major tools that leaders have available to them to teach their organizations how to
perceive, think, feel, and behave based on their own conscious and unconscious convictions. []
[] Some of the most important signals of what founders and leaders care about are sent
during meetings and in other activities devoted to planning and budgeting []. In questioning
subordinates systematically on certain issues, leaders can transmit their own view of how to look at
problems. [] Founders and leaders also let members know what they care about with an even more
powerful signal: their emotional reactions, especially their emotional outbursts when they feel that
one of their important values or assumptions is being violated. [] Some of the mechanisms that
leaders use to communicate their beliefs, values, and assumptions are conscious, deliberate actions;
others are unconscious and may even be unintended (Kunda, 1992).
The leader may be conflicted and may be sending mutually contradictory messages
(Kets de Vries and Miller, 1987). [] At the extreme, subordinates or the board of directors may
have to find ways to move the founder out altogether, as has happened in a number of first-
generation companies. []
(p. 262) In a young organization, design, [] architecture, rituals, stories, and formal
statements are cultural reinforcers, not culture creators. Once an organization has matured
and stabilized, these same mechanisms come to be primary culture-creating mechanisms that
will constrain future leaders. But in a growing organization these mechanisms are secondary
because they work only if they are consistent with the primary mechanisms discussed above.
When they are consistent, they begin to build organizational ideologies and thus to formalize
much of what is informally learned at the outset. If they are inconsistent, they will [] be a
source of internal conflict. []
Founders often have strong theories about how to organize for maximum effectiveness. Some
assume that only they can ultimately determine what is correct; therefore they build a tight hierarchy
and highly centralized controls. Others assume that the strength of their organization is in their people;
therefore they build a highly decentralized organization []. If founders or leaders do not design
systems and procedures as reinforcement mechanisms, they open the door to historically
evolved inconsistencies in the culture or weaken their own message from the outset. [] The
messages that can be inferred from the physical environment, as in the case of structure and
procedures, potentially reinforce the leaders messages, but only if they are managed to accomplish
this (Steele, 1973). []
As a group develops and accumulates a history, some of this history becomes embodied in
stories about events and leadership behavior (Allan et al., 2002; Martin and Powers, 1983; Neuhauser,
1993; Wilkins, 1983). Thus, the storywhether in the form of a parable, legend, or even myth
reinforces assumptions and teaches assumptions to newcomers. [] Leaders cannot always control
what will be said about them in stories, though they can certainly reinforce stories that they feel
good about and perhaps can even launch stories that carry desired messages. [] The final mechanism
of articulation and reinforcement to be mentioned is the formal statementthe attempt by the
founders or leaders to state explicitly what their values or assumptions are. [] However, formal
statements cannot be viewed as a way of defining the organizations culture. At best they cover a small,
publicly relevant segment of the culture: those aspects that leaders find useful to publish [].
[III] The role of the leader in different organizational situations (p. 427)
In a growing organization, leaders externalize their own assumptions and embed them
gradually and consistently in the mission, goals, structures, and working procedures of the group. []
As groups and organizations develop, certain key emotional issues arise, concerning dependence on
the leader, peer relationships, and how to work effectively. At each of these stages of group
development, [] leaders often have to absorb and contain the anxiety that is unleashed when
things do not work as they should (Hirschhorn, 1988; Schein, 1983, Frost, 2003). The leader
may not have the answer, but he or she must provide temporary stability and emotional
reassurance while the answer is being worked out. This anxiety-containing function is especially
relevant during periods of learning, when old habits and ways must be given up before new ones are
learned. []
Once the organization develops a substantial history of its own, its culture becomes more of a
cause than an effect. The culture now influences the strategy, the structure, the procedures, and the
ways in which the group members will relate to each other. [] In the mature organization, if it has
developed a strong unifying culture, [] what leadership has created now either blindly perpetuates
itself or creates new definitions of leadership, which may not even include the kinds of entrepreneurial
assumptions that started the organization in the first place. []
K. Bohlander & Snell
0 - Lakotel
6 - Google
V Performance appraisal (PA) &
5 - Taj
[Bohlander, G. & Snell, S. (2013). Principles of Human
balanced scorecard
Resource Management. Cengage Learning. International
Edition.]
"What gets measured gets done.
Good appraisal systems have the capability to influence employee behavior and improve an
organization's performance. One study showed that organizations with strong performance management
systems are 40 to 50 percent more likely to outperform their competitors in the areas of revenue growth,
productivity, profitability, and market value. [] A recent poll by the research company Gallup found that
employees who receive no feedback from their supervisors exhibit the least amount of engagement. []
Even negative feedback is better than none. []
In addition to improving a firm's overall performance and profitability, there are other two most common
purposes of performance appraisals, which are administrative and developmental. []
Administrative Purposes: Appraisal programs provide input that can be used for the entire range
of HRM activities, such as promotions, transfers, layoffs, and pay decisions. []
Developmental Purposes: [] managers help employees understand that the appraisals are
being conducted to improve their future competencies and further their careers and are not being
conducted simply to judge them based on their past performance. []
Why Appraisal Programs Sometimes Fail
[] Many managers are as nervous about administering appraisals as employees are about receiving
them. [] Sometimes it is as simple as the manager lacks the skills to execute an effective performance
review session; sometimes there is never enough money to recognize even the top performer. So reviews
are postponed or handled poorly, and the result is that the organization's best performers are left
frustrated, angry, disillusioned, and demotivated. In addition, those top performers are looking at the
organization's competitor. []
Unclear performance standards, biased ratings because managers lack training, too many time-
consuming forms to complete, and use of the program for conflicting purposes can also hamper the
effectiveness of performance appraisals. []
One of the main concerns employees have about appraisals relates to the fairness of the performance
appraisal systems of their firms. [] Employees who believe the system is unfair are likely to consider the
appraisal interview a waste of time and leave the interview feeling frustrated and cynical. [] By
addressing these employee concerns during the planning stage of the appraisal process and reassuring
them that they can meet the requirements and will be rewarded accordingly, an appraisal program is
more likely to be successful. []
Developing an Effective Appraisal Program
Before any appraisal is conducted, the standards by which performance is to be evaluated should be
clearly defined and communicated to the employee. [] These standards should be based on job-related
requirements derived from a job analysis and reflected in an employee's job description and job
specifications. When performance standards are properly established, they help translate an
organization's goals and objectives into job requirements that communicate to employees the definitions
of acceptable and unacceptable performance levels. []
Choosing an appropriate Performance Appraisal Methods
The method chosen should be based largely on the purpose of the appraisal.
Results Methods: [] Advocates of results appraisals argue that they are more objective. [] A number of
results measures are available to evaluate performance. Salespeople are evaluated on the basis of their
sales volume (both the number of units sold and the dollar amount in revenues). Production workers are
evaluated on the basis of the number of units they produce and perhaps the scrap rate or number of
defects that are detected. Executives are frequently evaluated on the basis of company profits or growth
rate. Each of these measures directly links what employees accomplish to results that benefit the
organization. [] But there are some problems with results appraisals. Results appraisals can be
contaminated by external factors that employees cannot influence. Sales representatives who have
extremely bad markets or production employees who cannot get materials will not be able to perform up
to their abilities. In this case, it is unfair to hold these employees accountable for results that are
contaminated by circumstances beyond their control.
Graphic Rating Scales: In the graphic rating scale method, each trait or characteristic to be rated is
represented by a scale on which a rarer indicates the degree to which an employee possesses that trait or
characteristic. [] Subjectivity bias is reduced somewhat when the dimensions on the scale and the scale
points are defined as precisely as possible. This can be achieved by training raters and by including
descriptive appraisal guidelines. [].
Critical incident method: A critical incident occurs when employee behavior results in unusual success or
unusual failure in some part of the job. [] The manager keeps a log or diary for each employee
throughout the appraisal period and notes specific critical incidents related to how well they perform. []
When completing the appraisal form, the manager refers to the critical incident log and uses this
information to substantiate an employee's rating of outstanding, satisfactory, or unsatisfactory in specific
performance areas and overall. This method can also help a manager counsel employees when they are
having performance problems while the problem is still minor. []
Essay method: [] requires the appraiser to compose a statement that best describe the employee being
appraised. The appraiser is usually instructed to describe the employees strengths and weaknesses and
to make recommendations for his / her development. [] A major limitation of the essay method is that
composing an essay that attempts to cover all of an employees essential characteristics is a very time-
consuming task. Another disadvantage of the essay method is that the quality of the performance
appraisal could be affected by the supervisors writing skills and composition style. A final drawback of
this appraisal method is that is tends to be subjective. []
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS): A behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS) consists of a
series of five to ten vertical scales, -one for each important dimension of performance identified through
job analysis. These dimensions are anchored by behaviors identified through a job analysis. [] A BARS
is typically developed by a committee that includes both subordinates and managers. The committee's
task is to identify all the relevant characteristics or dimensions of the job. Behavioral anchors in the form
of statements are then established for each of the job dimensions. [] Finally, the anchors are attached to
their job dimensions and are placed on the appropriate scales according to values that the group assigns
to them. [] Employee participation can lead to greater acceptance of the performance appraisal process
and of the performance measures that it uses. [] The procedures followed in developing a BARS also
result in scales that have a high degree of content validity. The main disadvantage of a BARS is that it
requires considerable time and effort to develop. In addition, because the scales are specific to particular
jobs, a scale designed for one job might not apply to another.
Training Appraisers
Appraisal training should focus on eliminating the subjective errors made [] in the rating process. []
With any rating method, certain types of errors can arise that should be considered.
Error of central tendency: A performance rating error in which all employees are rated about average.
Leniency or strictness error: A performance rating error in which the appraiser tends to give employees
either unusually high or unusually low ratings.
Recency error: A performance rating error in which the appraisal is based largely on the employee's most
recent behavior rather than on behavior throughout the appraisal period.
Contrast error: A performance rating error in which an employee's evaluation is biased either upward or
downward because of comparison with another employee just previously evaluated.
Similar-to-me error: A performance rating error in which an appraiser inflates the evaluation of an
employee because of a mutual personal connection.
[]
Given the complexity of today's jobs, it is often unrealistic to presume that one person can fully observe
and evaluate an employee's performance. [] The raters can include supervisors, peers, team members,
themselves, subordinates, customers, vendors, and suppliers. [].
Manager and/ or supervisor appraisal has been the traditional approach to evaluating an employee's
performance. In most instances, supervisors are in the best position to perform this function, although it
may not always be possible for them to do so. Managers with many subordinates often complain that they
do not have the time to fully observe the performance of each of them []. In addition, research has shown
that the ratings managers give employees they have known for less than one year are less reliable, which
can be a drawback when an organization uses focal performance appraisals.
SelfAppraisal: The self-appraisal is beneficial when managers seek to increase an employee's
involvement in the review process. A self-appraisal system requires an employee to complete the
appraisal form prior to the performance interview. At a minimum, this gets the employee thinking about
his or her strengths and weaknesses and may lead to discussions about barriers to effective performance.
[] This approach also works well when the manager and the employee jointly establish future
performance goals or employee development plans. [] Critics of self-appraisal argue that self-raters are
more lenient than managers in their assessments and tend to present themselves in a highly favorable
light. There is also evidence that self-appraisals can lead employees to believe that they will have more
influence over the appraisal's outcome. If that expectation is not met, the employee can become frustrated.
[]
Subordinate Appraisal: Subordinates are in a good position to evaluate their managers []. The
performance dimensions judged most appropriate for subordinates to appraise include a manager's
leadership, oral communication, delegation of authority, coordination of team efforts, and interest in his
or her subordinates. However, dimensions related to managers' specific job tasks, such as planning and
organizing, budgeting, creativity, and analytical ability, are not usually considered appropriate
dimensions for subordinates to appraise. [] To avoid potential problems, subordinate appraisals should
be submitted anonymously and combined across several individual raters. []
Peer Appraisal: Individuals of equal rank who work together are increasingly asked to evaluate each other.
A peer appraisal provides information that differs to some degree from ratings by a superior, since an
employee's peers often see different dimensions of his or her performance. [] Peer appraisals alone
should not be used to make administrative decisions related to salaries, bonuses, promotions, and other
major decisions about an employee. Employers using peer appraisals must also be sure to safeguard
confidentiality in handling the review forms. Any breach of confidentiality can create interpersonal
rivalries or hurt feelings and foster hostility among fellow employees. []
Team Appraisal: An extension of the peer appraisal is the team appraisal. In a team setting, it may be
nearly impossible to separate out an individual's contribution. Advocates of team appraisals argue that,
when this is the case, individual appraisals can be dysfunctional and distract a team from focusing on
critical issues. [] Frequently, the system is complemented by the use of team incentive or group variable
pay.
Customer Appraisal: External customers' evaluations, of course, have been used for some time to appraise
restaurant personnel. [] By including the firm's business partners in the performance reviews,
managers hope to produce more objective evaluations, more effective employees, more satisfied
customers, and better business performance. []
Putting It All Together, 360-Degree Appraisal: As mentioned previously, companies such as Intel and
Morgan Stanley combine various sources of performance appraisal information to create multi-rater-or
360- degree- appraisal and feedback systems. As the name implies, 360-degree feedback is intended to
provide employees with as accurate a view of their performance as possible by getting input from all
angles: supervisors, peers, subordinates, customers, and the like. []
Pros of the 360 Appraisal:

The system is more comprehensive in that responses are gathered from multiple perspective.
Quality of information is better.
It may lessen bias / prejudice since feedback comes from more people, not one individual.
Cons of the 360 Appraisal:
The system is complex in combining all the responses.
[]
Appraisers may not be accountable if their evaluation are anonymous.
When Intel established a 360-degree system, the company observed the following safeguard to ensure its
maximum quality and acceptance:
Assure anonymity: Make certain that no employee ever knows how any evaluation team member
responded.
Make respondents accountable: Supervisors should discuss each evaluation team member's input,
letting each member know whether he or she used the rating scales appropriately, whether his or
her responses were reliable.
[]
The Balanced Scorecard
The balanced Scorecard (BSC) can be used to appraise individual employees, teams, business units, and
the corporation itself. [] A BSC appraisal enables managers to translate broad corporate goals into
divisional, departmental, and team goals in a cascading way. []
Developed by Harvard professors Robert Kaplan and David Norton, the BSC is a framework that helps
managers translate their firms' strategic goals into operational objectives. The model has four related
cells: (1) financial, (2) customer, (3) processes, and (4) learning. [] People management and learning
help organizations improve their internal processes and provide excellent customer service. Internal
processes- product development, service, and the like-are critical for creating customer satisfaction and
loyalty, and they are also important for ensuring productivity to contain costs for better financial
performance. Customer value creation, in turn, drives up revenues, which enhances profitability. []
First, managers need to identify the key workforce objectives they hope to achieve. Often this information
can come from the people/learning cell of the Balanced Scorecard and might include loyalty, customer
service, productivity; and creativity. Second, managers would identify each of the HR practices used to
elicit or reinforce those workforce objectives (job design, staffing, training, appraisal, compensation, and
so on). Third, managers would evaluate each HR practice on a scale of -5 (not supportive) to 5
(supportive). By tallying up the racings across managers, organizations can get a very clear idea of which
HR practices are working together to achieve the workforce objectives and which are not. [] Figure 2.12
shows how this might work at Starbucks. In each cell, Starbucks would identify the key metrics that help
translate strategic goals to operational imperatives. [] Each of these cells links vertically. People
management issues such as rewards, training, and suggestions can be linked to efficient processes
(brewing the perfect cup, delivering top-notch customer service, etc.). These processes then lead to better
customer loyalty and growth. Growth and customer loyalty in turn lead to higher profitability and market
value.
L. Werner, Schuler & Jackson
0 - Lakotel
6 - Google
VI Comp.&Ben. and T&D [Werner, S., Schuler, R.S., & Jackson, S. (2012).
Human Resource Management. 11th Edition.
Cengage Learning. 455 pages.]
Total rewarding mix

Both monetary and non-monetary forms of compensation are important to most employees, although
people differ in the value they attach to each. []
Monetary compensation includes direct payments, such as salary, wages, and bonuses, and indirect
payments, such as payments to cover benefits and services. [] Normally, base pay is the largest pay
element []. Base pay refers to the wage or salary an employee receives, exclusive of any incentive
pay or benefits. Base pay is predictable and fixed []
Non-monetary compensation includes many forms of social and psychological rewards, such as
recognition and respect from others, enjoyment from doing the job itself, opportunities for self-
development, and so on. []
Base pay structure Fixed salaries & wages (Monetary)

The salaries and wages paid to employees are typically governed by an organization's pay structure. A
pay structure combines job evaluation information and information about market pay rates to
establish a policy that specifies the base pay of employees in each job. [].
Job-based pay (based upon job evaluation)
Job evaluation is a procedure for establishing the relative internal worth of jobs. [] Job evaluation is
based on information from job analysis and competency modeling. [] The three major approaches to
establishing the value of jobs are: []
1. Job Ranking Method: [] quick, easy, and cheap. It works best when only a few jobs need to
be evaluated and when one person is familiar with them all. ()
2. Job classification method groups jobs into a smaller set of job classes and then the job classes
(not the individual jobs) are ranked according to their value to the organization. [] Class (or
grade) descriptions specify the kinds and levels of responsibilities assigned to jobs in each grade,
the difficulty of the work performed, the required employee qualifications, and other work factors.
()
3. Point factor rating method: uses a sophisticated system for assigning values to jobs based on
numeric ratings of compensable factors. [] A company pursuing an innovation strategy might
include "responsibility for innovation" as a compensable factor. This will result in the organization
paying more for jobs that require innovation []. Once the factors have been chosen and weighted,
the next step is to construct scales reflecting the different degrees of each factor that can be present
in a job. [] The result is a hierarchy of jobs, with each job given a numeric score that represents
its value to the organization. ()
Competency-based or skill-based pay (based upon competency-based job evaluation)
Competency-based job evaluation [] establishes the value of jobs using domain competencies instead
of job factors. The most commonly used domain competencies are customer focus, communication,
team orientation, technical expertise, results orientation, leadership, and adaptability. Jobs with similar
competency requirements are grouped together into a grade or class. Jobs requiring higher degrees of
valuable competencies end up in higher pay grades than those requiring lower degrees of less valuable
competencies. () With skill-based pay, employees earn more if and when they demonstrate specific
skills or knowledge at specific levels of difficulty. [] For supervisors, valuable skills and knowledge
include budget planning and analysis, employee performance management, and developing client
relationships. ()
Base-pay structure and internal & external equity
Using job evaluation procedures helps ensure that pay levels address the issue of internal equity [].
However, pay levels also must address the issue of external equity.
External equity exists when employees feel they are being compensated fairly relative to how people in
similar jobs (or with similar competencies) are compensated by other employers. [] To be effective,
total compensation must take into account the realities of the external labor market. [...] Ensuring
that salaries and wages meet employees' desires for external equity involves three steps:
1. Determine pay rates in the external market.
2. Establish the market pay policy.
3. Set the organization pay policy. [] A lead policy maximizes the company's ability to attract and
retain quality employees []. However, a lead policy increases labor costs. [] A match policy sets
the organization's policy line at the middle of the market. This does not give an employer a competitive
advantage, but it does ensure that the organization isn't at a disadvantage with respect to labor costs. It
is also possible to adopt a lag policy, in which the organization intentionally pays below the market.
However, a lag policy may hinder an organization's ability to attract and retain potential employees
unless other considerations (e.g., job security, benefits, locale, job content) make up for the low base
pay. []
Performance-based / Variable reward; merit and incentive pay: individual, team, or general?
In addition to base pay, [] most employers offer some form of performance-based pay. Performance-
based pay recognizes that people working in the same job can differ greatly in terms of the value they
contribute to the organization. []
Rewards for performance can be of many types, ranging from a feeling of personal satisfaction to public
recognition and small tokens to substantial monetary payments and stock ownership. [...]
Because different employees value different rewards, some companies are introducing choice into their
performance-based pay practices. For example, GeoEngineers, Inc., a consulting engineering firm in
Redmond, Washington, lets its employees choose between cash rewards and time off. This allows
employees to pick the reward of greater value to them. []
Using too many smaller rewards has some disadvantages, however. With so many rewards, no single
reward matters very much, so employees are likely to focus on those aspects of performance they think
are easiest. []
Usually, not all employees are eligible to receive all of the rewards an employer offers. The rules used
to determine which employees are covered by the various pay practices are called eligibility rules. []
Whether employees are eligible for a particular reward is usually related to the employees' line-of-sight.
Line-of-sight refers to the amount of influence an employee has on a performance measure. []
To create a sense of ownership and camaraderie, some companies offer profit sharing to all employees.
[] But for many of the eligible employees, the line-of-sight may be poor because their job performance
seems to have only small consequences for the firm's profitability. In such situations, profit sharing may
not be effective in motivating employees to work hard. If the purpose of making all employees eligible
for profit sharing is to establish a sense of ownership and camaraderie, however, the rewards may
nevertheless be effective in achieving the employer's objective.
[] Monetary rewards include cash and those that have a cash value. The cash value can be small (e.g.,
gift certificates) or large (e.g., all-expenses-paid vacations, direct stock awards, stock options).
[] Merit pay is a permanent pay raise whereas incentive pay is a one-time award. [] Also, with
incentive pay, the difference in pay received by low- versus high-performers is usually larger than with
merit pay. [] Commission refers to pay based on a percentage of the sales price of the product. []
Gainsharing plans involve measuring a work unit's costs and productivity, then sharing future gains with
employees. [ ] Profit-sharing plans include any plan under which an employer pays regular employees,
or makes available to them, special current or deferred sums based on the profits of the business in
addition to their regular pay. []
Companies use many different approaches to encourage their employees to own company stock and
take part as an owner of the company. The three main approaches are:
1. Stock grants (stock is given to employees).
2. Stock options (employees may buy future shares at current prices).
3. Stock purchase plans (employees buy shares at a discount).
Recognition awards are rewards provided as an after-the-fact display of appreciation or
acknowledgment of an individual's or team's desired behavior, effort, or business result that supports
the organization's goals and values. [] Most firms use a variety of different types of recognition awards,
e.g. gift certificates to restaurants, movie tickets, written thank-you notes, and a "night-on-the-town"
package, recognition plaques, mugs, T-shirts, employee-of-the-month awards, which come with a
parking place by the front door, an engraved plaque, and verbal acknowledgment in a company meeting..
[] Recognition provides something that most employees want,-a showing of appreciation-, at a modest
cost [].
Training & Development (Non-monetary)

In some organizations, attendance at an executive training program serves as a reward for past
performance. In others, participation in training programs is a ritual signalling to newly promoted
employees as well as members of their former work groups that a change in status has occurred (e.g., a
rank-and-file employee is now a manager). []
Usually, training has as its main objective improving performance in the near term and in a specific job
by increasing employees' competencies. [] Development refers to activities intended to improve
competencies over a longer period of time in anticipation of the organization's future needs.
A formal needs assessment should serve as the foundation of training and development activities. []
An organizational needs analysis involves an assessment of short- and long-term training and
development needs given the business strategy, company culture, and expected changes in the external
environment of the company. [] A person needs analysis identifies gaps between a person's current
competencies and those identified as being necessary or desirable. [] A demographic needs analysis
is to determine the training needs of specific populations of workers. A demographic needs analysis also
can be used to assess whether all employees are given equal access to growth experiences and
developmental challenges. []
Training and development activities may be provided by any of several people, including:
Supervisors and other managers;
Coworkers One concern with relying on coworkers as trainers is that they may not be able to
instruct others. They may also teach others their own shortcuts rather than correct procedures. If
coworkers are to be trainers, they should receive instruction on how to train and be given
sufficient time on the job to work with trainees.
Internal or external subject matter experts may not be familiar with procedures in a specific
organizational culture. As a result, they may be respected for their expertise but mistrusted
because they aren't members of the work group. Still, if no one in the immediate work
environment possesses the knowledge needed, or if large numbers of individuals need to be
trained, the only option may be to hire experts.
[]
Many different formats can be used for training and development activities. Three general formats are
on-the-job, onsite but not on-the-job, and offsite. Format choices take into account the type of
learning that's to occur cognitive, skill-based, or affective-as well as cost and time considerations.
***
In a nutshell, what is it about / En bref, de quoi a parle*
* The following summaries will be distributed with the cover page of the final exam, as a memory trigger, so that
students can focus on their managerial competencies. Of course, because such cheat sheet will be made available, it
will make no sense and there will be no point for students in just copying its content into their exam copy.
* Les rsums fournis ci-dessous seront distribus avec lnonc de lexamen final, en tant quaide-mmoire, de sorte
que les tudiants puissent se concentrer sur leurs comptences managriales. Evidemment, copier le contenu de cet
aide-mmoire dans une copie dexamen ne rapportera aucun point et ne fait aucun sens.
Readings / Lectures Page
A. Robbins & Judge

[Robbins, S. & Judge, T. (2014). Organizational Behavior. Harlow, England: Pearson.]
Stable or dynamic environment? Maximization of volume strategy, or innovation strategy? Then, bureaucratic
mechanistic structure, or boundaryless organic structure? Which culture? How talent management systems based upon
either a centralized and controlling model or an empowering involvement model can help a companys strategy, structure 2
and culture fit together and be aligned with its external environment, and therefore perform well.
Environnement stable ou dynamique? Stratgie de maximisation du volume ou dinnovation? Structure bureaucratique et
mcaniste, ou bien structure organique sans frontires ? Comment un systme de management, soit bas sur un
modle centralis de contrle, soit bas sur un modle responsabilisant et engageant peut aider une entreprise
performer en alignant ses stratgie, structure et culture son environnement externe.
B. Bowen & Lawler

[Bowen, D. E. & Lawler, E. E. (1995). Organizing for service: Empowerment or production line? In Glynn, W. J. & Barnes, J. G. (eds.),
Understanding services management: (pp. 269-294). New York: Wiley.]
How a controlling model of management or an involvement model of management can contribute to a companys
performance, considering their respective advantages and disadvantages, as well as the conditions under which they are
appropriate, regarding the external environment and the strategy, the structure and the culture of the company 5
concerned.
Comment deux diffrents modles de management, celui de control et celui d involvement peuvent contribuer
la performance dune entreprise, sachant leurs avantages et inconvnients, et les conditions dans lesquelles ils sont
appropris, en considration de l'environnement externe, et de la stratgie, la structure et la culture de l'entreprise
concerne.
C. Meloun
[Meloun, J.M. (2008). Job analysis: The basis for all things HR. In Tesone, D. (Ed.), Handbook of hospitality human resource management (pp. 23-
37). Burlington, MA: Elsevier.]
A job analysis is the actual process of gathering information about jobs. A job analysis is necessary to make job
descriptions and profile descriptions/job specifications (see KSAs, KSAOs, and KSAPCs). Yet, job analyses, as well as
job descriptions and job specifications are done for a variety of purposes (performance appraisal, training need analysis,
and not only selection). Thus, there are a variety of different means for collecting the job analysis data, which have their
advantages and drawbacks: e.g. self-report by SME like incumbent, job analysts interview of incumbent, observation,
experimentation. Triangulation is best. 7
Lanalyse de lemploi ou du travail - Job Analysis est un processus de collecte dinformation sur les emplois. Une job
analysis est ncessaire pour faire des descriptifs de poste - Job Descriptions et des descriptifs de profil - Job
Specifications - (cf. KSAs, KSAOs, et KSAPCs). Ceci tant, les analyses du travail, descriptifs de poste et de profils sont
raliss pour achever de nombreux objectifs (valuation des performances, des besoins de formation, et pas seulement
embauche). Ainsi, il y a diffrentes mthodes pour conduire une analyse du travail et donc, collecter les donnes
ncessaires sur les postes et profils, avec leurs avantages et leurs inconvnients: ex. lauto-rapport (self-report) par
un SME, comme le titulaire du poste ou un analyste, ou bien observation ou exprimentation par lanalyste. La
triangulation est recommande.
D. Mathis, Jackson & Valentine

[Mathis, R.L., Jackson, J.H. & Valentine, S. (2014). Human Resource Management: Essential Perspectives. Mason, OH: South-Western, Cengage
Learning.]
Having sufficient workers with the right qualifications is essential to achieve a companys strategy. We must forecast the
Demand for (need) and the Supply of (availabilities) Human Resources. For internal supply forecast, we can use
judgmental or mathematical forecasting methods. For external supply forecast, we must consider that several factors 9
affect the external pool of potential employees.
Avoir suffisamment de travailleurs avec les bonnes qualifications est essentiel pour achever la stratgie d'une entreprise.
Il faut prvoir la demande (besoins) et l'offre (disponibilits) en RH. Pour prvoir loffre interne, nous pouvons utiliser des
mthodes de prvision qualitative ou mathmatiques. Pour prvoir loffre externe, il faut considrer que plusieurs
facteurs impactent le rservoir d'employs potentiels.
E. Raub & Streit

[Raub, S., Streit, E-M. (2006). Realistic recruitment. An empirical study of the cruise industry. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management. 18 / 4. 278-289.]
Traditional VS. Realistic approach to recruitment. Wide audience but rude awakening VS. RJP but applicants self-
selecting out. When attracting applicants, take care of the source of the message, the media used to convey the
message and the content of the message. The job interview can also serve as a tool to continue to attract candidates, 11
either in a traditional way, or through a realistic approach.
Approche traditionnelle large audience mais rude awakening VS approche raliste avec RJP mais candidats sauto
liminent. Quand on attire les candidats, il faut choisir les bonnes sources dinformation utiliser, les bons mdias aussi,
et le message en termes de contenu. Linterview de slection peut servir continuer dattirer le candidat, soit de faon
traditionnelle, soit de faon raliste.
F. Fernandez & Pougnet

[Fernandez, S. & Pougnet, S. (2014). Pratiques de slection dans les htels en Suisse / Selection Practices in Swiss Hotels. Annuaire de
LHtellerie Suisse. Bern: Lhtelleriesuisse. 106-109.]
Staff selection best practices focusing on predictive validity of employees job performance rather include a combination
of work samples, cognitive ability and personality tests, like integrity tests, as well as structured biodata and structured
interviews, built upon an initial detailed job analysis. Nonetheless, hospitality practitioners do not use these evidence- 13
based selection tools and rather rely on intuitive and opportunistic selection practices.
Les meilleures pratiques de slection du personnel, valides pour prdire la performance des futurs employs,
comprennent plutt une combinaison d'chantillons de travail, de tests de capacit cognitive et de personnalit, ainsi que
des donnes biographiques structures et des entretiens structurs, bass sur une job analysis. Nanmoins, les
hteliers nutilisent pas ces outils de slection validit probante et comptent plutt sur leur intuition.
G. Cohen & Veled-Hecht

[Cohen. A. & Veled-Hecht, A. (2010). The relationship between organizational socialization and commitment in the workplace among employees in
long-term nursing care facilities. Personnel Review. 39 / 5. 537-556.]
Effective socialization leads to better job-person fit and organization-person fit as well as to higher organizational
commitment in the long run. Lack of organizational commitment is an explanation for employee absenteeism. The
attitudes of employees toward various aspects of the organization can be shaped at the early stages of employment, and 16
the outcomes of socialization are likely to remain regardless of the later experiences of employees in the organization.
Une socialisation efficace mne un meilleur job-person fit et organization-person fit et davantage d'implication
(organizational commitment) et moins dabsentisme. Les attitudes des employs l'gard de divers aspects de
l'organisation peuvent tre faonnes aux premiers stades de l'emploi et les rsultats de la socialisation sont
susceptibles de durer indpendamment des expriences ultrieures des employs dans l'organisation.
H. Murray-Gibbons & Gibbons

[Murray-Gibbons, R. & Gibbons, C. (2007). Occupational stress in the chef profession. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management. 19 / 1. 32 42.].
In this study, excessive workload, feeling undervalued and communication issues as well as bullying and threats of
violence are seen as sources of stress. There is a need for managers to provide more feedback to employees, to validate
their good work and to foster a supportive working context. Norms in the working context endorsing aggressive behaviour 18
must be challenged.
Dans cette tude, la charge de travail excessive, le sentiment de sous-valuation et les problmes de communication
ainsi que l'intimidation et les menaces de violence sont vus comme des sources de stress. Les managers doivent fournir
davantage de feedback aux employs, qu'ils valident leur bon travail et qu'ils favorisent un contexte de travail de support.
Les normes favorisant le comportement agressif dans le contexte de travail doivent tre contestes.
I. Banner & Blasingame

[Banner, D. K. & Blasingame, J. W. (1988). Towards a developmental paradigm of leadership. Leadership & Organization Development Journal. 9 /
4. 7-16.]
Three approaches to effective leadership: traits theory (a), behavioral perspective on the employee-centred leader (b); 21
contingent situational leader who adapts to situations (c).
Trois approches du leadership efficace: thories des traits (a) ; perspective comportementale et le leader employee-
centred (b) ; et le leader contingent et situationnel qui adapte son style la situation (c).
J. Schein
[Schein, E. H. (1985). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.]
Organizational culture has three levels, artifacts (1); beliefs and values (2); and tacit assumptions (3), brought up by a
founder. It is transmitted by the founders and by following leaders, through ten explicit and implicit channels. The role of
both the founder and the leaders is vital in developing it. 23
Le fondateur dune entreprise en cr la culture organisationnelle, sur trois niveaux, celui des artefacts (1), celui des
croyances et valeurs (2), et celui des postulats profonds (3). Elle se construit et se transmet grce aux fondateur et
manager via dix moyens explicites et implicites. Le fondateur et les leaders qui lui succdent ont un rle essentiel pour
dvelopper la culture dentreprise.
K. Bohlander & Snell

[Bohlander, G. & Snell, S. (2013). Principles of Human Resource Management. Cengage Learning. International Edition.]
Performance appraisals (PA) must be based on unbiased and valid methods and conducted by well-trained raters (e.g.
supervisors, subordinates, peers, clients) in line with either administrative or developmental purposes. The Balanced
ScoreCard (BSC) helps the company align the individuals performance to the overall organizations performance. 26
En ligne avec soit un but administratif de contrle, soit avec un but de dveloppement, les valuations de la performance
(performance appraisals - PA) doivent se fonder sur des mthodes sans biais et valides pour identifier les employs les
plus performants et doivent tre menes par des valuateurs bien forms, parmi lesquels les superviseurs, les
subordonns, les pairs, les clients, par exemple. Le tableau de bord (Balanced ScoreCard BSC) permet daligner la
performance individuelle la performance organisationnelle.
L. Werner, Schuler & Jackson

[Werner, S., Schuler, R.S., & Jackson, S. (2012). Human Resource Management. 11th Edition. Cengage Learning. 455 pages.]
The total compensation mix includes all monetary and nonmonetary elements. Build a pay structure based upon job
evaluation to ensure external and internal equity. Advantages and disadvantages of performance-based pay and
incentives. Training and development as a reward: formal needs assessment first, then choose actors and formats. 30
Le mix de rtribution totale comprend des lments montaires et non montaires. Construire une structure de
rmunration base sur l'valuation des emplois pour assurer l'quit interne et externe. Avantages et inconvnients de
la rmunration et des incitations bases sur la performance. Formation et dveloppement comme une rcompense:
valuation formelle des besoins d'abord, puis choisir les acteurs et les formats.
***

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9310 Talent Management Systems / Systmes de Management du Talent

Dr. Stephanie POUGNET Ms/Mlle. Camille VIAL

Collection of MANDATORY READINGS for Students

February 2017 / Fvrier 2017

Case Studies concerned / Case studies

C. Meloun 3 - Ritz Carlton (ABCDEFGH) 7

III - Hiring process. F. Fernandez & Pougnet (F&P) 13

G. Cohen & Veled-Hecht (C&VH) 16

H. Murray-Gibbons & Gibbons (MG&G) 18

IV - Working contexts. I. Banner & Blasingame (B&B) 21

[Managers and Organizations]

[The mechanistic structure] [The organic structure]

External Simple, predictable Complex, unpredictable

Culture Conventional, impersonal, Personalizing, team-oriented and

[] Both the empowerment and production-line approaches have their

Table 1 (adapted from Bowen & Lawler, 1995, p 292).

Which Approach Is Better? []

[] Both the empowerment and production-line approaches have their

[Positions & job descriptions]

[Profiles & Job specifications]

[Conducting job analyses]

For more information on jobs and job analyses

The steps in the HR planning process are shown below.

Forecasting uses information from the past

Forecasting Methods and Periods

Forecasting the Demand (Need) for Human Resources

Forecasting the Supply (Availability) of Human Resources

Attracting and retaining the

Realistic recruitment from the candidates' perspective

Conceptual framework and research hypotheses []

Results, analyses and discussion

Conclusions and recommendations

[1. Trait theories: effective leaders have specific traits]

[I] Culture formally defined (p. 17)

K. Bohlander & Snell

"What gets measured gets done.

Why Appraisal Programs Sometimes Fail

Developing an Effective Appraisal Program

Choosing an appropriate Performance Appraisal Methods

Pros of the 360 Appraisal:

The Balanced Scorecard

L. Werner, Schuler & Jackson

Total rewarding mix

Base pay structure Fixed salaries & wages (Monetary)

Training & Development (Non-monetary)

Readings / Lectures Page

A. Robbins & Judge

B. Bowen & Lawler

D. Mathis, Jackson & Valentine

E. Raub & Streit

F. Fernandez & Pougnet

G. Cohen & Veled-Hecht

H. Murray-Gibbons & Gibbons

I. Banner & Blasingame

K. Bohlander & Snell

L. Werner, Schuler & Jackson

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