Ocean Cable Engineering Handbook Vol8 Compiled by Ian S. Coote

Ocean
Engineering Notes.
Compiled
by
Ian S. Coote
Part 3
Handbook
for
Ocean Cable Engineering.
Volume 8
System
Installation.
1st. Edition
This compilation
Copyright 2009 by Ian S. Coote.
Neither Ian S. Coote, or any of his associates

makes any warranty, express or implied,
or assumes any legal liability or responsibility
for the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of
any information, apparatus, product or process
disclosed, or represents that its use would not
infringe privately-owned rights.
Page i
Contents.
Page No.
1. Introduction. 1
2. Installation of Trunk Ocean Cable. 2
2.1 Overview. 2
2.2 Cable Laying Data and Control. 2
2.2.1 Data Base. 2
2.2.2 Slack Control. 5
2.2.3 Laying Using Plotting Sheet. 5
2.3 Transportation of Ocean Cable to the Cable Grounds. 6
2.4 Installation at a Shore Site. 9
2.4.1 Operations. 9
2.4.1.1 General. 9
2.4.1.2 Preparation. 11
2.4.1.3 Landing the Cable End ( Across the Beach ). 11
2.4.1.4 Landing the Cable End ( Directionally Drilled Bore Hole ). 14
2.4.1.4 Post Landing. 14
2.4.2 Navigation. 15
2.4.3 Construction Work for Cable Installation. 15
2.4.3.1 Scope. 15
2.4.3.2 Land Area. 16
2.4.3.2.1 Type of Work Required. 16
2.4.3.2.2 Excavation of Cable Trench across Land Area. 16
2.4.3.2.2.1 General. 16
2.4.3.2.2.2 Excavation. 18
2.4.3.2.2.3 Closing. 19
2.4.3.3 Directionally Drilled Bore Holes. 19
2.4.3.3.2 Drilling. 19
2.4.3.4 Beach Area. 20
2.4.3.4.2 Excavation of Cable Trench across the Beach. 20
2.4.3.4.2.1 General. 20
2.4.3.4.2.2 Excavation. 21
2.4.3.4.2.3 Closing. 21
2.4.3.4.3 Beach Anchor. 24
2.4.3.4.4 Installation of Temporary Deadmen in a Beach. 28
2.4.3.5 Inshore Area. 30
2.4.3.5.2 Excavation Using Explosives. 30
2.4.3.5.3 Excavation by Mechanical Means. 31
2.4.3.6 Nearshore Area. 31
2.4.3.6.2 Nearshore Underwater Excavation Using Explosives. 32
2.4.3.6.2.1 Overview. 32
2.4.3.6.2.2 Restrictions. 32
2.4.3.6.2.3 Uses. 32
2.4.3.6.2.3.1 Obstacle Removal. 32
Page ii
Contents ( Continued ).
Page No.
2.4.3.6.2.3.2 Trenching. 34
2.4.3.6.2.3.3 Ramping. 36
2.4.3.6.2.4 Types of Charges and Firing Systems. 37
2.4.3.6.2.5 Rock Drills. 38
2.4.3.6.2.5.1 General. 38
2.4.3.6.2.5.2 Hydraulic Hand-Held Drills. 38
2.4.3.6.2.5.3 Pneumatic Hand-Held Drills. 38
2.4.3.6.2.5.4 Pneumatic Track Drills. 39
2.4.3.6.2.6 Characteristics of Rocks and Corals. 39
2.4.3.6.2.7 Effects of Water. 39
2.4.3.6.3 Nearshore Underwater Excavation by Mechanical Means. 41
2.4.3.6.4 Cable Ship Mooring. 41
2.4.3.7 Ocean Grounds. 43
2.4.3.7.1 On Land. 43
2.4.3.7.2 In Sea. 44
2.4.4 Immobilization and Protection of Ocean Cables in the 44
Beach, Inshore and Nearshore Areas.
2.4.4.1 General. 44
2.4.4.2 Sacked Concrete. 44
2.4.4.3 Articulated Split Pipes. 46
2.4.4.3.1 Usage. 46
2.4.4.3.2 Types of Articulated Split Pipes. 46
2.4.4.3.3 Installation. 54
2.4.4.3.4 Immobilization of Split Pipes. 56
2.4.4.3.5 Protection of Split Pipes against Corrosion. 58
2.4.4.4 Drill Pipe. 58
2.4.4.5 Direct Immobilization of the Ocean Cable. 59
2.5 Installation Across the Continental Shelf ( Shore End Cable ) 59
2.6 Installation Across the Deep Ocean. 60
2.7 Ocean Cable Burial. 61
2.7.1 Overview. 61
2.7.2 Navigation. 62
2.7.3 Post Plowing Inspection. 62
2.8 Installation of Tee Junction or Branch. 62
2.8.1 Overview. 62
2.8.2 Installation Method. 62
2.8.3 Tensions in Laying the Tee Junction. 63
2.9 Transmission Testing. 66
2.9.1 General. 66
2.9.2 Transmission Testing Equipment. 67
2.9.2.1 Overview. 67
2.9.2.2 Test Set Philosophy and Design. 67
2.9.2.3 Test Sets. 67
2.9.2.3.1 Coaxial Cable Laying Test Sets. 67
2.9.2.3.2 Optical Laying Test Sets. 69
2.9.2.4 Power Feeding Equipment. 69
2.9.2.5 Line Terminal Equipment. 69
2.9.2.5.1 Coaxial Line Terminal Equipment. 69
Page iii
Page No.
2.9.2.5.2 Optical Line Terminal Equipment. 70

2.9.2.6 Shipboard Computer Facility. 70
2.9.2.7 Repeater Monitoring Set. 70
2.9.2.7.1 Coaxial Repeater Monitoring Set. 70
2.9.2.7.2 Optical Repeater Monitoring Set. 71
2.9.3 Test Procedures. 71
2.9.3.1 Test During Loading. 71
2.9.3.2 Assembled Shipload Tests. 71
2.9.3.3 Tests During Laying. 75
2.9.3.4 Commissioning Tests. 78
2.9.4 Environmental Considerations and Measurements. 79
2.9.4.1 Repeater Temperature Control. 79
2.9.4.1.1 Requirement. 79
2.9.4.1.2 Control Requirements. 79
2.9.4.1.3 Temperature Control Facilities. 80
2.9.4.1.4 Repeater Temperature Measurement. 80
2.9.5.2 Ocean Cable Temperature Control. 81
2.9.5.2.1 Requirement. 81
2.9.5.2.2 Control Requirements. 81
2.9.5.2.3 Temperature Control Facilities. 81
2.9.5.2.4 Ocean Cable Temperature Measurement. 81
3. Installation of Arrays. 83
3.1 Overview. 83
3.2 Inshore and Nearshore Bottom Mounted Array Installation. 83
3.2.1 General. 83
3.2.2 Navigation Systems. 83
3.2.3 Procedure. 84
3.2.3.1 General. 84
3.2.3.2 Sensor Unit Installation. 86
3.3 Offshore Bottom Mounted Array Installation. 87
3.3.1 General. 87
3.3.3 Sensor Unit First, Single Ship, Individually Cabled 88
Sensor Unit.
3.3.3.1 Application. 88
3.3.3.3 Ship Positioning and Control 88
3.3.3.4 Procedure. 90
3.3.4 Sensor Unit First, Two Ships, Individually Cabled 99
Sensor Units.
3.3.4.3 Ship Positioning and Control. 99
Page iv
Page No.
3.3.5 Sensor Unit Last, Individually Cabled Sensor Unit. 110

3.3.5.3 Transportation of Sensor Unit. 110
3.3.6 Short Strong Line Arrays. 114
3.3.6.3 Ship Requirement, Positioning and Control. 114
3.3.6.4 General Configuration of Array. 114
3.3.7 Weak and Long Line Arrays. 122
3.3.7.3 Ship Equipment, Positioning and Control. 122
3.3.7.4 General Configuration of Array. 122
3.4 Taut Sub-Surface Moored Array Installation. 131
3.4.1 General. 131
3.4.3 Single Leg Taut Moor, Three Ships. 131
3.4.4 Single Leg Taut Moor, Two Ships. 141
3.4.5 Single Leg Taut Moor, Single Ship. 149
3.4.6 Mid-Water Horizontal Line Arrays. 157
3.4.7 Goal Post or Linear Chair Array. 167
3.5 Array Laying Calculations. 176
Page v
Page No.
Annexes.
A. Characteristics of Rock and Coral. A1
A.1 General. A1
A.2 Characteristics of Rock. A1
A.2.1 Overview. A1
A.2.2 Hardness. A1
A.2.3 Toughness. A1
A.2.4 Density. A2
A.2.5 Structure. A2
A.3 Classification of Rocks. A2
A.3.1 Overview. A2
A.3.2 Extrusive Igneous ( Volcanic ) Rocks. A2
A.3.2.1 Form. A2
A.3.2.2 Characteristics. A2
A.3.2.3 Naming. A2
A.3.3 Intrusive Igneous ( Plutonic ) Rocks. A3
A.3.3.1 Form. A3
A.3.3.3 Naming. A3
A.3.4 Sedimentary Rocks. A3
A.3.4.1 Form. A3
A.3.4.3 Naming. A4
A.3.5 Metamorphic Rocks. A4
A.3.5.1 Form. A4
A.3.5.3 Naming. A4
A.4 Criteria for Selection of Explosive. A5
A.5 Coral. A6
A.6 Rock Hardness. A6
B. Ocean Cable Burial by Cable Plows and Cable A8

Trenching ROVs.
B.1 Introduction. A8
B.2 Cable Plows. A8
B.2.1 General. A8
B.2.2 Description of the Sea Plows. A9
B.2.2.1 General. A9
B.2.2.2 Cable Ship Requirements. A16
B.2.3 Operations. A17
B.2.3.1 General. A17
B.2.3.2 Equipment. A17
B.2.3.3 Procedure. A18
Page vi
Page No.
B.3 Cable Trenching ROVs A28

B.3.1 General. A28
B.3.2 Operation. A30
C. Laying Ocean Cables Across Bottoms Composed of Deep Mud. A32
C.1 General. A32

C.2 Method. A32
Page vii
Figures.
Page No.
2.2.3(a) Form of plotting sheet. 6
2.3(a) Arrangement of bellmouths in hatches over portable 8

cable tank.
2.4.1.1(a) Arrangement of typical shore site with the cable landing 9

through a trench across nearshore, inshore and beach areas
and up over the land area to the cable vault.
2.4.1.1(b) Arrangement of a typical shore site with cable landing 10

through a directionally drilled bore hole from the
nearshore area, under the inshore and beach areas and
land area to the cable vault.
2.4.1.3(a) Arrangement for heavy rope to be carried back along 12

ocean cable.
2.4.1.3(b) Arrangement of rollers for use in landing cable end. 13
2.4.3.2.2.1(a) Typical cross section of cable trench across land area. 17
2.4.3.2.2.1(b) Protection for cable under unmade road using split pipes. 17
2.4.3.2.21(c) Use of pipes to allow cable to pass under made road. 18
2.4.3.4.2.1(a) Form of cable trench in rock. 22
2.4.3.4.2.3(a) Trench end cover assembly. 23
2.4.3.4.3(a) Concrete block beach anchor ( one or two ocean cables ) 24
2.4.3.4.3(b) Steel H-beam beach anchor ( one or two ocean cables ). 25
2.4.3.4.3(c) Rock bolted eye-plate beach anchor. 25
2.4.3.4.3(d) Deadman beach anchor grouted into fractures or soft rock. 26
2.4.3.4.3(e) Connection of ocean cable to beach anchor. 27
2.4.3.4.3(f) Additional beach anchors for high down beach pull on 28

ocean cable.
2.4.3.4.4(a) Vertical pole type temporary deadman. 29
2.4.3.4.4(b) Buried pole type temporary deadman. 29

Page viii
Figures ( Continued ).
Page No.
2.4.3.6.2.3.1 Contact blasting. 33

(a)
2.4.3.6.2.3.1 Snakeholing. 33
(b)
2.4.3.6.2.3.1 Blockholing 33
(c)
2.4.3.6.2.3.1 Borehole orientation in blockholing for maximum 34

(d) fragmentation.
2.4.3.6.2.3.1 Borehole orientation in blockholing for splitting. 34

(e)
2.4.3.6.2.3.2 Comparative depth and width in trench in coral by 35

(a) 20 lb - 9 Kg haversacks with plastic explosive.
2.4.3.6.2.3.2 Comparative depth and width of trench in coral by hose 35

(b) charge.
2.4.3.6.2.3.2 Comparative depth and width of trench in coral by 35

(c) Bangalore torpedo.
2.4.3.6.2.3.3 Typical idealized ramp. 36

(a)
2.4.3.6.2.3.3 Ramp shot using contact charges. 36

(b)
2.4.3.6.2.3.3 Ramp shot using drilled holes with constant spacing and 37
(c) burden.
2.4.3.6.2.7(a) Transporting charges from support vessel to bottom. 40
2.4.3.6.4(a) Two point moor for cable ship standing off a shore site. 42
2.4.3.6.4(b) Components in one leg of mooring. 43
2.4.4.2(a) Sacked concrete laid over ocean cable. 45
2.4.4.2(b) Sacked concrete surrounding ocean cable. 45
2.4.4.2(c) Sacked concrete bridging crevice in rock bottom. 46

Page ix
Page No.
2.4.4.3.2(a) 3-1/2 inch diameter articulated split pipe - U.S. pattern. 48
2.4.4.3.2(b) 5 inch diameter articulated split pipe - U.S. pattern. 49
2.4.4.3.2(c) Cast iron articulated split pipe - U.S. pattern. 50
2.4.4.3.2(d) 1 foot long articulated split pipe - U.K. pattern. 52
2.4.4.3.2(e) 2 foot long articulated split pipe - U.K. pattern. 53
2.4.4.3.2(f) Newer type articulated split pipe. 54
2.4.4.3.3(a) Installation of split pipes on deck of lighter. 56
2.4.4.3.4(a) Use of rock bolt to directly bolt split pipe to bottom 57

( includes zinc anode on rock bolt ).
2.4.4.5(a) Direct immobilization of ocean cable to sea floor. 59
2.8.2(a) Modifications to North Atlantic Slip ( Alternative Method ) 64

to handle branching unit.
2.8.3(a) Optimum position for laying branch unit onto ocean floor. 65
2.8.3(b) Non-optimum position for laying branch unit onto ocean 66

floor, ocean cables not being vertical.
2.9.2.3.1(a) Cable laying test set. 68
2.9.3.2(a) Assembled shipload transmission test, coaxial cable. 73
2.9.3.2(b) Assembled shipload transmission test, optical system. 74
2.9.3.3(a) Transmission test during laying, coaxial cable. 76
2.9.3.3(b) Transmission test during laying, optical cable. 77
3.2.3.1(a) Simple bell type junction box enclosure. 85
3.2.3.1(b) Two story type junction unit enclosure. 85
3.2.3.2(a) Typical arrangement for sensor laying vessel. 87
3.3.3.1(a) Typical sensor unit, for single ship deployment. 89

Page x
Page No.
3.3.3.4(a) 91
3.3.3.4(b) 93
3.3.3.4(c) 96
3.3.34(d) 97
3.3.4.1(a) Typical sensor unit, for two ship deployment. 100
3.3.4.3(a) Support vessel moor. 101
3.3.4.4(a) 103
3.3.4.4(b) 105
3.3.4.4(c) 107
3.3.4.4(d) 109
3.3.5.3(a) Alternative installation system. 111
3.3.5.4(a) 113
3.3.6.4(a) Typical arrangement of a short strong array. 115
3.3.6.5(a) 117
3.3.6.5(b) 119
3.3.6.5(c) 121
3.3.7.4(a) Typical arrangement of weak and long line arrays. 123
3.3.7.5(a) 125
3.3.7.5(b) 127
3.3.7.5(c) 129
3.4.3.4(a) 133
3.4.3.4(b) 135
3.4.3.4(c) 137
Page xi
Page No.
3.4.3.4(d) 139
3.4.4.4(a) 143
3.4.4.4(b) 145
3.4.4.4(c) 147
3.4.5.4(a) 151
3.4.5.4(b) 153
3.4.5.4(c) 155
3.4.6.4(a) 159
3.4.6.4(b) 161
3.4.6.4(c) 163
3.4.6.4(d) 165
3.4.7.4(a) 169
3.4.7.4(b) 171
3.4.7.4(c) 173
3.4.7.4(d) 175
3.5(a) Example of parameters involved in array laying calculation. 177
B.2.2(a) General arrangement of passive Sea Plows. A10
B.2.2(b) Stowage and handling equipment on stern of cable ship A11

( USNS Zeus ).
B.2.2(c) Bail in lower/recover position. A12
B.2.2(d) Bail in towing position. A12
B.2.2(e) SMD model SCP1 cable plow. A13
B.2.2(f) Basic arrangement of SMD type cable plow. A14
B.2.2(g) Jetting plowshare for Sea Plow VIII cable plow. A15
Page xii
Page No.
B.2.2(h) Operation of swept flow jetting plowshare. A15
B.2.2(i) GT-ADS Undersea Cable Plow. A16
B.2.3.3(a) A19
B.2.3.3(b) A21
B.2.3.3(c) A23
B.2.3.3(d) A25
B.2.3.3(e) A27
B.3.1(a) Cable trenching ROV, with jetting tool ( SMD RT-1 type/ A28
AT&T Sea Bed Tractor ).
B.3.2(a) Typical arrangement of equipment on a vessel for simul- A30

taneous laying and burial using cable burial ROV.
C.2(a) Looped submarine cables exposed on the mud flats A32

at edge of Oso Bay at Corpus Christi during an
extremely low tide.
Page xiii
Tables.
Page No.
2.2.1(a) Example of Actual Versus Nominal Ocean Cable Length for 3

a System.
2.2.1(b) Example of Part of a Route Position List. 4
2.4.4.3.2(a) Data for Cast Iron Articulated Split Pipe Cable Protection - 47
U.S. type.
2.4.4.3.2(b) Data for Cast Iron Articulated Split Pipe Cable Protection - 51
U.K. type.
2.4.4.3.3(a) Diver Installation times, U.S. Type Split Pipe. 55
2.9.4.1.2(a) typical Shipboard Repeater Temperature Objectives. 79
A.4(a) Density and Relative Toughness of Rocks. A6
A.6(a) Hardness of Various Rocks. A7
B.3.1(a) Typical Burial Speeds. A29

Page xiv
Sources of Material Used.
The following are the identifiable sources from which the material used in this volume has
been derived.
Chapters, Sections.
NAVFAC P-906 Submarine cabled system design and 2.4, 3.2, 3.3
installation planning manual, Vol. II.
Handbook of Ocean and Underwater Engineering, Meyers, 2.4.1.3, 2.4.2, 2.4.3,

Holm, and McAlister, 1969. 2.4.4.2, 2.7, 3.3.6,
3.3.7
The Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 57, No. 7, Pt. 1 B.2, 2.9
Sep. 1978.
Plowing cables under the sea, IEEE Conference, June 1968, B.2
Duncan.
Cable burial in the deep ocean floor, NCEL, Rockwell, Engel, B.2, B.3
and Purcey, Naval Engineers Journal, Apr. 1980.
A taut wire moored buoy array for environmental monitoring 3.4.3

in AUTEC, IR No. 68-35, NAVOCEANO.
Santa Cruz Acoustic Range Facilities ( SCARF ), Sea 3.3.3

operations, AC Electronics.
Installation of three dimensional underwater tracking range, 3.3.5

APL.
NCEL Technical Report R834, Interim Field Guide to Near- 2.4.3.5.2, A

shore Underwater Explosive Excavation, Hallinger,
June 1976.
Linear chair deep water array, preliminary design, NAVFAC 3.4.5, 3.4.7
Engineering Command,Chesapeake Div., Shih, Dec.
1978.
Improved hardware and techniques for maintenance and 2.4.4.3

repair of split pipe cable protection, NCEL, Brackett
and Tausig, Aug. 1977.
Advances in undersea cable burial technology for the B

twenty-first century, Frank D. Messina, Perry
Tritech.
Page xv
Sources of Material Used ( Continued ).
Chapters, Sections.
Advances in Cable Burial Technology using ROV intervention B.3

D. Bonnen, BT ( Marine ) Limited. ( Underwater
Systems Design, Nov.-Dec. 1992 ).
Unique Applications of Submarine Cable Burial Technology, B

James P. Byous and Andrew J. Smith. ( Sea Technology
July 1997 ).
Cable Burial and Maintenance, Dr. Tony Trapp, Soil Machine B

Dynamics Ltd. ( Sea Technology, July 1996 ).
Seabed Tractor ROV for Surf Zone, Difficult Seabeds, Frank D. B.3
Messina and Frank C. Pacifico, AT&T. ( Sea Technology
Dec. 1992 ).
New Generation Undersea Cable Burial Plow, Noel Leiffer, Ernst B.2
Fihn and Frank D. Messina. ( Sea Technology Dec 1999 ).
Development of an Improved Cable Trenching Plowshare, Jeffrey B.2

A. Hill, Richard Elliott and Frank D. Messina. ( Sea
Technology, July 1999 ).
Directionally Drilled Bore for Remote Cable Landings, 2.4.1.1, 2.4.1.4, 2.4.3.3
Nate Sinclair, Hugh Thomson, Stanley Black, Sea Technology,
August, 2003
Page xvi
Page 1
1. Introduction.
The methods for installing an ocean cable system are dependent on the configuration of the
system and the equipment that will be used to carry out the installation. Hence for each
system, a set of methods must be worked out that will allow the installation to be
accomplished with the minimum risk and in the allocated time. For most systems these
methods can be based on proven practices, however if no proven practice exists it will be
necessary to develop new methods and to conduct trials of these proposed methods to ensure
that they are effective.
This volume contains methods that have been used in the installation of systems. These
methods are split into two parts; the installation of a trunk ocean cable for communications
systems, and the installation of arrays. For systems that combine arrays and trunk ocean
cables, such as tracking ranges, the methods can be formed from the relevant sections
contained in these two parts ( unless the installation requires new methods that must be
developed and trialed, as noted previously ). The descriptions of the installation of arrays
cover a range of array types that should provide the basis for the development of a method for
an array of a different configuration from those described.
Standard calculations for laying ocean cables are contained in Volume 2 of the Handbook.
Standard procedures for working, rigging, jointing and splicing ocean cables during
installation are contained in Volumes 5 and 9 of the Handbook.
Page 2
2. Installation of Trunk Ocean Cable.
2.1 Overview.
This section deals with the installation of the trunk ocean cable for communications systems.
These installation procedures can be used with some modifications for the laying of the trunk
ocean cable(s) for other types of ocean cable systems as the major differences generally lie in
the signal and power transmission. In many cases the ocean cables used are the same as, or a
simple modification of, standard communications ocean cables.
The installation procedures for communications systems trunks are split into the shore site,
the continental shelf, and the deep ocean, and the specialized procedures for cable burial and
installation of a tee junction. Supporting procedures common to all are cable laying data
generation, transportation of ocean cable to the cable grounds and transmission testing.
The installation of a given system will require a combination of some or all of these
procedures depending on the nature of the cable route, its location and characteristics of the
system. Generally a short haul communications system will require at least two shore site
installations, and laying across or along a continental shelf and possibly a short deep ocean
lay. Long haul systems will require normally two shore site installations, two continental
shelf crossings and a long deep ocean lay, and may require a temporary shore support facility
or a cargo ship fitted to carry ocean cables if remote from cable factories. Some long haul
systems incorporate Tees or branches, with a shore site installation, continental shelf
crossing plus a deep ocean lay out to the Tee or branching unit.
The effect of the type of ocean cable ( multiconductors, coaxial, optical ), its armor ( shore
end, intermediate, deep sea, armorless ) and the housings along the cable ( repeaters,
equalizers ) on the installation procedures is limited. The main effect is on the required
capabilities of the laying vessel(s) to be able to handle the system and the need for any
additional rigging to handle housings during laying if not able to pass through the cable
machinery ( See Volume 3 of the Handbook ). It should be noted that the meeting of the
required capabilities for the laying vessel(s) is critical. If not met then the lay or part of the
lay is very likely to be damaged resulting in at best, an unreliable system that will have to be
replaced using a properly equipped vessel(s) with the attendant additional costs and delays.
2.2 Cable Laying Data and Control.
2.2.1 Data Base.
In order to lay the trunk ocean cable, data must be available to allow control of the paying out
of the ocean cable to ensure that the correct amount is laid along the sea floor. This data is
used to set up the slack control computer, or to make up plotting sheets, the two main methods
used to control the cable payout.
The primary data is obtained from two sources, the cable route and site layout from the survey
( see Volume 6 of the Handbook ) and the cable manufacturer(s).
The cable route and site layout data includes the cable route defined as straight courses
between alter course points, the length of these courses and the total system length, profile of
the sea floor along the cable route, the actual amount of ocean cable required along the cable
route ( includes fill and excess slack ), the nominal position of repeaters, etc., based on
standard spacings, the breakdown of the lay into sections, the order and direction in which
Page 3
these sections will be laid, and whether cable burial is required and where.
The cable manufacturer's data includes the actual lengths of ocean cable between repeaters,
etc., the armor types, actual cable strength, weights and diameters, and position of factory
splices.
From this data tables are constructed, such as a Straight Line Diagram, shown in tabular form
in table 2.2.1(a), to show the actual configuration of the system or sections of the system. Next
using the calculation methods in Section 3.9 of Volume 2 of the Handbook for slack, and
Chapter 3 and 5 of Volume 2 of the Handbook for cable laying mechanics, the controlling
parameters for the laying are derived, such as cable angle with speed for the different types of
armor used, maximum speeds for upslope laying, and slack required along route ( speed
control ).
Table 2.2.1(a)
Example of Actual Versus Nominal Ocean Cable Lengths for a System.
Nominal Actual
Ocean cable Armor Repeater length length
I.D. No. type I.D. No. n. miles n. miles
_______________________________________________________
1101 A 30 29.962
1175
1102 A 40 40.006
1176
1103 A 24 24.000
1104 B 16 16.032
1177
1105 B 40 39.996
1178
1106 LW 40 40.014
1179
1107 LW 40 40.022
1180
1108 LW 20 40.002
1181
1109 LW 40 40.034
1182
1110 LW 40 40.012
1183
1111 LW 16 15.992
1112 B 24 24.000
1184
1113 A 40 39.998
1186
1114 A 24 23.930
___ _______
Total 454 454.000
_______________________________________________________
Page 4
Final laying data should include in the Route Position List, tabular form, the cable route with
the coordinates of the alter course points ( latitude/longitude and/or eastings/northings ),
depths along the cable route of sufficient detail to construct a representative bottom profile of
straight line segments, slack, maximum and optimum laying speeds, system configuration with
ocean cable lengths, armor type, diameter, strength and weights in air and water, repeater and
equalizer positions and their identification numbers, armor type change points, junctions,
ends of sections and cable allowance for splicing between sections, factory splices and bottom
material types. Also the charts covering the cable route must be updated to show the corrected
information. Table 2.2.1(b) shows part of a typical Route Position List.
Table 2.2.1(b).
Example of Part of a Route Position List.
Route distance Cable distance

Pos. Depth Course Cable
Latitude Longitude Heading Between Total Slack Between Total Comments
No. meters change type
n. miles n. miles n. miles n. miles
N34 E137
0 0. 0.000 0.000 End A
40.3300 27.8300
192.12 2.439 0.25 2.445 A
N34 E137
1 28 -15.11 2.439 2.445
37.9410 27.2090
177.02 0.054 0.054 A
N34 E137
2 28 2.493 2.499 Plowing begins
37.8870 27.2124
177.02 0.500 0.502 A
N34 E137
3 33 -12.94 2.993 3.001
37.3860 27.2440
164.08 0.319 0.320 A
N34 E137
4 36 -5.85 3.312 3.320
37.0789 27.3500
158.22 0.316 0.317 A
N34 E137
5 39 -13.65 3.628 3.637
36.7850 27.4920
144.58 0.349 0.349 A
N34 E137 Plow up

6 42 3.977 3.987
36.5003 27.7370 Slack change
Page 5
Transmission and powering data pertinent to the lay is also required. This includes power
requirements, calculated performance from factory tests on the ocean cable, repeaters, etc.,
repeater supervisory tones, equalizer characteristics, and laying effects. The test procedures
for shipload and laying are also required.
Data required for navigation systems includes types, accuracy, configuration, areas of
coverage and interfaces between the various systems along the cable route, as well as back-up
systems.
2.2.2 Slack Control.
Slack control now uses an integrated system of navigation equipment not only to provide
position but also distance and speed to the slack control computer. The full data for the lay
can be loaded prior to laying into the computer, and computations will be automatically done
as the cable is laid and thus only monitoring of the control process is normally required
unless a change must be made due to an unforeseen circumstance. The systems should be set
up to print out position, distance traveled, speed and slack at regular intervals to provide a
complete record of the laying control.
The old system of a taut wire system to measure distance traveled and speed is now obsolete.
2.2.3 Laying Using Plotting Sheet.
On auxiliary cable ships and other vessels without a slack control computer, the method
commonly used to control the laying of the ocean cable is a plotting sheet.
To construct a plotting sheet the first stage is to lay out the cable route on a chart ( or charts )
in the conventional manner, including the bathymetry. Using this, a 1:1 profile of the cable
route is constructed, approximating the bottom shape by a series of straight line segments.
Next a plot of the cable length along the bottom versus distance along the cable route is
constructed ( that is including fill slack ). Then a plot of cable length with fill and the
required excess slack versus distance along the cable route is constructed. Finally, as in most
cases some excess cable is carried, a plot showing this excess versus distance along the cable
route is constructed to show the upper limit of cable able to laid. These three plots show the
minimum slack that can be laid ( fill ) the maximum slack, and the desired slack ( fill plus
excess ) as shown in figure 2.2.3(a). Finally to allow calculation of the length of cable between
the vessel and the bottom, a cable angle versus speed plot is constructed for each ocean cable
type used in the lay.
To use the plotting sheet the position of the vessel along the cable route is marked. Then the
line representing the cable between the vessel and the bottom is drawn. From the bottom
position a line is drawn vertically down. The actual length of cable laid on the bottom is
determined by subtracting from the length of cable laid the length of the cable between the
vessel and the bottom ( this length should include the slack as well ). The the length along the
bottom is marked down this vertical line and compared to the required length that should have
been laid, as shown for line A in figure 2.2.3(a). If it varies from the required length then
correction is made to the payout rate. Line B shows the way a change in speed or cable type can
be included in the plot. For longer runs it will be necessary to break the plotting sheet into
segments, with some overlap to allow progression from one segment to the next.
Page 6
Distance along cable route ( n. miles )

1 2 3 4 5 6
B-armor
cable
Bottom B angle
contour
1
3 2.5 2 1.5
1
2
Cable laid along bottom ( n. miles)
Plot of cable laid
A
Cable length
5
Laid along bottom
6
Fi
Fi
ll
ll+
sl
6%
ac xce
k ss
e
on s
ly lac
k
Fig. 2.2.3(a) Form of plotting sheet.
2.3 Transportation of Ocean Cable to the Cable Grounds.
The transportation of the ocean cable including any units such as repeaters, equalizers, from
the cable factory or storage area to the cable grounds can be done in several ways. Selection of
the most effective way depends on several factors including costs time, the amount of ocean
cable and the type of laying vessel to be used in the installation.
If the cable is to be laid from a lighter or barges it must be transported in another vessel or
vehicle to a suitable loading site near the cable grounds, from which the lighter or barge can
operate. Short lengths of ocean cable can be wound on a reels or reels, which can be
transported by truck, train or ship. In many cases the cable will be laid directly from these
reels. Longer lengths can be sent by railroad gondola cars if the minimum bending diameter
Page 7
and volume requirements can be met, noting that each car must be able to hold a single length
of the ocean cable. The cars must have a core installed in the center to prevent the cable coils
from collapsing. The most effective method is to transport the ocean cable by ship, either in
portable cable tank(s) set up in the hold(s) or in cable pans. Cable pans require the ship or
the loading site to have suitable cranes to lift them from the hold, either to the lighter or onto
the shore. If the cable is in portable tanks, then it will normally be loaded directly onto the
lighter or barge for laying.
If the cable is to be laid by a cable ship, or cable layer, the first load is normally taken
onboard at the cable factory or cable storage area. For a large cable layers its capacity may be
sufficient to take the complete length of ocean cable for the lay in one load. If the cable
grounds are relatively near the cable factory or cable storage area, all subsequent loads
should also be taken onboard there to reduce handling to a minimum. For remote cable
grounds, the subsequent loads can be transported in a cargo ship with portable cable tanks
fitted in the holds and taken directly onboard the cable ship at suitable loading sites near the
cable grounds. This makes the operation independent of shore facilities. Alternatively, the
cable can be transported in cable pans by cargo ship to a shore loading site near the cable
grounds and a temporary cable storage area set up from which the cable ship can load.
Smaller ships, such as offshore work boats, modified for special installations, are normally
treated in the same manner as lighters or barges.
The methods for rigging and working the ocean cables during loading are contained in Chapter
4 of Volume 3 of the Handbook. The construction of portable cable tanks in cargo ships can be
from bolted together steel sections if the cargo ship is to be used regularly, or from wood, if it
is a one off usage. The portable cable tanks must have a center cone to prevent the cable coils
from collapsing, and the radii of this cone must be greater than the minimum coiling radius
for the ocean cable. Over the center of each cable tank, a bellmouth must be fitted to allow
working of the cable in and of the tank. This can be constructed from rings of steel pipe and
fitted in the hatch when required supported by a steel frame. For cargo ships with a
tweendecks, it may be necessary to fit one in each of the hatches over the cable tank to provide
the necessary support to the cable as shown in figure 2.3(a).
Cable pans vary from cable factory to cable factory and storage areas, but are typically about
20 feet - 6.1 meters in diameter, 6 feet - 1.8 meters high and weight as much as 50 to 60 tons -
tonnes when loaded with cables. In most cases they can be stacked to about three high though
this must be checked for transportation by ship.
Portable cable tanks normally can carry several sections of the cable load depending on the
volume and weight of the sections of the ocean cable. Cable pans normally only have the ability
to carry a single section in each pan and may not be able to carry heavy armored shore end
ocean cable effectively.
Units such as repeaters and equalizers can normally be carried in racks mounted in the
tweendecks areas of cargo ships, or in a hold. Attention must be paid to possible temperatures
in such an area to ensure that maximum storage temperatures for the units is not exceeded,
and if necessary cooling units must be installed. Similarly for conditions where the minimum
storage temperature may be exceeded, heating units must be installed. In some cases both may
be required. Care must be taken in handling these units not to subject them to excessive shock
loading, while they are robust, they do have definite limits to shock tolerance.
The typical shock requirements for underwater components are:

Page 8
a) A 60 g shock peak for 60 ms duration between the half amplitude points along each of the
three principal axes.
b) A vibration limit of 0.5 inches - 12.7 mm sinusoidal peak to peak displacement from 5 to
11 Hz.
c) A sinusoidal vibration at 3 g maximum from 11 to 500 Hz.
The electronics and sensors in underwater components typically are designed for the
following temperature ranges:
a) Operating temperature range of 32o F to 86o F ( 0o C to 30o C ).
b) Storage temperature from 0o F to 135o F ( -18o C to 57o C )
To ensure that these mechanical requirements are not exceeded during shipping of
components, the inclusion of shock and temperature monitors is normally done. Shipping
containers should also be marked to indicate the handling and stowage requirements in the
normal manner.
Tween deck Bellmouth Support
Hatch
Hold Portable Portable

cable tank cone
Fig. 2.3(a) Arrangement of bellmouths in hatches

over portable cable tank.
Page 9
2.4 Installation at a Shore Site.
2.4.1 Operations.
2.4.1.1 General.
The installation at a shore site differs from the other installations in that in almost all cases
the cable work is a minor part of the installation. Also the installation work begins well
before the laying of the ocean cable(s) and in many cases, extends well past the completion of
the underwater system installation.
The operations have been broken down into three stages, the preparation, the landing of the
cable end, and the post landing. The timing of parts of the preparation and the post landing
work may overlap with the landing of the cable end, depending on the nature of the site.
The arrangement of a typical shore site where the cable is brought over the beach and up to the
cable vault using a trench, is given in figure 2.4.1.1(a), and shows the various areas used to
describe construction work. The inshore area is taken as the area next to the beach in which
the normal surf occurs, and the nearshore area extends out from the inshore to a depth where
wave action on the bottom is minimal, typically about 100 feet - 30 meters depth.
Terminal building
Cable vault
Land Cable trench

area
Target
Deadman
Beach anchor
Beach
area
Inshore
area
Nearshore
area
Fig. 2.4.1.1(a) Arrangement of typical shore site with the cable landing
through a trench across nearshore, inshore and beach areas
and up over the land area to the cable vault.
Page 10
An alternate arrangement which is being used for difficult shore sites, either due to
topography or beach use, uses a directionally drilled bore hole, or bore holes, from the
terminal building site out to the nearshore area. One limitation of this method is that the bore
hole, ideally, must pass through a rock strata without faults lines or unstable formations,
though a metal casing in the bore hole may provide a way around unstable formations. The
other limitation is the ability to get the drilling rig and its support equipment to the site of
the terminal building and have enough space to operate the drilling rig. The bore hole is lined
with a high density polyethylene pipe to ensure that the bore hole remains open and to allow
easier pulling of the cable up the pipe. Figure 2.4.1.1(b) shows a typical arrangement.
Cable anchor
pit
Terminal building
Cable vault
Land area
Target
Beach
area
Inshore
Directionally
area
drilled bore hole
Nearshore
area
Fig. 2.4.1.1(b) Arrangement of a typical shore site with cable landing

through a directionally drilled bore hole from the
nearshore area, under the inshore and beach areas and
land area to the cable vault.
At some sites the cable vault and the terminal building may be separated by a considerable
distance, requiring a land extension cable to be used. This is typical of a beach in a built up
area where there is no space for a terminal building near the beach. This is often the case for
communications systems.
Page 11
2.4.1.2 Preparation.
The work needed to prepare the shore site prior to the landing of the cable end, includes the
following:
a) Preparation of the site for construction work including access roads both to land and beach
areas and erection of perimeter fences, if a new site.
b) Construction of the building on the site including the terminal building and the cable
vault, or additions to the existing buildings.
c) Construction of communications and power links to the site, or addition to existing links.
d) Installation of the emergency diesel power supply, ocean cable power feeding equipment
and cabling in the terminal building and cable vault to allow installation of the cable test
sets.
e) Installation of the ocean ground, if on the land.
f) Where the cable is landed across the beach, the construction of the cable trench(es) across
the land, beach, inshore and nearshore areas, as required, and the installation of the beach
anchor(s). If the beach backs onto a cliff then an alternative is to drill and install tube(s)
from the terminal building down to the beach cable trench(es) instead of trenching into the
cliff.
Where the cable is landed using a directionally drilled bore hole, then the drilling of the bore
holes from the cable anchor pit under the land, beach and inshore areas to the near shore area
is required, one for each cable to be landed, one for an ocean ground ( if used ), and a spare.
g) Removal of underwater hazards near the cable route, installation of aids to landing the cable
end ( e.g. deadmen, installation of visual navigation aids. )
h) Installation of ocean ground, if in beach or nearshore area.
i) Installation of cable test sets and testing of the equipment.
j) Installation of the navigation aids, such as Differential GPS base station if this is not
available in the area.
k) Installation of the mooring for the cable ship, if required.
The work is arranged in normal sequence, a). b), c), d) and e) should be completed well ahead
of the date for landing the cable end, as should directionally drilled bore holes, if used. The
remainder should be done in the period just before the landing of the cable end and may
overlap with one another depending on the nature of the site.
2.4.1.3 Landing the Cable End ( Across the Beach ).
The operations required to land the cable end consist of:
a) Bringing the equipment to be used in the landing of the cable end onto the beach and setting
it up, including sheaves, bulldozers, etc.
b) Final work on the cable trench(es) including the removal of material washed or blown in,
the placing of sand along the bottom of the trench(es), and readying the beach anchors.
Page 12
c) Setting up the rollers in or next to the cable trench to support the ocean cable as it is
pulled up to the cable vault in the terminal building.
f) Landing the cable end either from the cable ship or a lighter and taking the end up to the
cable vault and securing it.
e) The sealed end of the ocean cable is opened and connected to the cable test sets and power
feeding equipment and transmission tests are carried out between the shore station and the
cable ship.
f ) The ocean cable is placed into the cable trench in the land and beach areas and attached to
the beach anchor(s).
At this point, if all the operations and testing have been completed successfully, the cable
ship or lighter can begin to lay the shore end cable.
g) The ocean cable is placed into the cable trench in the inshore and nearshore area. This
includes the application of any additional protection such as split pipes or bagged concrete.
The operations are arranged in the normal sequence, though where practical, some operations
may be done concurrently.
The methods of landing the cable end from a cable ship are described in Section 20 of Volume
5 of the Handbook. If the cable vault is some distance from the beach, the operation can be
made much easier by running the heavy rope along the ocean cable for a distance equal to this
distance and securing the heavy rope to a stopper on the cable, as shown in figure 2.4.1.3(a).
The rope is secured along the ocean cable by a suitable size thread lashing at regular
intervals. As the ocean cable comes ashore, the rope is cut free, along with the floats, to allow
the rope to pass around the sheave, etc. while the ocean cable is free to run up the rollers to
the cable vault. The rollers used to support the ocean cable can be across the trench or on
stands, such as shown in figure 2.4.1.3(b).
Stopper
Ocean Cable
cable end
Floats
Lashing
Heavy
rope
Stopper
Fig. 2.4.1.3(a) Arrangement for heavy rope to be carried

back along ocean cable.
Page 13
Pegs
Cable
Shaft trench
Roller
Roller
Stand
Fig. 2.4.1.3(b) Arrangement of rollers for

use in landing cable end.
Keeping the cable ship on station during the landing of the cable end can be accomplished in
several ways. Under ideal conditions with no discernible wind or currents and only a short
distance to the shore, the cable ship can lie offshore with an occasional use of the main
engines and thruster(s) to keep position.
For a cable ship with dynamic positioning, the use of the main engines and thrusters to
maintain position can be effective up to the wind and current limits of the system, which in
most cases will be greater than those allowed for landing the cable end. As divers only have to
work close to the ship during the releasing of flotation from the ocean cable the dynamic
positioning should be available during the landing of the cable end except for this one short
period.
The anchoring of the cable ship by the stern has proved effective in aiding the holding of
position and the rope and the ocean cable will tend to hold the bow towards the beach. This can
be aided by the use of the bow thruster. The stern anchor will assist when the ocean cable
between the ship and the beach is pulled straight ( after being attached to the beach anchors ).
This method has also been used on beaches where the outer line of breakers is well offshore
and the cable ship, or the forward part, is inside this line of breakers. Alternatively, when
the cable ship must be offshore for a considerable period, such as in deep water off a coral
reef, the use of a two part fore-aft mooring may be suitable as it does not require the use of
the ship's propulsion machinery in holding position.
If a lighter is used to land the cable end, such as where the water depth remains shallow for a
substantial distance out from the shore making landing directly from from the cable ship
Page 14
impractical, the operation is relatively simple as the lighter can normally be brought close to
the beach and the end can be passed readily to the shore.
It must be noted that ocean cables used for the shore end cable are normally of heavy or very
heavy armor ( A or AA ) and will weight between 6 lb/ft and 17 lb/ft - 9 Kg/m and 25 Kg/m.
Manhandling these ocean cables is only practical on relatively flat, firm surfaces. This should
be taken into consideration when determining the equipment needed to effectively land the
cable end.
There is an alternative method for bring the cable ashore by placing the cable in a pipe laid on
the ocean floor from behind the beach out to beyond the breakers. This is covered in Section
2.4.4.4.
2.4.1.4 Landing the Cable End ( Directionally Drilled Bore Hole ).
The operations required to land the cable end consist of:
a) The rope that will be used to pull the cable through the bore hole, is installed into the bore
hole with the outer end on the bottom in the nearshore area. The inner end will be in the cable
anchor pit, ready for attachment to a winch, tractor, etc., that will be used to pull the cable
through the bore hole.
b) The cable end is brought inshore from the lighter or cable ship in the normal manner. The
rope from the bore hole is brought up to the surface by the divers and attached to the end of
the cable. The cable end is then lowered to the bottom as the rope is slowly pulled up through
the bore hole. The divers guide the cable end into the bore hole, with the floats being cut off
the cable, as required, to allow it to sink to the bottom. It may be necessary to have rollers on
the bottom to aid guiding the cable into the bore hole. This continues until the end of the cable
reaches the cable anchor pit and is taken into the cable vault.
c) The sealed end of the ocean cable is opened and connected to the cable test sets and power
feeding equipment and transmission tests are carried out between the shore station and the
cable ship.
d) The remaining floats on the cable are now removed and the cable allowed to lie on the
bottom out to the lighter, or cable ship.
At this point, if all the operations and testing have been completed successfully, the cable
ship or lighter can begin to lay the shore end cable.
e) The cable is attached to the beach anchor in the cable anchor pit.
f) If additional protection of the cable, such as split iron pipes, is to be applied, then it would
be done at this time.
Because the cable must be fed into a narrow opening, considerable care is required and the
communications between the divers and the people pulling the cable up the bore hole must
must be excellent for the operation to proceed smoothly and successfully.
2.4.1.5 Post Landing.
The work required to complete the installation at the shore site after the landing of the cable
end includes the following:
Page 15
a) Securing the ocean cable or its protection to the bottom in the inshore and nearshore areas
and jetting in any sections if required.
b) Removal of the cable ship mooring, if used.
c) Filling in the cable trench(es) across the beach and land areas, installing warning tapes,
protection, wash boards, etc. as required.
d) Dismantling and removing the equipment from the beach.
e) Removal of visual navigation aids, and when no longer required, other navigation aids.
f) Cleaning up the site and restoring it to the required condition.
g) Completion of the installation of the terminal equipment, commissioning tests and other
work to bring the shore station to operational status.
With the exception of g), all the work should be completed as quickly as is practical after the
landing of the cable end to ensure that the ocean cable(s) will have the maximum protection
against possible damage. The commissioning tests must wait until the underwater system is
complete. For large communications systems the completion date for work at the shore sites
may be up to a year after the installation of the underwater system has been completed.
2.4.2 Navigation.
Navigation for work at a shore site is primarily required for the positioning of the cable ship
as it lands the cable end, and for working the cable end between the cable ship and the shore.
The simple method for navigation is range markers on the shore. If the cable ship must lie well
off the shore, at a distance where the range markers are not readily visible, then Differential
GPS or Wide Area System will be required. It may be used instead of range markers though
range markers provide an easy visual reference.
The range targets should be large enough to be visible to a vessel from the seaward extremity
of the nearshore area. The shape of the targets is normally triangular or square. If more than
one cable end is to be landed in a short period ( i.e. in a day ), distinctly different targets
should be established for each cable route into the shore trenches.
Lumber in strips one inch by six inches is usually a suitable material for the construction of
the targets, with white paint as the finish. The pole carrying the target can be lumber or a
steel pipe, and may require bracing if the height of the targets is more than about 10 feet - 3
meters. A range target should be erected on the true compass bearing of the cable route into
the shore trench. Normally two targets per line are sufficient. The forward target should be
lower than the back target, with a horizontal separation of at least 200 feet - 60 meters
between them.
2.4.3 Construction Work for Cable Installation.
2.4.3.1 Scope.
This section covers the construction work related to the installation of ocean cables at a shore
site only. It does not include construction work relating to the other parts of a shore site, such
as buildings, access roads, etc., which are outside the scope of the handbook.
Page 16
If directionally drilled bore holes are used to land the cable end, the some of the following
sections, such as beach area and inshore area construction, are not relevant, with the
exception of beach anchors.
2.4.3.2 Land Area.
2.4.3.2.1 Type of Work Required.
The construction work on the land area is limited to the excavation of the cable trench(es)
prior to the landing of the cable end(s) and their closing afterwards.
The timing of the excavation work should be as close to the landing of the cable end as
possible to prevent damage to the trench from weather, however if the cable trench passes
through hard material, such as rock, or under obstacles such as roads, these sections should
be excavated well before the landing of the cable end to allow any unforeseen problems to be
overcome. In this case these sections of the trench could be filled in for safety and reopened
when the rest of the trench is excavated.
2.4.3.2.2 Excavation of Cable Trench across Land Area.
2.4.3.2.2.1 General.
The land part of the cable trench for most shore sites extends from the cable vault in the
terminal building across the land to the edge of the beach. In some land areas where the
terminal building is a considerable distance from the beach, the land part of the cable trench
will typically be in two sections, the first will extend from the cable vault to the beach, and
the second section will extend from the terminal building to the cable vault. An unarmored
land extension cable is normally used between the terminal building and the cable vault and
often a land repeater is situated in the cable vault when the distance between the terminal
building and the shore would require the underwater repeater closest to the shore to be too
close to the beach.
The form of a typical cable trench in the land area is shown in figure 2.4.3.2.2.1(a), for a
single cable. Several cables can be run in one trench, but, possible interference between them
must be examined. If possible, each cable should be in its own trench, however if more than
one cable is in a trench then each cable should be separated from the adjacent cables by about
12 inches - 300 mm.
In most cases a plain trench will be adequate, however if the slope of the trench exceeds 5%, it
will be necessary to stop the backfill from being washed out by using cross boards spaced out
along the trench and firmly imbedded into the upper part of the walls of the trench. If the
trench goes down a long steep slope it may be necessary to consider anchoring the cable at the
top of the slope to prevent possible sliding. An anchor point consisting of a deadman or eye
plate bolted into rock can be placed to one side of the trench and connected to a stopper on the
cable by a pendant, similar to the beach anchor arrangement.
Where the cable trench passes under a road, additional protection is required. If the trench
can be excavated across the road and left open during the installation of the cable, split pipes
can be used, as shown in figure 2.4.3.2.2.1(b). If traffic on the road prevents the opening of
the trench for the installation, metal or concrete pipes of sufficient size to allow the cable(s)
to be pulled through easily can be placed in a trench, or trenches, extending across the road
and beyond the shoulders, as shown in figure 2.4.3.2.2.1(c). This work can be done at a time
that will cause minimum disruption to traffic and allow the construction proceed as quickly
as possible. Drainage must be provided at the ends of the pipes to prevent them becoming
waterways. If necessary, after the cable is installed a plug can be placed around the cable at
Page 17
the ends of each pipe to prevent water flow. It is prudent to include additional pipes for
possible repair work or future cables.
Buried cable
3-1 m warning tape
local fill
1 x 6 timber
6-150mm
Cable
Local sand fill
Fig. 2.4.3.2.2.1(a) Typical cross section of cable

trench across land area.
If the number of cables is large, consideration should be given to installing a small tunnel
under the road with the cables supported on racks along one or both sides of the tunnel
instead of using a large number of pipes under the road. A chamber will be required at each
end of the tunnel to allow the cables to pass into the cable trench at each end and to provide
drainage to prevent the tunnel from flooding.
When the installation is finished and the trench(es) closed, markers should be placed along
the edge of the trench(es) to indicate the position and reduce the chance of damage from other
excavation work, Markers may be set in the ground or on a short post.
Return road to
original condition
3 6-
1.07m
6-150mm
3 1/2 split pipe Tape ends
closed
Fig. 2.4.3.2.2.1(b) Protection for cable under unmade

road using split pipes.
Page 18
Shoulder Road Shoulder
Trench Trench
Metal or concrete pipes
Road surface
e.g. Macadam
3-
1-
1m
300mm
min.
Metal or concrete pipes
Fig. 2.4.3.2.2.1(c) Use of pipes to allow cables to

pass under made road.
2.4.3.2.2.2 Excavation.
Excavation of the cable trench across the land area is normally straightforward. In soils a
"trenching" machine or backhoe can be used. In rock a vehicle mounted rock hammer and
backhoe can be used for most places and jackhammers for the difficult to reach sections. The
sides and bottom of the trench should be smoothed with hand tools where necessary in rock,
and any sharp pieces of rock removed from the trench.
Work should begin by trenching any rock sections first and then those in soil. If the work is
completed well in advance of the landing of the cable end, it may be necessary to fill in the
trench with soft soil or sand for safety. This would be removed just prior to cable installation.
Immediately preceding the landing of the cable end, the bottom of the trench is filled to a
depth of about 6 inches - 150 mm with sand to provide the base for the cable to sit on.
Page 19
2.4.3.2.2.3 Closing.
After the cable is installed and tested, the trench can be closed. This begins with about 6
inches - 150 mm of local clean fill being placed in the trench over the cable. Timber planks
are then laid over the cable and another 6 inches - 150 mm of fill placed on top of them. The
buried cable warning tape is then placed in the trench and the remainder of the trench filled
in and compacted lightly to give a firm surface. Figure 2.4.3.2.2.1(a) shows this arrangement.
Because ocean cables can have high voltages in them, local ordinances may require different
buried warning material to those described above, particularly if the trench runs under
public or private land.
If desired, the trench surface may be grassed to help retain the fill, but small shrubs, etc.,
must not be planted in or near the trench due to possible damage from their roots to cables. On
sloping areas, in addition to cross boards and grass to prevent water washing out the trench, it
may be necessary to construct gutters across the surface of the trench to prevent the trench
becoming a drainage waterway. Finally markers should be installed along the trench, as
described previously.
2.4.3.3 Directionally Drilled Bore Holes.
The construction work for the directionally drilled bore holes consists of preparing the site
for the drilling rig and its equipment, drilling the bore holes, and on completion, removing
the drilling rig.
This work needs to be completed in advance of the landing of the cable end, or ends. If there is
to be a significant delay in installing the cable(s), then the ends of the bore holes will need to
be protected. If an ocean ground is to be installed in the nearshore, then it should be installed
at the completion of the drilling.
2.4.3.3.2 Drilling.
The first stage is to prepare the site to take the drilling rig and its support equipment, and
excavate the cable anchor pit. The drilling rig is then set up over the cable anchor pit ready
for drilling. The high density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe(s) that will be used to line the bore
hole(s) are positioned on the beach or other suitable position where they can be taken out to
the nearshore area for insertion into the bore hole(s). Just prior to the drilling commencing,
the divers boat needs to be positioned in the nearshore area. Because of the need for the
divers, the weather and sea state will govern the drilling schedule.
Once the drill rig is set up, the next stage is to determine the desired profile for the bore hole
path to follow. From this, the software, which will control the drilling, will convert the
desired profile into steering directions for the head of the drill, to maintain the planned bore
hole profile.
Once drilling has commenced, it is necessary to check that the drill head is following the
profile, by tracking it. The wireless tracking systems can track the beacon in the drill head to
a depth of about 70 ft. - 21 m. below the ground surface, giving depth, inclination and
orientation. The tracking system cannot track the depth of the head once it is under the
inshore and nearshore areas due to effect of the sea water (circa 2003) and the drillers
experience becomes important to obtain the desired profile.
Page 20
It has been found that divers can estimated the depth and position of the head under the
seafloor, based on generated noise.
Once the drill head and drill pipe has broken the seafloor, the divers locate it, remove the
drill head, and using a back swivel, attach the HDPE pipe to the drill pipe, and the drill rig
pulls the drill pipe and HDPE pipe back through the bore hole.
When all the bore holes have been drilled and lined, the drilling rig is dismantled. The cable
anchor pit is completed, with beach anchor(s) installed and the connection to the cable vault.
2.4.3.4 Beach Area.
The construction work in the beach area consists of excavating the cable trench, or trenches,
across the beach from the land to the inshore area, and installing the beach anchor, or
anchors, On beaches consisting predominantly of soft or loose material, excavation should be
carried out as close to the landing of the cable end as is possible to reduce the chance of the
trench filling in. Rocky sections of the beach should be excavated well before the landing of
the landing of the cable end and the trench or sections of the trench through the rock filled in
with a soft material such as sand, for safety. On a beach with areas of soft or loose material
and areas of rock, excavation may have to be done in two or more stages.
The installation of beach anchors should be done at the same time as the trench is excavated.
Temporary deadmen should be installed just prior to their use, if possible, and removed when
the work is completed.
In some cases, particularly on rocky beaches, an alternative to trenching is to construct a

groin extending across the beach and a short distance into the water ( typically to the mean
low water line ). The ocean cable(s) are then laid into a trench or duct running along the groin.
Other work in the beach area can consist of constructing access roads or ramps and providing
temporary footings or matting for excavation equipment.
If the beach is used for activities such as recreation, then work must be scheduled to keep
disruption to these activities to a minimum and provide maximum safety when the site is not
being worked.
2.4.3.4.2 Excavation of the Cable Trench across the Beach.
2.4.3.4.2.1 General.
The excavation of the cable trench across the beach area extends the cable trench from the
land out to the water ( inshore area ) and provides the positions where the beach anchor(s) can
be installed.
The form of the trench varies depending on the material forming the beach. On a beach
composed predominantly of soft or loose material, such as sand, mud, pebbles or gravel, the
depth of the trench should be at least 3 feet - 1 meter below the surface of the beach at the
worst eroded condition, as determined in the survey. This may require quite deep trenches to
be excavated, particularly through frontal sand dunes. Each ocean cable generally has a
separate trench. The beach anchor(s) should be buried to the same depth as the cable.
Page 21
On beaches consisting predominantly of rock, the depth of the trench should be at least 2 feet
- 0.6 meters below the surface of the rock, even if a reasonable cover of softer material exists.
The typical form of the trench in rock is shown in figure 2.4.3.4.2.1(a) for both a single cable
and two cables encased in split pipe protection. Reinforcing rods for the concrete fill are held
in place by rock bolts drilled into the bottom of the trench ( This should be done after the
trench has been reopened ready for landing the cable end ). The beach anchor is normally
installed when the trench is excavated. Often more than one cable is laid in each trench due to
the difficulty and cost in excavating in rock.
Where there is no dominant form of material, the depth of the trench must be determined from
the worst eroded condition of the beach. The depth through rock should be typically six
inches deeper than through the adjacent soft or loose material to allow for additional fill
under the ocean cable.
If a soft fill is to be used to close the trench, then immediately preceding the landing of the
cable end the bottom of the trench is filled to a depth of about 6 inches - 150 mm with sand to
form a base for the cable to sit on, On sections through rock, this fill should be about 12
inches-300 mm deep.
No initial fill is normally used in sections of the trench that will be filled with concrete.
2.4.3.4.2.2 Excavation.
The excavation of the cable trench in soft or loose material is generally straightforward. On
sandy material where there is sufficient space, bulldozers can generally be used. For firmer
materials or where room is somewhat more restricted, a backhoe or a trenching machine can be
used.
Where there are areas of rock in the trench, the loose material should first be removed to
expose the rock and allow access down to the depth of the trench. Small sections of rock may
be removed with jackhammers, while larger sections can be removed with a vehicle mounted
rock hammer, rock wheel or Chainsaw type rock trenching tool . After excavation the
inside surface of the trench should be smoothed with hand tools. If the beach anchor is to be
into the rock, it should be installed after the rock is smoothed.
For beaches composed predominantly of rock, then vehicle mounted rock hammer, or rock
wheel or Chainsaw type rock trenching tool, can normally be used to excavate the full
length of the trench, with a backhoe to remove the broken material. Blasting is not normally
acceptable at most sites as a method of trenching, however at remote sites its use could be
considered. After the trench is excavated, the inside surfaces of the trench should be
smoothed with hand tools and the beach anchor(s) installed.
2.4.3.4.2.3 Closing.
After the ocean cable(s) are installed and tested, and the beach anchors made up onto the
cable(s), the trench can be closed. For a loose fill this begins with placing at least 6 inches -
150 mm of clean fill, preferably sand, in the trench over the cable(s). If additional protection
was not required for the ocean cable(s), in most cases it will be sufficient to complete the
closing using a suitable loose material, typically that removed during the excavation. The fill
should be tamped down to give a consistency similar to the beach material.
Page 22
26-660mm
minimum
Reinforcing
rod
18-
Rock bolt 450mm
12-
300mm
One cable
26-660mm
minimum
18-
450mm
20-
500mm
Two cables
Fig. 2.4.3.4.2.1(a) Form of cable trench in rock.

Page 23
If split pipe protection is used then where the ocean cable leaves the split pipe and over the
stoppers for the beach anchor, sheets of marine plywood should be placed on top of the initial
fill to provide protection before the remaining fill is put into the trench. The use of plywood
should also be considered for unprotected ocean cables if there is a possibility that activities
on the beach could penetrate on some occasion to the depth of the buried cable. The plywood
should also have markings stenciled on the upper surface indicating the presence of cables
below and if high-voltages are present.
Trench end cover
Threaded studs
welded to trench cover
Trench cover
bolted to
bedrock
Concrete supply pipe

in trench
Split pipe
in trench
Fig. 2.4.3.4.2.3(a) Trench end cover assembly.
For rock beaches the normal method for closing the trench is to fill it with concrete. The major
difficulty occurs at the point where the trench enters the water. A pipe is laid in the trench
next to the encased ocean cable(s) to supply the concrete and then steel plates are bolted over
the trench for a sufficient distance to prevent the waves from washing away the concrete, At
the outer end a cover is used to seal the trench, as shown in figure 2.4.3.4.2.3(a). Concrete is
then pumped down the supply pipe until it comes out of the hole in the first plate ( most
seaward ). The supply pipe is then pulled back up the trench and more concrete pumped until
it comes out the hole in the second plate, and so on until all the covered section of the trench
is filled. The supply pipe is then removed from the trench and the open section filled with
concrete. Normally the section of the trench where the ocean cables leave the split pipes and
are attached to the beach anchor is not filled in, but is covered with suitable concrete or steel
slabs, able to be lifted when required,to provide access.
Page 24
2.4.3.4.3 Beach Anchor.
The beach anchor acts to prevent the ocean cable from being dragged down the beach under the
force of gravity, aided by wave action and sediment movement. The type of beach anchor is
dependent on the nature of the beach material. For soft or loose beach material, such as sand,
mud, pebbles or gravel, the beach anchor can consist of a concrete block or steel H-beam, as
shown in figures 2.4.3.4.3(a) and 2.4.3.4.3(b) respectively. The size of the concrete block
shown can be used for one or two ocean cables, and can be increased in length for more ocean
cables, up to 160 inches - 4 meters for 8 ocean cables. The steel H-beam can also be similarly
modified. Both these beach anchors require that the beach material be deep enough so that the
top of the beach anchor is at least 3 feet - 1 meter below the surface when the beach is at its
worst eroded condition.
-
54 m
7m
13
24 -
60 mm 1 - 25 mm Galv.
steel bar
2
60 4 -
mm
Approximate weight
2500 lb - 1140 Kg
Fig. 2.4.3.4.3(a) Concrete block beach anchor

( one or two ocean cables ).
Page 25
-
60 m
0m
15
Gusset
plate
24 - Eye
60 mm
1
36 4
mm -
Approximate weight
600 to 1000 lb - 270 to 450 Kg
Fig. 2.4.3.4.3(b) Steel H-beam beach anchor

( one or two ocean cables ).
Where there is solid rock in the upper part of the beach, the use of an eye-plate secured by
rock bolts to form the beach anchor can be considered, as shown in figure 2.4.3.4.3(c). The
rock bolts should be grouted to reduce corrosion and if necessary the rock faced to provide a
good seating for the eye-plate. This method can be used on a beach with a soft or loose surface
material as long as the eye-plate can be placed at least 3 feet - 1 meter below the surface when
the beach is at its worst eroded condition, or on a rock beach the eye-plate can be situated to
one side of the bottom of the cable trench.
Rock Eye
faced plate
Rock
bolt
Grout
Drill
hole
Fig. 2.4.3.4.3(c) Rock bolted eye-plate beach anchor.

Page 26
For beaches with fractured or soft rock forming the base material, possibly covered by a layer
of soft or loose material, where there is insufficient strength for rock bolts and not enough
depth for a block or beam type beach anchor, a deadman can be sunk into the beach and
cemented in, as shown in figure 2.4.3.4.3(d), to form the beach anchor.
Eye plate
48 to 60
-1.2 m to I-beam
1.5 m ( Typ 12 x 6 )
Grout
( Cement )
Fig. 2.4.3.4.3(d) Deadman beach anchor grouted

into fractures or soft rock.
The beach anchor is connected to the ocean cable by a wire rope pendant or chain onto a wire
tail stopper such as a BTL stopper, as shown in figure 2.4.3.4.3(e). In most cases a single
pendant, or chain, and stopper are sufficient. If the down-beach pull on the ocean cable is
expected to be higher than normal such as on a steeply sloping beach and inshore, a pair of
beach anchors can be installed, one on each side of the ocean cable near the mean high water
line. These two additional beach anchors are connected to a stopper on the ocean cable by wire
rope pendants, as shown in figure 2.4.3.4.3(f). Wire pendants used are normally of 6 x 37
construction, galvanized wire rope, with hard eyes in each end and joined to the beach anchor
and stopper by shackles.
Page 27
To terminal
building
Beach
anchor
Wire rope
or chain
Trench pendant
Shackle
Ocean cable
BTL stopper
( or similar )
Manila serving
To sea
Fig. 2.4.3.4.3(e) Connection of ocean cable to beach anchor.
Additional holding power for the beach anchor(s) can be gained by backfilling the trench for
the beach anchor and pendant with concrete to the 3 foot - 1 meter depth.
Page 28
To terminal building
Beach anchor
Pendant
Stopper
Beach
Ocean cable
Beach anchors
Mean high water line
Pendants
Stopper
Inshore
Fig. 2.4.3.4.3(f) Additional beach anchors for high

down beach pull on ocean cable.
2.4.3.4.4 Installation of Temporary Deadmen in a Beach.
Temporary deadmen are used to take horizontal or near horizontal loads from equipment such
as sheaves and winches used during the construction work or landing the cable end and where
no other anchoring points are available. On completion of the work they are removed.
For beaches with a soft or loose material of sufficient depth, the deadmen normally consist of
a vertical pole that is place into a hole dug into the beach. To anchor the deadman, the hole is
filled around the pole with soft material that is firmly tamped down, as shown in figure
2.4.3.4.4 (a). Sheaves can be directly attached to the pole using standard cable stringing
Page 29
equipment, or a wire rope can be passed around the pole near the surface of the beach. These
deadmen can take loads in any horizontal direction.
Sheave mounted
on stringing pole
clamp ( Typ. )
Put rope around

base of pole
( when required )
Pole Tamped in fill
Fig. 2.4.3.4.4(a) Vertical pole type temporary deadman.
An alternative if the load is applied in one direction is to bury a pole in the beach, about 2 to
3 feet - 0.6 to 0.9 meters down and wrap a wire rope around it to transfer the load, as shown in
figure 2.4.3.4.4(b), in the same manner as for a beach anchor.
Wire rope
Pull
Trench
Tamped in fill
Pole
Fig. 2.4.3.4.4(b) Buried pole type temporary deadman.

Page 30
The poles used for deadmen in soft or loose material are normally wood of the best structural
grade, though steel beams can be used if more suitable.
Where the beach is composed predominantly of rock, two approaches can be taken to install a
temporary deadman. The first is to dig or drill a hole into the beach and place a vertical pole
into the hole and tamp soft material around it, the same as for a beach of soft or loose material.
If this is not practical, such as in beaches composed of bedrock, then a plate can be rockbolted
into the rock in the same manner as for a beach anchor ( See section 2.4.3.4.3 ).
2.4.3.5 Inshore Area.
The construction work in the inshore area consists of continuing the cable trench, or trenches,
that cross the beach area, out through the inshore area, if possible to the seaward extent. In
softer bottom materials it will be necessary to excavate the trench just prior to landing the
cable end due to the tendency of the trench to fill itself in over a relatively short time. In
harder bottom materials the trench, or those sections through the harder material, should be
excavated well beforehand to allow for possible difficulties and, if necessary, cleared of
washed in material just prior to the landing of the cable end. The most difficult type of
inshore area to work in is where there is a heavy surf and strong underwater turbulence.
Bottoms of hard rock also present substantial difficulties.
The method, or methods, used for the excavation depend on the bottom materials and
equipment that is available. The excavation may require several stages, such as first removing
some of the soft surface material to leave the rocky ledges exposed, then cutting the trench
through these ledges, and finally clearing away any remaining material to form the complete
trench.
Other work in the inshore area can consist of removing obstacles if equipment is to be brought
to the beach by landing craft. As the range of possible obstacles is great, and hence the ways
of removing them, no methods are presented. During the planning for the construction work at
the shore site, these obstacles must be evaluated and suitable methods for their removal
determined.
2.4.3.5.2 Excavation Using Explosives.
For a bottom material consisting of coral or rock, excavation of the inshore trench can
sometimes be done using explosives, though permission to use explosives is becoming more
difficult. The methods used are essentially the same as for nearshore explosive excavation (
Section 2.4.3.6.2 ) except for sites with a surf where it will be necessary to mount the charges
on heavy sleds or similar devices to keep them in position on the bottom until they are
detonated. Consideration must also be given to preventing damage to the detonating cord from
the surf as well.
Limitations on blasting will normally be more severe than for the nearshore area as there will
not be the depth of water over the bottom to reduce the air blast. At remote sites this may not
be a problem, however if buildings, particularly residential buildings, are within 1 n. mile of
the site, blasting will have to be limited to keep the over-pressures down typically a maximum
of 0.01 to 0.03 psi. - 0.07 to 0.2 KPa at the buildings, and it may not be practical at all. The
use of charges in properly stemmed bore holes instead of contact charges will reduce the
overpressures substantially in many cases.
Page 31
2.4.3.5.3 Excavation by Mechanical Means.
The excavation of the trench in a soft bottom material such as sand and mud, or a loose
material such as pebbles and gravel can be done fairly easily.
An effective method is to place an anchor at the seaward edge of the inshore area ( i.e. just
beyond the line of outer breakers ) in line with the trench, and rig an inhaul/outhaul line
which can be controlled from a dragline winch on the beach. A Souerman type scoop bucket is
connected to the inhaul/outhaul line and the material is hauled up onto the beach and dumped.
For harder bottom materials, a trenching machine fitted with rock teeth can be used for a
considerable distance into the surf zone by taking advantage of low tides and running the
machine partially into the water.
There are tracked ROVs with rock wheel or Chainsaw type rock cutters, capable of cutting
trenches for ocean cables that are able to work in bottom materials varying from soft rocks
such as chalk up to hard rock, depending on the type of cutters that can be fitted to the
machine. If available, these machines can significantly reduce the time to carry out
excavation. As trenching often must be carried out into deeper waters they are becoming
necessary. There are similar machines for trenching pipelines that may also be useful.
2.4.3.6 Nearshore Area.
The construction work in the nearshore area. in most cases, consists of forming a suitable bed
for the ocean cable, or cables, to lie on. The scope of the work can vary greatly depending on
the type of bottom material and whether the ocean cable is to be buried in a trench or lie along
the surface of the bottom. At its simplest, the work may consist of "smoothing" the bottom
along the cable route(s). A more difficult bottom may require cutting ramps through ledges
and bridging crevices. Where conditions require the ocean cable to be buried, a trench must
be excavated into the bottom material.
The timing of the work is determined by the type of bottom material and the amount of
excavation work to be carried out. Sections of hard bottom material should be excavated well
before the landing of the cable end. Soft sections of bottom material should be excavated as
near to the landing of the cable end as is possible, particularly in shallower water depths, as
any excavation will tend to fill in relatively quickly. It must be accepted that a severe storm
just prior to the landing of the cable end may require re-excavation work to be done.
Other work in the nearshore area can consist of removing possible hazards to operations, such
as coral heads and boulders that present a hazard to navigation, and where the cable ship must
remain off the beach for a considerable time during the landing of the cable end, such as
across a coral reef, the installation of a suitable mooring may be necessary.
Several options exist for carrying out construction work on the bottom. On harder bottom
materials, explosive excavation can be highly effective, where their use is permitted. If
blasting is not practical then mechanical means will be required to excavate the harder
material. Softer bottom materials must be excavated by mechanical means.
Bottoms consisting of mixed types, such as rock ledges protruding through a sandy bottom,
generally require that the harder material be excavated first, or reduced to a form that can be
excavated by the same method as is to be used for the softer material.
Page 32
2.4.3.6.2 Nearshore Underwater Excavation Using Explosives.
2.4.3.6.2.1 Overview.
The forming of a trench and other work required for the installation of an ocean cable through
the nearshore area can be done in many cases very effectively by using explosives. This
section gives an outline only of the use and effect of explosives in underwater excavation.
More detailed information is available in publications such as " NCEL Technical Report R834,
Interim Field Guide to Nearshore Underwater Explosive Excavation, Hallinger, June 1976".
which cover in detail the various aspects of this kind of work.
The use of explosives is a highly specialized field, particularly for underwater applications,
and it is VERY STRONGLY recommended that companies or underwater construction teams that
specialize in this work be used for both planning and the carrying out of the work.
2.4.3.6.2.2 Restrictions.
The use of explosives for nearshore excavation can be restricted by laws and local ordinances,
and by the effect of the explosions on the surroundings at and near the site. An assessment of
both blast and ground motion effects is required to determine the feasibility of using
explosives.
2.4.3.6.2.3 Uses.
2.4.3.6.2.3.1 Obstacle Removal.
Underwater obstacles that may interfere with the installation of ocean cable(s) include coral
heads, reefs and rock outcroppings, and man-made obstacles.
Natural obstacles come in many sizes and forms, rock obstacles can be long low ledges,
massive lava flows, single pinnacles, low mounds, piles of boulders or other formations, coral
occurs as reefs, large mushroom heads, low irregular masses and a variety of other shapes. The
primary objective in obstacle removal is normally to shatter the obstacle and move the rubble
away from its original location, In some cases, such as removing coral heads from a boat
channel, it may be acceptable to break the lower part of the head and tip it over.
Suitable methods include contact blasting where an external charge is placed on and in
intimate contact with the obstacle. The detonation of the explosive imparts a violent shock to
the obstacle, either shattering or crushing the material depending on its nature. The resulting
rubble is moved to a greater or lesser extent by the gas produced in the explosion. Figure
2.4.3.6.2.3.l(a) shows a typical arrangement of a charge on an obstacle for contact blasting.
It is often possible to use the shape of the obstacle to advantage in removing it by the proper
charge placement. Pairs of charges on opposite sides of an obstacle, like "ear muffs" are
effective in shattering the material. Charges placed on top tend to break the material and drive
it down and away. Charges placed on opposite sides of a tall obstacle with one at about 1/2 to
2/3 of the way up from the bottom and the other at the base tend to topple the obstacle away
from the top charge.
Snakeholing is a method of contact blasting where the charge is placed in a hole made under
the obstacle, and gains from the effect of some confinement. It is suitable where the obstacle is
buried or partially buried in the bottom and where a hole can be readily drilled under the
obstacle using a waterjet or mechanical means, and allows the charge to be in intimate contact
with the obstacle. Figure 2.4.3.6.2.3.1(b) shows a typical arrangement. The powder factor for
Page 33
snakeholing is about 50% of that for contact blasting.
Charge Fuse or
lead wire
Fig. 2.4.3.6.2.3.1(a) Contact blasting.
Fuse or
lead wire
Stemming
Charge
Fig. 2.4.3.6.2.3.1(b) Snakeholing.
Blockholing is an internal charge method and is more efficient due to the effect of the
confinement of the charge with a powder factor of about 30% of that for contact blasting. A
typical arrangement is shown in figure 2.4.3.6.2.3.1(c). It is suitable where the hole can be
readily drilled into the obstacle and can be used both to fragment the obstacles as shown in
figure 2.4.3.6.2.3.1(d), or to split the obstacles as shown in figure 2.4.3.6.2.3.1(e).
Fuse or
lead wire
Stemming
Charge
Fig. 2.4.3.6.2.3.1(c) Blockholing.

Page 34
Stemming
Charge
Fuse or
lead wire
Fig. 2.4.3.6.2.3.1(d) Borehole orientation in blockholing

for maximum fragmentation.
Fuse or
Desired lead wire
split plane
Stemming
Charge
Fig. 2.4.3.6.2.3.1(e) Borehole orientation in blockholing

for splitting.
Man-made obstacles such as unreinforced concrete can normally be handled in much the same
way as natural obstacles. Reinforced concretes, metal, etc. must be handled on a case by case
basis. Normally they would be avoided when selecting the cable route.
2.4.3.6.2.3.2 Trenching.
Trenching along the cable route can be done by several methods, or a combination of methods.
The most commonly used are contact blasting and drilled borehole patterns. Contact blasting
is normally done using box or haversack charges, hose charges or Bangalore Torpedoes laid
along the trench line.
Haversacks, normally of 20 lb - 9 Kg explosive each, and box charges are placed in a row, or
rows, at a suitable spacing ( typically 3 to 4 feet - 0.9 to 1.2 meters ), hose charges and
Bangalore Torpedoes are strung out in triangular bundles if more than two lines are needed
along the cable route to produce the trench. Figures 2.4.3.6.2.3.2(a), 2.4.3.6.2.3.2(b) and
2.4.3.6.2.3.2(c) give typical trench profiles for these charges in coral. To obtain similar
information for rock at a given site, one or two test shots must be made and the resulting
trench profiles measured and plotted. The size of the trench versus the number of charges per
unit length can be scaled on a proportionate basis ( A rough estimate of the required number
of charges can be made using the appropriate powder factor for contact blasting and the
pounds of powder per foot of charge in connection with estimates of the volume excavated per
Page 35
foot of trench from figures 2.4.3.6.2.3.2(a), 2.4.3.6.2.3.2(b) and 2.4.3.6.2.3.2(c) ).
1 1 pack
2 2 pack
Depth
3 3 pack
( ft. ) 4 4 pack
5 5 pack
13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Crater width
( ft. )
Fig. 2.4.3.6.2.3.2(a) Comparative depth and width of trench in coral by

20 lb. - 9 Kg. haversacks with plastic explosive.
1 2 lengths
3 lengths
2 5 lengths
Depth 7 lengths
3
( ft. ) 4
5
13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Crater width
( ft. )
Fig. 2.4.3.6.2.3.2(b) Comparative depth and width of trench in coral

by hose charge Mk. 8.
1 1 line
2
Depth 2 lines
3
( ft. ) 4 4 lines
5 5 lines
13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Crater width
( ft. )
Fig. 2.4.3.6.2.3.2(c) Comparative depth and width of trench in coral

by Bangalore torpedo.
Page 36
2.4.3.6.2.3.3 Ramping.
The excavation of a ramp may be required for several reasons, such as to allow the cable route
to cross under water cliffs,, or to make an underwater road to allow a track drill to reach a
work site beyond a ledge or drop-off. A ramp is simply a trench turned at an angle to provide
a path up or down a cliff type obstruction. Its depth compared to the adjacent bottom often
varies considerably. Figure 2.4.3.6.2.3.3(a) shows the form of an idealized ramp.
Original rock
bottom
Bottom of ramp or
20-
trench cut is 6 -
6m
2 m. wide with
vertical walls
Fig. 2.4.3.6.2.3.3(a) Typical idealized ramp.
Two methods can be used for ramping. In situations where time is critical, contact blasting
should be used. Figure 2.4.3.6.2.3.3(b) shows a typical placement of charges, with the size of
the charges calculated from the powder factor and volume of material to be removed from
under each charge. If a wider ramp is required than is produced by a single row of charges,
then additional charges can be arranged in a checkerboard pattern. Secondary blasting will
often be required to level high spots and remove rubble. Hose charges being the most effective
for the latter.
Charges
Idealized
excavation line
Fig. 2.4.3.6.2.3.3(b) Ramp shot using contact charges.
The second method is to use drilled patterns. The hole depth is adjusted so that the bottom of
the holes lie along the desired cut, as shown in figure 2.4.3.6.2.3.3(c). Several rows may be
required to achieve the required width. Delay patterns starting at the deepest end of the cut
and breaking towards the free surface have proved the most effective. Secondary blasting or
other techniques will often be required to remove rubble from deep narrow cuts.
Page 37
Desired excavation line
Fig. 2.4.3.6.2.3.3(c) Ramp shot using drilled holes with constant

spacing and burden.
2.4.3.6.2.4 Types of Charges and Firing Systems.
Charges used for underwater blasting fall into two main categories, those for contact blasting,
and those for borehole blasting. In both cases the type of explosive material in the charge
must be water resistant and have a detonation velocity greater than the sonic velocity of the
material being blasted.
Charges for contact blasting come in three forms:
a) Shaped charges which typically are in the form of a cone with the base on the material to be
blasted and the cap at the apex.
b) Box or sack ( haversack ) charges which are simply boxes or sacks of explosive that are laid
down in a pattern over the area to be blasted. They are excellent for use as "pounding" charges
against softer rock and coral formations.
c) Line or "hose" charges including Bangalore Torpedoes which are tubes filled with explosive
that are laid in lines along the bottom and can be used for pounding and excavation blasting.
Also available are Lined Cavity Charges but these do not generally create the type of
excavation required for cable installation.
If more than one of these charges are used, then detonation should be simultaneous, which can
be accomplished with the use of detonating cord.
Charges for borehole blasting come in cylindrical form ready for direct insertion into the
borehole. Some are designed to screw together to form longer lengths. For creating trenches,
detonation should be simultaneous, but for ramping they should be detonated in a delay
pattern starting with the charges nearest the edge of the cliff to obtain the maximum effect. To
prevent rifling of the charges in blockholing, the charge should be stemmed. In drilled
patterns, stemming may or may not be necessary.
The amount of explosive for contact blasting is determined from the volume ( in cubic yards )
of material to be blasted and the powder factor for the material. Powder factors are based on
TNT and must be adjusted for the type of explosive being used, giving the adjusted powder
Page 38
factor ( APF ), The amount of explosive is then the product of the volume by the adjusted
powder factor.
In drilled patterns where the length of the bore holes is long there is a relationship between
the burden ( B ) to be removed, in feet, the diameter of the explosive charge ( DE ), in inches,
the density of the explosive ( !E ), in gm/cc and the density of the rock ( !R ) or other
material in gm/cc, of:
"! %
1
3
B= 3.15 DE $ E '
# !R &
with burden being the distance between the borehole and the nearest free face at the instant of
detonation. Because of limitations on the size of holes able to be drilled underwater, and the
small range of densities of available explosives, the flexibility of drilled patterns for a given
rock or other material is also limited. Spacing of drilled patterns is always ( 1.4B and
approaches B as the borehole length decreases.
Firing systems for the charges can be electric, non electric or a combination of both. For
instantaneous detonation of all charges, the most reliable system for underwater work in most
cases is obtained by using detonating cord trunk line from the main charges to the surface of
the water. An electric blasting cap is then attached to the cord and connected to a blasting
machine. The use of redundant lines is recommended for increased reliability and safety.
Where delays are required, such as in drilled patterns for ramping, electrical circuits are
used with suitable delay caps at the charges. Great care must be taken in setting up the circuit
to ensure detonation of all charges as investigation of misfires is usually difficult. Both ends
of the firing wire must be kept shorted until final connections are made to the blasting caps
and power supply terminals.
2.4.3.6.2.5 Rock Drills.
2.4.3.6.2.5.1 General.
Rock drills are used in blasting work to provide bore holes for the placement of explosive
charges. For drilling small holes up to 2 inches - 50 mm diameter and 2 feet - 0.6 meters
deep, hand held drills can be used. Larger and/or deeper holes require the use of a track
drill.
2.4.3.6.2.5.2 Hydraulic Hand-Held Drills.
Drills of this type for use underwater are commercially available and can drill holes up to 2
inches - 50 mm diameter and 2 feet - 0.6 meters deep. Most use hydraulic oil with supply and
return hoses to the drill, however units with seawater as the hydraulic fluid and only a
supply hose are available. Hand-held drills are also suitable for drilling holes for rock bolts.
2.4.3.6.2.5.3 Pneumatic Hand-Held Drills.
Most available pneumatic hand-held rock drills are not designed for use underwater, however
they will operate for short periods if adequate air supply and proper lubrication are provided
and the equipment is completely torn down and overhauled after every use in water. Hand-
held rock drills are relatively simple and stripping and cleaning is straightforward. Storage
of drills in diesel oil, with teardown every 2 to 3 days has proven adequate in the field.
Page 39
The most common type is the rotary-impact rock drill, or "sinkers" used in quarries. These
drills are capable of drilling holes up to 3 inches - 76 mm diameter and to a depth of about 6
feet - 1.8 meters. A significant amount of diver effort is required to obtain a usable hole with
this type of drill, even under ideal conditions.
2.4.3.6.2.5.4 Pneumatic Track Drills.
This type of equipment is in common use in quarries to drill holes up to 5 inches - 125 mm
diameter and 100 feet - 30 meters deep. Successful use underwater requires a number of
modifications to be made to the standard topside units to reduce component failure and
maintenance problems to a tolerable level. The recommended modifications are described
briefly below, however if a suitably modified unit is not available, it is recommended that
"NCEL, Technical Note N-1339, Modification of a Pneumatic Track Drill for Underwater Use,
Page, Port Hueneme, CA, July 1973" be obtained prior to the modification of a standard unit.
In order to work effectively underwater, the entire hydraulic system should be sealed and
provided with a pressure compensating bladder or other device to keep seawater out. Seawater
intrusion into the oil can cause failure of the mast positioning cylinders and their control
valves.
In addition, all pneumatic exhausts should be fitted with check valves to keep saltwater out
when the system is not operating. The addition of exhaust lines to route exhaust air away from
the working divers can also increase efficiency and safety of the operation. The drifter to be
used should be carefully selected to be sure is is easily adaptable to the required
modifications, because some designs are not. An unmodified drifters or one without an
exhaust hose leading away from the divers can create a strong enough concussion in the water
to make it impossible for,some divers to approach it during operation. The drifter's
lubrication oil system must also be modified so that it may be refilled with oil on the bottom,
if necessary.
The track drill chassis will required modifications consisting of placing zinc anodes at
various points on the chassis for corrosion protection and also painting the boom and other
appropriate parts with high-visibility paint to provide the diver with increased visual contact
in turbid water.
2.4.3.6.2.6 Characteristics of Rock and Coral.
The characteristics of rock and coral are given in Annex A.
2.4.3.6.2.7 Effects of Water.
The presence of water above the material to be blasted affects the performance of the charges
and the ability to plan, prepare and place the explosive charges.
The performance of the charges is affected in two ways, As the water depth increases, the
efficacy of any charge detonated is enhanced due to the tamping effect of the water. The energy
released by the detonation of the explosive is directed downward into the material by the
weight of the water above it. For a doubling of water depth, the breakage will increase by order
of 25 to 50%. As an example, a test blast on a coral shelf in the Caroline Islands was
conducted, 55 pound - 25 Kg charges were placed in a pattern on the shelf. The water depth
varied from 35 feet - 10.7 meters at the shallow end to 55 - 16.8 meters feet at the deep end.
After detonation, breakage extended from 6 to 10 feet - 2 to 3 meters into the coral at the
shallow end and at the deep end up to 15 feet - 4.5 meters.
Page 40
Increasing water depth, however, reduces the amount of material moved by the blasting as the
water over or around the material must be moved before the material can move, and the deeper
the water, the more weight the water has.
The placing of explosive charges and their connection to the firing system is affected by
factors such as water visibility and temperature, surge conditions and currents. In many cases
it will be necessary to weigh down components with sand bags, or similar, to prevent them
from being moved.
The transportation of the charges to the bottom requires care, particularly if the amount is
large. This should be done using a container to hold box, haversack or borehole charges which
is carried to the bottom from the surface by a slide line using divers to control the container,
as shown in figure 2.4.3.6.2.7(a). Line or hose charges can normally be paid out by the
supporting vessel and guided to the bottom by the divers.
Support
vessel
Snap link
Slide line Line or band

around container
Line anchored to
bottom or tied to
coral
Fig. 2.4.3.6.2.7(a) Transporting charges from support vessel

to bottom.
Page 41
2.4.3.6.3 Nearshore Underwater Excavation by Mechanical Means.
In the nearshore areas where it is not possible to use explosives for underwater construction
due to restrictions on blasting or unsuitable bottom materials, mechanical means must be
employed. Even if explosives can be used for the major part of the work, it still may be
necessary to remove resulting broken down material from the cable route.
Available equipment for mechanical excavation normally falls into one of three categories:
diver operated, surface mounted, and bottom mounted.
Diver operated equipment includes air and water lifts for removing bottom material and high
pressure water jets for moving or breaking up material. Both types of equipment require a
support vessel for the associated pumps and handling equipment. High pressure water jets can
be used to remove broken material resulting from blasting from a trench or to break up
consolidated material such as harder muds and clays. Air and water lifts can remove smaller
loose material to form a trench or level an area, with the material removed being deposited at a
suitable area away from the cable route(s). They are most effective on sand, silt and soft mud.
Surface mounted equipment includes steel shaft rams, chain cutters and dredges. Because
motion of the surface vessel affects the ability of these systems to work, prevailing sea
conditions at a site may severely limit their use, or make it impractical to use them at all.
Steel shaft rams, which resemble a huge star drill, are normally used to break up formations
of rock and coral. The ram is normally handled by a crane mounted on the vessel. Chain
cutters resemble a giant chain saw mounted on the end of a boom, which is lowered so the
cutter forms a trench in the bottom. Dredges come in various types but those with an integral
hopper are the most suitable. Dredges are very suitable for leveling the bottom along a cable
route, and can produce trenches though these tend to be relatively wide. The ability to handle
bottom materials depends on the type of cutter used by the dredge. During the operation of
these systems, a tug must standby ready to tow them to a safe anchorage in the event of the
seas or weather deteriorating. Navigation is normally by Differential GPS or laser positioning
system and four point moors are often required to accurately hold position and control the
vessel.
Bottom mounted equipment normally consists of a vehicle of the crawler type fitted with a
rock wheel, chain cutter, or jet tool trenching machine, controlled and powered from a surface
support vessel via an umbilical cable. These vehicles can work in bottom materials consisting
of sandy soil with gravel, with the rock wheel and chain cutter being able to work in hard
rock. Navigation on the bottom is typically by an underwater acoustic navigation system in
deeper water, and for shallow water a vertical staff mounted on the vehicle rising above the
surface, fitted with a reflector for a laser navigation system or a Differential GPS. Many of
these type of vehicles can work in depths of 0.5 n. miles - 1000 meters, as well as in the
nearshore ( See Section B.3).
2.4.3.6.4 Cable Ship Mooring.
A mooring for the cable ship is generally required if it will be necessary for the cable ship to
stand off the shore site for a considerable period while the cable end is landed, or when the
water depth is too great for the cable ship to anchor in. Typical shore sites are when the
bottom descends very slowly so that the cable ship must lie well out from the beach, and on
coasts where the water depth increases rapidly beyond a coral reef. The standard mooring
used is a two point fore-aft ( Mediterranean ) mooring. The installation and recovery of the
mooring is carried out by a support vessel fitted with suitable equipment to handle moorings.
Page 42
The mooring is placed so that the cable ship is beam on to the shore, as shown in figure
2.4.3.6.4(a), or at most, quarter on. The two scopes of the mooring are placed on opposite sides
of the cable route. Where more than one ocean cable is to be laid, or other ocean cables already
are in place, great care must be taken in selecting the anchor points and putting down the
mooring.
Fig. 2.4.3.6.4(a) Two point mooring for cable ship

standing off a shore site.
The mooring consists of two scopes with a surface buoy at the top of each, with the cable ship
being positioned between them by a span from each of the scopes. The length of the scopes and
their form follow normal practice, though in deeper water, the length of the scopes may be
reduced. Figure 2.4.3.6.4(b) shows the arrangement of one leg of the mooring. The sizing of the
mooring components must be based on the anticipated winds and currents during the landing
of the cable end. These will primarily effect the cable ship, particularly components of wind
and current on the beam.
Page 43
To cable
Buoy ship
Riser leg
Fishplate
Span
Swivels
(Typ. Nylon
(3)
braided rope)
Catenary leg
(Wire rope)
Ground
Anchor chain
Fig. 2.4.3.6.4(b) Components in one leg of mooring.
The cable ship is made up onto the mooring by first coming into position between the buoys
and then running the spans out to the buoys using support craft and shackling them into the
scopes. When the spans are secured, the cable ship tensions the spans to bring itself into
position for landing the cable end. Releasing from the mooring is the reverse, though care must
be taken to prevent the spans falling onto the ocean cable(s). Removal of the scopes should be
such that the recovery vessel picks up in a direction away from the cable route, or routes.
2.4.3.7 Ocean Grounds.
2.4.3.7.1 On Land.
The construction of an ocean ground on the land is relatively straightforward. The number of
electrodes, silicon iron rods, and their position is determined in the survey ( See Sections
6.3.4.3.2.4 and Annex A, Volume 6 of the Handbook and Annex A, Volume 7 of the Handbook
), The silicon-iron rods used are typically about 1 inch - 25 mm in diameter and about 2 to 3
feet - 0.6 to 0.9 meters long, spaced about 10 feet - 3 meters apart unless mutual interference
requires a larger spacing. At least six rods are used even if the tests indicate that fewer can
be used.
A trench is dug along the line of the electrode positions, typically about 2 feet - 0.6 deep, and
this trench is connected to the cable vault by a second trench ( the same form as used for
ocean cables ). The electrodes are then driven or drilled into the ground along the bottom of
the trench, connected together by a heavy electrical cable which is run back to the cable vault.
On completion, both trenches are backfilled and markers installed.
Page 44
2.4.3.7.2 In Sea.
The construction of an ocean ground in the sea can take two forms. The first is essentially the
same as for on the land, except that the electrodes are placed in the area on the beach between
the Mean High Water Line and the Mean Low Water Line so that the lower ends of the
electrodes are continuously immersed in sea water. Because of the possibility of the tops of
the rods and the cable becoming exposed, this method is not normally suitable for beaches
that are open to other users.
The second method is to place an electrode in the nearshore area, off to one side from the cable
track(s). The electrode is normally a copper plate, or plates, with sufficient surface area for
the currents to be passed, mounted in a plinth made of concrete. It is connected to the shore
and the terminal building by a heavily armored ocean cable ( e.g. A armor ). The ocean cable
should have as low a resistance as possible, being either a power cable or a large quad.
Installation is done using divers and a suitable vessel (e.g. lighter ). The end of the ocean
cable is landed in the normal manners being terminated in the cable vault and connected to a
beach anchor. The cable is then laid out to the desired position for the ocean ground and the
electrode is lowered to the sea floor and placed in position by the divers.
2.4.4 Immobilization and Protection of Ocean Cables in the Beach, Inshore and
Nearshore Areas.
2.4.4.1 General.
In some circumstances it may be necessary to provide additional immobilization and

protection for the ocean cable in the beach, inshore and nearshore areas to prevent or reduce
as much as possible damage to the ocean cable, This can be in addition to trenching, or where
trenching is impractical.
Immobilization can be done by adding weight to the ocean cable and/or attaching it to the
bottom of beach ( depending on the nature of the bottom or beach material ). Protection is
required when the armor on the ocean cable is not adequate to provide sufficient resistance to
long term wear, damage from light anchors, beach erosion, vandalism, etc.
In some cases it will be necessary to combine both immobilization and protection.

Consideration must be given to the cost of immobilization and protection, its application and
the possibility of having to renew it during the lifetime of the system.
2.4.4.2 Sacked Concrete.
Sacked concrete can be used above and below the water to provide protection and aid
immobilization of ocean cables, and as a fill in crevices to prevent suspensions.
Two methods can be used for application. The first, suitable for underwater use only, is to half
fill burlap sacks with dry mix. They are then lowered to the bottom on pallets and put in place
by divers. The cement slowly hydrates as the water penetrates. This method allows substantial
time for handling and placing, but the sacks may be dislocated by wave action before they have
set and the bond between the sacks may not be thorough. The second method, suitable for above
and below water use, is to fill burlap or jute sacks of about 1 cubic foot - 0.03 cubic meters
capacity with wet mix. The wet mix should be of a low slump type. The time for handling and
placing is somewhat limited but a good bond between sacks can be obtained, full hydration of
the mix is ensured and mix quality can be controlled.
Page 45
To aid bonding between sacks, short lengths of reinforcing steel rod can be pushed through
one sack into the next. The ends of the rods should be covered by the mix.
The simplest method for using the sacked concrete to immobilize the ocean cable is to place
sacks over the ocean cable at intervals. This will, for example, aid holding the ocean cable in
place until the trench is filled in by wave action. If the sacks are placed side by side
completely covering the ocean cable protection is also obtained. This is particularly suitable
for use across beaches. Figure 2.4.4.2(a) shows a typical application in a trench.
Trench
Concrete
sacks
RIO
Rods
Ocean
cable
Fig. 2.4.4.2(a) Sacked concrete laid over ocean cable.
More complete protection and immobilization can be obtained by encasing the ocean cable in
sacked concrete, as shown in figure 2.4.4.2(b). This is particularly suitable if the bottom of a
trench is of a hard rock that cannot be easily smoothed using hand tools. The upper sacks
should be laid in a herringbone pattern to obtain maximum protection and bond.
Trench
Concrete
sacks
RIO
rods
Ocean
cable
Fig. 2.4.4.2(b) Sacked concrete surrounding ocean cable.
Sacked concrete can also be used to bridge over crevices between sections of rock in a trench
or on the bottom, to prevent the ocean cable from becoming suspended. Similarly the sacked
concrete can be used to form a ramp over a low ledge. Figure 2.4.4.2(c) shows sacks placed into
a typical crevice between two sections of rock to form a bridge.
Page 46
Ocean cable
Rock Concrete
sacks
Crevice
Fig. 2.4.4.2(c) Sacked concrete bridging crevice in

rock bottom.
2.4.4.3 Articulated Split Pipes.
2.4.4.3.1 Usage.
Split pipes made of cast iron are a method of providing additional protection and
immobilization to ocean cables in the nearshore, inshore and beach sections of the cable route,
as well as on parts of the cable route across the land area.
Split pipes can provide effective long term protection and immobilization of an ocean cable if
care is taken during the cable route selection and installation to ensure that the split pipes
are not subject to excessive vibration and movement as the result of extreme wave forces
caused by the worst expected adverse weather. It should be noted that failures of split pipes
can be expected to occur, particularly in the inshore region and inspection at regular
intervals is required so that repairs can be done before complete failure occurs.
2.4.4.3.2 Types of Articulated Split Pipes.
There are several types of articulated split pipes are in common use including one developed
in the USA, one developed in the UK, and a newer design, probably from ALCATEL.
The US type comes in two sizes, 3-1/2 inch - 89 mm internal diameter and 5 inch - 127 mm
internal diameter, both with a nominal length of 3 feet - 0.9 meters. Table 2.4.4.3.2(a) gives
the data for the US type split pipes and figures 2.4.4.3.2(a) and 2.4.4.3.2(b) their form. Figure
2.4.4.3.2(c) shows the articulation and the joining of the two halves.
The UK type also comes in two sizes, 1 foot - 0.3 meters nominal length, and 2 foot - 0.6
meters nominal length, both with the same internal diameter of 3-1/2 inches - 89 mm. Table
2.4.4.3.2(b) gives the data for the UK type and figures 2.4.4.3.2(d) and 2.4.4.3.2(e) their form.
The newer design has an internal diameter of 3 inches - 76 mm, and a nominal length of 1.64
feet - 0.5 meters. It is shown in figure 2.4.4.3.2(f). No detailed data is available.
Selection between the types can be based on the US type being stronger, can tolerate a more
uneven bottom and has less limitations on maximum cable diameter. The UK type is more
flexible and the individual halves weigh less but it is less robust with only two bolts per
section and it is not easy to attach anodes to the pipe or to fasten it to the bottom. The UK type
is more suited to soft bottoms ( e.g. sand ) where the additional weight and protection only are
Page 47
needed. The newer design is easier to assemble, particularly by divers, but is similar to the
UK type in characteristics.
Table 2.4.4.3.2(a)
Data for Cast Iron Articulated Split Pipe Cable Protection - US Type.
__________________________________________________________
Length of section when assembled 3 ft 0.9 m.
Cost estimate (1977) $US 30/ft
Tensile failure - bell separated 70000 lbf. 32000 Kgf.
Recommended safe working load 35000 lbf. 16000 Kgf.
Beach pulling load on sand 30 lbf./ft 45 Kgf./m.
Tensile strength of cast iron material 22000 psi 151 MPa
Failure modes:
Split pipe bell 40000 lbf. 18000 Kgf.
(yield)
60000 lbf. 27000 Kgf.
(ultimate)
Bell separation 70000 lbf. 32000 Kgf.
Split pipe flange 55000 lbf. 25000 Kgf.
(yield)
80000 lbf. 36000 Kgf.
(ultimate)
Boltholes elongated 60000 lbf. 27000 Kgf.
3-1/2 in. dia. split pipe weight - 1/2 section:

In air 21.5 lb/ft 32 Kg./m.
In water 20.0 lb/ft 30 Kg./m.
5 in. dia split pipe weight - 1/2 section:
In air 30.2 lb/ft 45 Kg./m/
In water 28.6 lb/ft 43 Kg./m.
Minimum bending radius 11.5 ft 3.5 m.

Bridging distance 3 ft 0.9 m.
Sharp ledge height 0.8 ft 0.25 m.
___________________________________________________________
Page 48
Fig. 2.4.4.3.2(a) 3-1/2 inch diameter articulated split pipe - U.S. pattern.
Fig. 2.4.4.3.2(b) 5 inch diameter articulated split pipe - U.S. pattern.
Page 49
Page 50
Fig. 2.4.4.3.2(c) Cast iron articulated split pipe - U.S. pattern.

Page 51
Table 2.4.4.3.2(b)
Data for Cast Iron Articulated Split Pipe Cable Protection - UK Type.
___________________________________________________________
Length of section when assembled 1 ft/2 ft 0.3 m./0.6 m.

Estimated tensile failure 55000 lbf 25000 Kgf.
Recommended safe working load 27000 lbf 12000 Kgf.
Tensile strength of cast iron material 22000 psi 151 MPa.
1 ft. length section weight - 1/2 section

In air 22.0 lb/ft 32.8 Kg./m.
In water 20.5 lb/ft 30.6 Kg./m.
2 ft. length section weight - 1/2 section
In air 15.5 lb/ft 23.1 Kg./m.
In water 14.4 lb/ft 21.5 Kg./m/
Minimum bending radius 2-1/2 ft/5 ft 0.76m./1.5 m.

Bridging distance 1 ft/2 ft 0.3 m./0.6 m.
___________________________________________________________
Page 52
Fig. 2.4.4.3.2(d) 1 foot long articulated split pipe - U.K. pattern.

Fig. 2.4.4.3.2(e) 2 foot long articulated split pipe - U.K. pattern.
Page 53
Page 54
on
cti
dire
ed
Fe 76 mm
500 mm
170 mm
Fig. 2.4.4.3.2(f) Newer type articulated split pipe.
2.4.4.3.3 Installation.
There are three main methods used for the installation of articulated split pipes on the
underwater section of an ocean cable. Installation at a given shore site may require one or all
of the methods to be used in completing the work.
The first method is to pull the ocean cable up onto the beach and install the split pipes there,
and then the ocean cable with the split pipes are pulled down the beach and into the water.
This method requires additional slack to be laid in the nearshore section of the cable route to
allow the cable to be pulled onto the beach and it is limited to short lengths of split pipe as
the forces needed to pull the ocean cable and attached split pipes across the surface of the
beach and bottom tend to be high. It is probably best suited for getting a section of split pipes
installed in the inshore area where the surf prevents installation by the two other methods.
The second method is to under-run the ocean cable with a lighter or barge and install the split
pipes on the deck, as shown in figure 2.4.4.3.3(a). The lighter must be fitted with suitable
fairleads fore and aft to handle the ocean cable and installed split pipes, and have deck
equipment to take the tension. The normal method to work the lighter along the cable route as
the split pipes are installed is a four point mooring and deck winches. This method provides
ease of installation of the split pipes and is suited to working in the inshore area where the
swell effects on the bottom make it difficult for divers. It is limited to very shallow water
where the tension due to the weight of the split pipes and the ocean cable is not too high (
typically 30 to 40 feet - 9 to 12 meters depth maximum ). On completion of the installation of
the split pipes on deck, the lighter is moved until all the split pipes are on the bottom and
then the ocean cable is slipped over the side.
Page 55
The third method is to use divers and install the split pipes on the bottom. The maximum
depth for diver installation is 120 feet - 36 meters, this being the limit for non-
decompression diving, and is generally more than required for most shore sites. The minimum
depth is determined by surge effects near the beach. On a beach with little or no surf, divers
can install the full underwater length of split pipes, if required. The sections of split pipe are
lowered to the bottom from the support vessel in a suitably constructed basket. The most
effective method to work the support vessel along the cable route is to use a multipoint
mooring. This will be essential if the divers are using surface supplied breathing air or power
tools, or if the wind and current are significant.
Installation across the beach is straightforward. The beach end of the split pipes should also
be secured to the beach anchor to reduce the forces on the ocean cable from the normal down
the beach pull exerted by gravity forces on the split pipes.
Independent of the methods used to install the split pipes, the installation begins on the
beach and continues out to the depth required. This is done because of the way the split pipes
interlock into one another, with the bell towards the starting end over the socket of the
preceding section. Normally the split pipe sections are bolted together using carbon steel
bolts ( class 5 ), nuts and lock washers. This can be done with spanners or a spanner and
impact wrench, If alloy fasteners are used then cathodic protection will be required. Table
2.4.4.3.3(a) gives average times for the installation of split pipe, sections by divers for both
nut and bolt and BOM fastener ( Blind Oversized Mechanically locking fastener ). The BOM
fastener requires a special hydraulic installation tool.
Table 2.4.4.3.3 (a)
Diver Installation Times, US Type Split Pipe.
Average time minutes per section
Fastener Install Complete

Position fastener installation
pipe ready for including
torquing torquing
Nut and bolt, 0.72 2.46 3.95

1 diver
Nut and bolt, 0.72 2.40 3.75
2 divers
BOM fastener 0.52 0.48 1.44

Page 56
Fig. 2.4.4.3.3(a) Installation of split pipes on

deck of lighter.
2.4.4.3.4 Immobilization of Split Pipes.
Where the weight of the split pipe and the ocean cable are not sufficient to prevent movement
across the bottom under the effect of currents or wave action, the split pipes must be attached
to the bottom if they cannot be placed in a trench.
Two methods that have been commonly used are short lengths of chain between the split pipe
and rock bolts on either side, and U bolts over the split pipe grouted into holes in the rock.
Both of these do not provide any clamping force to hold the split pipes onto the bottom, and
wear has resulted. When the chains or U bolts have been of an alloy steel, galvanic corrosion
has been observed. The holes for U bolts are of a large size, requiring the use of heavy rock
drilling equipment.
Page 57
An alternative is to directly bolt the split pipe to the rock using the bolt holes in the sections
of split pipe. This is limited to bottoms of stronger rock ( compressive strength greater than
5000 psi. - 34 MPa ) where smaller wedge type rock bolts can be used ( e.g. 5/8 inch diameter
- 16 mm masonry stud anchors ). Typically every sixth section of the split pipe is bolted to
the bottom using the third pair of holes from the bell end. As the split pipe is installed, the
sections to be bolted down have the third pair of holes left unbolted. Using these holes as a
guide, a hand-held hydraulically powered rotary-percussion rock drill is used to make the
holes in the rock. The rock bolts are then inserted through the holes in the flange of the split
pipe into the holes in the rock and torqued up to expand the anchor wedge and set the bolt.
Nuts are then used on the rock bolts to hold the split pipe onto the bottom. To provide some
protection, zinc anodes attach to the top of the rock bolts, as shown in figure 2.4.4.3.4(a).
Fig. 2.4.4.3.4(a) Use of rock bolt to directly bolt

split pipe to bottom ( includes
zinc anode on rock bolt ).
In coral, an epoxy resin grout has been successfully used to install fasteners, where the
anchor wedge may break the coral. An dispenser is used to inject the epoxy resin into the
holes.
Page 58
2.4.4.3.5 Protection of Split Pipes against Corrosion.
If the split pipes are bolted together with carbon steel nuts and bolts and they are not subject
to any significant wear from mechanical or hydrodynamic forces, such as being in a trench,
than in many cases little or no protection against corrosion is required.
To provide a basic protection the best method is to sandblast the split pipes and paint them
before installation. A suitable paint is black coal tar epoxy ( e.g. Porter TM C 200 ). The paint
must cover all the surface of the split pipe halves if the full protection is to be realized.
To provide maximum protection zinc anodes can be used. This is essential if alloy steel is
used in the fasteners joining the halves together, for rock bolts, etc. The use of a paint over the
split pipe is necessary to reduce electric currents associated with corrosion and maximize
anode life. A coal tar epoxy coating can reduce the consumption of zinc anodes to about 0.2 lbs
- 0.09 Kg. per section per year. If zinc anodes are not placed on each section, then to ensure
that electrical connection is made, jumper leads must be installed between the sections. Anode
spacing in this case should be about every 20 sections with 75 lb. - 34 Kg. zinc anodes.
If it is considered that the split pipe may be subject to some vibration or movement that
cannot be completely stopped by attachment to the bottom, then the use of a rubber-
ashphaltic material applied to the inside of the split pipes to reduce wear between the split
pipe and the encased ocean cable may be necessary. The larger the diameter of the ocean cable
in relation to the inside diameter of the split pipe, the higher the possibility of this kind of
wear occurring.
In areas where the split pipes are subject to rapidly moving waterborne sand, corrosion is
accelerated due to the stripping off of the protective layer of corrosion products that form on
the surface, exposing fresh metal. Painting the split pipes will reduce the effect until the
paint is worn off, which may be in a relatively short time. If the split pipes cannot be buried
in the bottom, it will be necessary to consider the use of a covering material such as sacked
concrete to reduce this wear and resultant corrosion.
2.4.4.4 Drill Pipe.
Hi-alloy steel oil field drill tubing can be used to provide protection for ocean cables across
softer bottom material. Typical tubing section size is 32 feet - 9.75 meters long, 4.3 inches -
110 mm outside diameter, 3.9 inches - 100 mm internal diameter. The tube has tapered
threaded joints each end allowing the sections to be joined.
The tubing is typically installed by putting the installation vessel in a four point mooring to
allow accurate positioning during installation. A line is rigged from the shore to the vessel
and as the tubing sections are joined, they are pulled to the shore while being supported by
buoys. When the tubing is in position, it is sunk to the bottom. The tubing can be pulled along
the bottom if necessary, requiring about 1.0 lbf./ft - 1.5 Kgf./m. pull, based on wet earth.
To install the ocean cable into the tubing, a pulling line is used. The line is installed into the
tubing using a pig which is forced through the tube using water, or air pressure, pulling the
line as it goes. Once the line is available, it is connected to the ocean cable at the seaward end
of the tubing and the cable pulled through to the shore. The pulling force is of order 0.9
lbf./ft - 1.3 Kgf. /m. for the cable lubricated with water or pulling compound.
Once the cable is in place, the tubing can be buried. It can be prudent to lay a second length of
tubing to allow for possible future repair.
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2.4.4.5 Direct Immobilization of the Ocean Cable.
A simple and low cost method of immobilizing ocean cables is to secure the ocean cable to the
bottom using rock bolts and saddles. In stronger rock ( compressive strength greater than
5000 psi. - 34 MPa ), wedge type rock bolts can be used, for weaker rocks and coral the bolts
can be grouted in unless special bolts are available ( e.g. NCEL rock bolt for coral ).
The saddle must be such that it has no sharp edges to cause possible wear on the ocean cable
and it will hold the ocean cable firmly to the bottom to prevent wear under the saddle from
movement. Figure 2.4.4.5(a) shows a typical arrangement with a zinc anode for corrosion
protection on one rock bolt. Drilling the holes for the rock bolts can be done with hand held
drills or for the larger, longer holes, a track drill.
This method is relatively new and is not yet proven to provide a lifetime similar to that of
ocean cables. Spacing of the saddles along the ocean cable is dependent on the severity of the
currents and wave action, however no firm guidance exists at this stage but a spacing of about
6 feet - 2 meters would be typical for average conditions.
Rock bolts
Saddle
Zinc anode
Ocean cable
Rock bottom
Fig. 2.4.4.5(a) Direct immobilization of ocean

cable to sea floor.
2.5 Installation Across the Continental Shelf ( Shore End Cable ).
In its simplest form the installation of an ocean cable across the continental shelf consists of
laying the ocean cable along the defined cable route from one shore site along or across the
continental shelf to a second shore site, or out to a point at the edge of the continental shelf or
in most cases some distance down the continental slope to where the deep ocean cable lay
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begins. The ocean cable in this latter case may be left buoyed at this point for splicing into
the deep ocean cable at a later date, or the lay may continue on into the deep ocean section.
Normal practice is to lay the shore end cable out to the deep ocean in a single run. Some
systems are laid in a single run so the first end is laid out from the shore and the second end
into the shore.
Problems in the laying are relatively few. The laying tensions on the continental shelf are
generally low compared to the breaking strength of the ocean cable though may rise
considerably on the continental slope requiring more care. As the slack laid on the
continental shelf is low ( maximum of about 3% and in most cases nearer 1% ), care must be
taken in cable control and navigation. Accuracy for navigation is not normally a problem as
there are a wide range of navigation systems available that will meet the requirements.
If the ocean cable is to be plowed in along a section or sections of the cable route across the
continental shelf, then the lay is broken down into several stages with the plowed in sections
being done first. In most cases the plowed in section will extend from a point some distance
down the continental slope ( limited by the maximum operating depth of the plow ), going up
the continental slope and across the continental shelf to a point offshore from the shore site.
The ocean cable between the shore site and the inshore end of the plowed in section is laid last
( See Section B.2 ).
If the ocean cable is to be buried after laying, the lay across the continental shelf is first
completed as originally described but with as close to zero excess slack along the bottom as is
feasible and then the burial equipment is used to bury the required sections ( See Section B.3
and Annex B, Volume 9 of the Handbook.).
2.6 Installation Across the Deep Ocean.
In its simplest form the installation of an ocean cable across the deep ocean consists of laying
the ocean cable along the defined route from the offshore end of one shore end cable to the
offshore end of a second shore end cable. One or both of these offshore ends may be buoyed,
requiring the recovery of the cable buoy(s) and cable end(s), and their splicing into the deep
ocean cable section. The deep ocean cable section may be of deep sea type throughout the full
length, or may have a length of intermediate armor at the ends where it comes up the upper
portion of the continental slopes. On long runs it may be necessary to break the installation
into several lays to suit the capacity of the cable ship, with the end of the cable for each lay
being left buoyed. Where there are several lays it is normal practice to lay from one shore end
to the other, not out from both shore ends.
Problems in the laying are relatively few. The laying tension in crossing trenches can be up to
half the breaking strength of the ocean cable requiring care. The laying speeds are the highest
of the various installations with up to 6 knots being common for cable layers and up to 4 knots
for cable ( repair ) ships, and touchdown point at 6 knots being as far as 30 n. miles astern of
the ship. Slack in older systems is of the order of 6% giving a reasonable safety margin if
problems arise, however many newer systems are laid with only a little more than fill slack,
as low as 1%, giving little margin for error or if problems arise. Accuracy for navigation is not
generally a problem with modern navigation systems with the introduction of the GPS and
eLoran has essentially made navigation accuracy considerations irrelevant.
The advent of linear cable engines for cable layers ( and some cable repair ships ) has removed
the need to almost bring the cable ship to a stop when laying a repeater or equalizer, as was
required with the multisheave cable engines even with a diverter ball system. The tracked
linear cable engines can pass repeaters/equalizers at full laying speed, while the multi-tired
linear cable engines may have to slow when the repeater/equalizer is in the engine, to about
Page 61
3 knots.
Laying with drum type cable machinery normally requires a slowing down to allow articulated
repeaters/equalizers to pass around the drum as fleeting knives must be used to form a space
on the drum for the housing ( not required for self fleeting drums ). Non-articulated housings
require the stopping of the lay while the housing bypasses the cable machinery. One problem
with plastic sheathed ocean cables, typical of most modern deep sea ocean cables, is the need
to carefully control the back tension on the drum. If this tension becomes too low the cable
will slip and runaway will occur which invariably damages the ocean cable to some extent and
normally requires repair.
2.7 Ocean Cable Burial.
2.7.1 Overview.
The burial of ocean cables and housings ( e.g. repeaters ) to provide protection against damage
from bottom trawling, interference and other hazards is at present practical on the continental
shelves and the upper section of the continental slopes.
The most common, and effective, method of burial is plowing where the ocean cable is buried
as it is laid by a plow towed by the cable ship. The trench for the cable is dug by a mechanical
plowshare on the plow with provision for widening the trench for a short distance when a
housing is to be buried. The plowshare can use water jets to improve its performance and
reduce towing tensions. Plowing is limited to suitable bottom types, up to sands and stiff
clays.
Cable burial can also be done after laying. One technique is to use one of the ROV's designed
for ocean cable repair ( e.g. SCARAB, CIRRUS, ). The ROV uses its reburial jetting equipment
to effect the ocean cable burial, with limitations on burial depth and speed of penetration in
some sediment types. These ROV's are also used to inspect cable burial by plowing and to
effect burial of any section of ocean cable not properly buried by the plow.
Tracked ROVs have been developed to bury the cable after laying. These can use jet assisted
plows, chain cutters, and rock wheel cutters to form the trench, into which the ocean cable is
placed. These ROVs have a self loading capability to allow the ocean cable to be installed in
and removed from the vehicle without cutting it. These vehicles can handle bottom materials
from soft sediment to, in some case, hard rock.
Another technique suitable for shallower water is to cut the trench first and then lay the
ocean cable into this trench. This is particularly useful for areas near the shore end where
there is hard rock and significant activity that presents a hazard to the cable. The trencher is
typically of the chain cutter type, mounted on a suitable vessel. As the trench is cut, a guide
wire is laid into the trench to help in the installation of the cable. When the trench is
finished, a vessel fitted with cable tank(s), cable engine and an injector to insert the cable
into the trench is used to lay the ocean cable into the trench. The injector uses the guide wire
to control the placement of the cable and may place several cables in the one trench
simultaneously. This method was used off Singapore.
Power cables can be buried after laying in sedimentary bottom materials by plowing using a
self propelled vehicle, or by jetting sleds that run along the cable. Alternatively, the trench
can be cut first and the cable laid into it. Vehicles for this work are normally self propelled
with mechanical cutters to form the trench. Such vehicles can handle bottom materials ranging
from sediments to soft rocks All of these vehicles are relatively large and require a special
support vessel to handle them.
Page 62
Information on cable burial systems is given in Annex B, while information for cable repair
ROVs is given in Annex B, Volume 9 of the Handbook.
2.7.2 Navigation.
Navigation during ocean cable burial must be of the highest accuracy to ensure that the ocean
cable is buried along the route determined from the survey. If possible, the navigation system
should be the same as the one used in the survey and use the same reference points to ensure
repeatability. The standard system in use is Differential GPS but wide area systems are also
suitable. To ensure reliability during the burial, the navigation system should be full backed
up with 100% spare units.
To obtain the level of accuracy and to provide for effective control of the vessel doing the
burial, navigation system should be part of an integrated navigation system providing
continuous track plotting and position log.
2.7.3 Post Plowing Inspection.
After the section of ocean cable has been plowed in or buried and the adjacent sections of
ocean cable laid and spliced in, the cable must be inspected to ensure that complete burial has
been achieved.
The inspection and burial of any exposed ocean cable or housings is done using a cable repair
ROV ( e.g. SCARAB, CIRRUS ) deployed from the cable ship or a suitable vessel able to handle
the ROV. Starting at one end of the plowed in cable section. the ROV is launched and descends
to the sea floor where it moves along the cable route tracking the buried cable with its
magnetometers and using its TV cameras to check that the cable is buried. If an unburied
section of cable or a unburied housing is found, the ROV uses its cable burial jet(s) to bury
the exposed cable and/or housing. When the ROV reaches the other end of the plowed in cable
it surfaces and is recovered.
For the operation of cable repair ROV's see Annex B, Volume 9 of the Handbook.
2.8 Installation of Tee Junction or Branch.
2.8.1 Overview.
The use of tee junctions or branches along a trunk ocean cable, either to branch to separate
shore stations at an end of a trunk, or to connect an intermediate shore station into a trunk,
can be used in higher capacity systems.
The installation of the Tee junction is relatively straightforward with normal cable working
procedures ( with some small modifications ) being used. The major factor to be considered in
the laying of the Tee junction is the ability of the trunk ocean cable to support the weight of
the other two sections of ocean cable in the tee junction, plus the weight of the junction
repeater, as it is lowered to the ocean floor. If the ocean cable is not strong enough, a lowering
rope must be used to take the weight, or a special armor used on the ocean cable.
2.8.2 Installation Method.
This installation method requires that the Tee section is laid prior to the sections of the trunk
on either side of the junction. It is suitable for where only one cable ship is available. If two
cable ships are available, the Tee can be laid at the same time as the trunk.
Page 63
The Tee section is laid in the normal manner as used for a trunk, with the outer end to be
joined to the trunk buoyed with a cable end buoy ( See Section 14, Volume 5 of the Handbook ).
It is good practice to allow excess ocean cable at the outer end and to lay it down the route of
the trunk for a short distance in the direction from which the trunk will be laid. This allows
the cable ship, as it lays the trunk, additional freedom when it picks up the cable end buoy
and the outer end of the ocean cable in the Tee section.
Once the Tee section is laid and its end buoyed, the cable ship can lay the sections of the
trunk containing the Tee junction.
If the cable ship is laying over the stern, the as it approaches the cable end buoy, laying is
transferred to the bow ( unless a stern working cable ship ), preferably onto the drum of the
cable engine that is on the far side relative to the route of the Tee. When the cable end buoy is
reached, it is recovered in the normal manner ( See Sections 15 and 16, Volume 5 of the
Handbook ). The ocean cable in the Tee section is made up on the other cable engine drum and
the Tee tested. The cable ship then continues laying the trunk and picking up the tee section
until the junction is reached.
The cable ship stops and holds station, and both the ocean cables for the trunk and the Tee
sections are stoppered off inboard of the bow sheaves ( See Sections 21.3 and 21.4, Volume 5 of
the Handbook ). The ocean cables are then taken off the cable engine drums and the ocean cable
in the tee section is cut to the correct position and spliced into the junction repeater tail.
The laying of the junction repeater can be done with a modification of the North Atlantic Slip (
See Sections 8 and 9, Volume 5 of the Handbook ). The length of the bridle must be such that
the junction repeater is outboard of the bow sheaves before the bridle is released. The bridle
is made up on the stoppers on the two ocean cables and onto one cable engine drum, as is
normally done. The load is then taken by the bridle by picking up on the cable engine and the
stoppers are unshackled from the chains connecting them to the deck padeyes. The bridle is
paid out with the ocean cables being tied to it with thread until the junction repeater is on the
foredeck, as shown in figure 2.8.2(a). The ocean cable for the section of the trunk following the
junction is made up on the other cable engine drum.
The bridle followed by its holding/lowering rope, and the ocean cable are both paid out until
the junction repeater is outboard of the bow sheaves. At this point the load can be taken fully
by the ocean cable and the bridle slipped, or if this will produce loads that are too high for
the ocean cable, then the bridle is lowered to the ocean floor and slipped there using a release.
The cable ship then can continue to lay the trunk, if necessary transferring the laying to the
stern.
2.8.3 Tensions in Laying the Tee Junction.
The tensions during the laying of the Tee junction onto the ocean floor will determine the
method to be used to lower the junction. Two cases exist for calculating tension, the optimal
which gives the minimum tensions and the limit case which gives the maximum tension. In
practice if the maximum tension is too high, the limit case may have to be further restricted.
In the optimum position for laying the junction, the ocean cables for the trunk and the Tee rise
vertically from the ocean floor to the bow sheaves, as shown in figure 2.8.3(a). In this case the
tension that will be applied to the ocean cable in the section following the junction is given
by:
T = ( wT + wt ) h + w J
Page 64
Trunk
Branching
unit
Tee
Trunk
Bridle
Lowering
21 rope
thread
Fig. 2.8.2(a) Modifications to North Atlantic Slip ( Alternative Method )

to handle branching unit.
Page 65
where
T = tension
wT = weight of trunk ocean cable per unit length in water
wt = weight of Tee ocean cable per unit length in water
h = water depth
wJ = weight of junction repeater in air
In practice this optimum position is unlikely to occur. If sufficient excess slack has been
allowed in the sections of ocean cable at the junction then the two ocean cables will rise
vertically from the ocean floor before the junction is ready to be put over the bow sheaves. In
this case the ocean cables are laid for some distance down the route of the trunk until the
junction repeater is outboard of the bow sheaves and the optimum position is reached. This is
the preferred method that should be sought.
Branching
unit
Tee
Trunk
Position of
branching unit
when laid
Fig. 2.8.3(a) Optimum position for laying branching unit

onto ocean floor.
If circumstances are such that at the time of the junction repeater being outboard of the bow
sheaves, the two ocean cables are not vertical, as shown in figure 2.8.3(b), the tension will be
higher. The limiting case is when the bottom tension in each ocean cable ( trunk and Tee ) is
just below that needed to pull the ocean cables across the ocean floor. If the tensions are
likely to go beyond these limiting tensions, then the cable ship should alter course so that the
trunk is laid towards the direction of the tee which will keep the tensions down.
Page 66
The angles of the ocean cables at the surface in the limiting case ( ) ) can be calculated using
the method in Section 4.5, Volume 2 of the Handbook, These calculations will also give the
tension at the junction repeater for each cable and hence the tension in the ocean cable
inboard of the junction repeater.
Branching
unit
)
Tee
Trunk
Position of
branching unit
when laid
Fig. 2.8.3(b) Non-optimum position for laying of branching unit

onto ocean floor, ocean cables not being vertical.
If the tension inboard of the junction repeater is greater than the normal maximum working
tension of the ocean cable in this section ( about half the breaking tension ) then either a
separate lowering rope must be used to take the tension as the junction repeater is laid onto
the ocean floor, or a special armored section of ocean cable of suitable strength be used
adjacent to the junction repeater ( This must be determined before manufacturing is begun ).
2.9 Transmission Testing.
2.9.1 General.
Transmission testing of the ocean cable, repeaters, equalizers, etc. is carried out at various
stages during the installation, firstly on the individual components, then on the assembled
ship load(s), during the installation and finally on the complete system. This is done to check
for any faults or malfunctions, for alignment of equalizers, and to obtain optimum
performance from the system.
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The equipment used to carry out these transmission tests are known as test sets. A test set is
normally designed for use with a specific system, and if a cable ship must service several
different systems, a test set for each system is required. Newer test sets however, can often be
reconfigured for different systems by "plug in" components and reprogramming the controller
( computer ). This ability to be reconfigured is limited to similar systems or older systems
with less capacity.
Test sets fall into two distinct categories: analogue signal transmission and digital signal
transmission ( optical ). The most comprehensive test sets are required for repeatered ocean
cable communications systems with equalizers. Test sets for other systems are basically
simpler versions of these. The description of the test sets is therefore given for the
repeatered ocean cable system with equalizers.
For completeness both analogue and optical systems are described.
2.9.2 Transmission Testing Equipment.
2.9.2.1 Overview.
Installation of a system requires a continuous program of testing beginning when the ocean
cable, repeaters, and equalizers are loaded aboard ship and ending with the final splice
completing the undersea link. The test equipment, test procedures, and computations are
designed to ensure the proper performance of the system, to optimize equalizer settings ( if
used ), and to preserve the acquired, data for future use.
2.9.2.2 Test Set Philosophy and Design.
Test equipment design allows the use of identical test equipment on the ship and at shore
terminals. The installation test equipment includes the cable laying test set, the repeater
monitoring set, the line terminal equipment, the ocean cable termination, the power-feeding
equipment and the computer facility.
2.9.2.3 Test Sets.
2.9.2.3.1 Coaxial Cable Laying Test Sets.
The cable laying test set ( CLTS ) is used for making automatic, simultaneous, two-way
transmission measurements on ocean cable systems during installation and commissioning. As
shown in figure 2.9.2.3.1(a), the cable laying test set has a transmit section and a receive
section. The transmit section consists of an oscillator with precision output level control and
a digital control unit, while the receive section consists of a selective detector, a digital
control unit, and signal monitor unit. Signaling to achieve control between the transmit
section and the receive section is accomplished by set command tones. By using a patching
arrangement, this signaling scheme allows the transmit and receive sections of the same CLTS
to work either directly with each other or with the receive and transmit sections of another
CLTS at the other end of a cable system. In the latter cases control is via an order wire channel
over the link being installed.
Each section of a CLTS normally has manual and automatic modes of operation. In the manual
modes the transmit and receive control units are disabled. The transmit section simply
becomes a manually tuned oscillator, and the receive section becomes a manually tuned
selective detector with a signal monitoring capability. The signal monitor unit detects the
signal power received by the selective detector and provides an audible and visible alarm
when the received power level varies by more than 1.5 dB.
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Transmit section
Transmit
Level
control Oscillator
control Output
unit
Set
command To laying order wire
patching
Receive Signal
Selective
control monitor
detector
unit unit
Receive section
Input
Fig. 2.9.2.3.1(a) Cable laying test set.
The typical automatic modes of operation are low band, high band, and RIPPLE. The RIPPLE
mode is the most flexible and all other modes are special cases of it. In the RIPPLE mode, the
transmit and receive operator(s) choose a start frequency, stop frequency, and step frequency
interval. When the transmit control unit is initialized, it causes the transmit section to begin
sending a test tone at the start frequency and also sends a set command tone to the receive
section, causing it to measure the received power at the start frequency. When the
measurement is complete, the frequency and measured power are recorded. The receive control
unit then sends a set command tone back to the transmit control unit, causing it to step to the
next test frequency. This process continues until the measurement at the stop frequency has
been completed and the data have been recorded.
The basic measurement capability of the CLTS is determined by the oscillator and detector
units. Both the oscillator and the selective detector are designed to cover the frequency range
of the system, or systems, typically from 10 kHz to 60 MHz. The level control unit in the
transmit section should provide an output of 0.00 0.02 dBm ( into 75 ohms ). which can be
attenuated to -99.9 dBm in 0.1 dB increments. The selective detector should have a
measurement range from 0 to -129,9 dBm. In automatic modes, measurements should be able to
be made over a range from zero to -109 dBm with a readout resolution and repeatability of
0.01 dB.
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All the equipment associated with a CLTS, including power supplies and blower for cooling, is
normally packaged in one bay. Two complete CLTS bays are installed aboard ship and two
additional CLTS bays are installed ( on a temporary basis ) at the shore terminal from which
the ocean cable is being laid, thus providing redundancy at both ends of the ocean cable.
2.9.2.3.2 Optical Cable Laying Test Sets.
The cable laying test set ( CLTS ) is used for making simultaneous two way transmission
measurements on an ocean cable system during installation and commissioning. The cable
laying test set has a transmit section and a receive section under the control of the computer
facility.
The transmit section forms standard digital data streams for insertion into the ocean cable.
The receive section takes these data streams from the ocean cable and determines transmission
characteristics such as bit error rate and jitter. Signaling to achieve control between the
transmit section and the receive section is accomplished by laying order wire data stream
directly between the sections if they are both at the same location, or inserted into the data
stream for transmission down the ocean cable if they are not. This allows the transmit and
receive sections of the same CLTS to work directly with each other or with the receive and
transmit sections of another CLTS at the other end of a cable system.
The CLTS are normally designed to work on a single optical fiber pair at a time, rather than all
pairs simultaneously, to keep the equipment needed to a minimum. The transmit section can
however supply the same data stream to all outgoing optical fibers via the line terminal
equipment to fully load the repeaters.
Two complete CLTS's are installed aboard the cable ship and two additional CLTS's are
installed ( on a temporary basis ) at the shore terminals, thus providing redundancy.
2.9.2.4 Power Feeding Equipment.
The power feeding equipment used in the shore stations during laying is the power supply
equipment that will be used for the operation of the system.
The power feeding equipment used on the ship is of similar design to the power supply
equipment in the shore stations, but can provide power to the ocean cable at +ve and -ve
polarity and at any voltage between local ground and the maximum voltage for the system. This
allows it to correctly power the length of ocean cable and repeaters between the ship and the
connected shore station.
2.9.2.5 Line Terminal Equipment.
2.9.2.5.1 Coaxial Line Terminal Equipment.
The high frequency line equipment is permanently installed aboard the cable ship and
temporarily installed at the shore stations from which the ocean cable is laid. This allows the
undersea ocean cable system to be installed independent of the installation of the terminal
wideband line equipment. The high-frequency line serves as the interface between all the
transmission test facilities, the power feeding system, and the cable system.
The major function of the transmit high frequency line is to provide level adjustment
capability for transmission test tones and the multi-band laying orderwire signal to obtain
acceptable signal-to-noise ratios for each. At the same time, the broadband power transmitted
must be limited to a value such that no repeater is overloaded. These functions are achieved
for the conditions of transmitting into an inboard or outboard end section of ocean cable whose
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length can range from essentially zero to a full repeater section or into the test lead of an
ocean block equalizer.
Two high frequency line units, regular and spare, are included in each high frequency line
bay. Each unit consists of a directional filter for separating transmit and receive signals,
fixed gain broadband amplifiers, variable attenuators, and hybrid transformers. Regular and
spare laying orderwire multiplex equipment is also included in each high frequency line bay.
The multiplex units contain the stages of modulation necessary to translate the orderwire
spectrum into the system bands. In additions the high-frequency bay contains a patch panel to
facilitate the convenient patching of all signals and test equipment used for transmission
testing during the installation.
2.9.2.5.2 Optical Line Terminal Equipment.
The line terminal equipment is permanently installed in the cable ship and temporarily
installed at the shore stations from which the ocean cable, is laid. This allows the underwater
ocean cable system to be installed independent of the installation of the terminal equipment
at the shore station. The line terminal equipment serves as the interface between all the cable
laying test sets, the power feeding equipment and the ocean cable system.
The major function of the line terminal equipment is to connect the transmit and receive
sections of the cable laying test set to the optical fiber pairs in the ocean cable. It also
provides for the selection of a particular optical fiber pair for transmission testing, so that a
single cable laying test set can be used for the system, rather than having one for each optical
fiber pair.
The line terminal equipment is duplicated aboard the cable ship and at shore terminals to
provide redundancy.
2.9.2.6 Shipboard Computer Facility.
The shipboard computer facility performs several functions. It can be used to control the test
sets, and the repeater monitoring set, log their outputs and provide alarms. In systems with
equalizers, it can be used to calculate the required settings, or selection of insertable
networks, for the equalizer to optimize transmission characteristics. Because of the difficulty
in manually operating the test sets, the computer facility is duplicated.
2.9.2.7 Repeater Monitoring Set.
2.9.2.7.1 Coaxial Repeater Monitoring Set.
The repeater monitoring set is designed to be used on the system to measure supervisory tones
from the repeaters as well as to measure the intermodulation performance of repeaters. Unlike
the equipment described above, which is used only during installation and commissioning, the
repeater monitoring set is a permanent piece of terminal station equipment which is also used
during installation. The supervisory tone measurements allow for data acquisition necessary
for system administration and fault location. Intermodulation tests, which are normally
performed on an out of service basis, are helpful in localizing a wide variety of faults.
The repeater monitoring set can be operated in a manual mode or in a semiautomatic mode, as
required. The repeater monitoring set has a visual output of measured data as well as an
output to a computer for logging. The shipboard sets are normally designed to be used with
several types of systems.
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For supervisory tone measurements, the repeater monitoring set uses a phase-locked selective
detector technique. The measurement bandwidth is typically 5 Hz, and all the conversion
carriers in the selective detector are phase locked to a highly precise common reference
frequency, allowing accurate frequency measurement of the received tones. Input bandpass
filters, used to prevent overload of the detector by the broadband message signal, can be
bypassed, enabling the set to be used as a general purpose selective detector over the high
frequency range.
Because modern repeaters are highly linear, it is possible to obtain accurate intermodulation
measurements of individual repeaters on an installed system. This particular measurement
can be made only for common-amplifier repeater configuration ( i.e. not for repeaters with
separate amplifiers for the upper and lower bands ), and uses the different distance and hence
different round-trip delay to each repeater. Chirp radar and matched-filter techniques are
used to obtain the necessary signal-to-noise ratio under the peak power constraints of the
repeaters.
As with the other transmission test equipment, the repeater monitoring sets are duplicated
aboard the cable ship and at shore terminals to provide redundancy.
2.9.2.7.2 Optical Repeater Monitoring Set.
The repeater monitoring set is designed to monitor the operation of the system. Unlike the
equipment described above, which is used only during installation and commissioning, the
repeater monitoring set is a permanent piece of terminal station equipment which is also used
during installation.
The set is equipped with in-service line supervisory signal generation/detection system,
using the low frequency over-modulation of the optical carrier to obtain the required
information. It can also monitor the supervisory system in each repeater, allowing direct
measurement of input and output power levels as well as pump laser current.
As with the other transmission test equipment, the repeater monitoring sets are duplicated
aboard the cable ship and at shore terminals to provide redundancy.
2.9.3.1 Tests During Loading.
The repeaters, equalizers, Tee junctions, etc., are individually tested during manufacture and
then transported to the dock for loading aboard ship. Following loading and prior to splicing,
resistance checks are made to determine that all housings are solidly grounded to the ship's
hull. The ocean cable, repeaters, etc., are then spliced together to form the assembled
shipload.
2.9.3.2 Assembled Shipload Tests.
The assembled shipload is subjected to a series of tests to ensure proper operation
For coaxial systems, the diagram in figure 2.9.3.2(a) shows the equipment and connections
used to perform these tests on a block-by-block basis. Individual block testing is necessary
because the differences in temperature and pressure between shipboard and ocean bottom
environment can result in large temporary end-to-end misalignment which makes a single
measurement of an entire shipload impractical ( unless the shipload is less than one block
length ). Block-by-block measurements have some useful benefits. Testing procedures and
computations can be mechanized in a generally repetitive manner, and single block tests
automatically localize faults to a block.
Page 72
Each end of the assembled shipload is terminated at a power separation filter. The power
separation filters allow high voltage to be applied to the center conductor and one end and DC
ground at the other. A broadband connection is also provided for test signals. Transmission
tests are performed on each of the blocks ( including the partial end blocks ) at a selected set
of standard frequencies in each band. Figure 2.9.3.2(a) shows a typical configuration and
connections for these tests.
All transmission measurements are made by either the cable laying test sets ( CLTS's ) or the
repeater monitoring set ( RMS ). For these tests the CLTS's transmit and receive signals at a
standard list of stored frequencies. All the test equipment as well as the orderwire is
connected to the assembled cable system through the high frequency line equipment. The
CLTS's are used to measure the transmission response of each block. The measurement starts
at the first test frequency and automatically sequences through the standard frequency list.
The measured data are automatically recorded by means of the data translator on both printed
page and in the computer. The data translator also causes the print out of heading information
which identifies the type of measurement made, the date and time of day, the direction of
transmission, the test sets used to make the measurement, the run number and the block
number. The CLTS's are also used to measure all the losses and gains associated with the test
configuration ( e.g., patch cords and power separation filter ). This information is also sent to
the computer where it is combined with the relevant measurement data.
For optical systems the diagram in figure 2.9.3.2(b) shows a typical configuration and
connections used to perform these tests on the assembled shipload.
All transmission measurements are made under the control of the computer through the cable
laying test sets ( CLTS's ) or repeater monitoring set ( PTIS ). For these tests the CLTS's
transmit and receive standard data streams on the optical fiber pairs in the ocean cable to
determine factors such as bit rate error and jitter. Results of these are recorded with heading
information which identifies the type of measurement made, the late and time of day, the
optical fiber pair used, the test sets used to make the measurement and the run number.
Computations are performed using the measurement data from the tests. The primary intent of
these calculations is to verify that the assembled shipload is operating properly. To
accomplish this, one must be able to predict the expected transmission response. Factory
measurements on the actual repeaters, ocean cable sections, and equalizers in each block,
which are loaded into the computer prior to testing, are used to compute a transmission
response to be compared with the shipboard measurements. The computed transmission
response must correct for the actual temperature of the repeaters and ocean cable aboard the
ship, because these are generally not the same as during factory measurements.
Printer
Computer
Interface
Data
translator
Receive Transmitting Transmitting Receive Repeater

Repeater Laying Laying
cable laying cable laying cable laying cable laying monitor
monitor order wire order wire
test set test set test set test set set
set
High High
frequency frequency
line line
Outer conductor Ocean block

DC resistance equalizer
temperature DC stepping
measurement equipment control unit Equalizer
Equalizer
DC DC housing
housing
0.25 A 0.25 A
K2 K2
0.5 A (N+20)+i
Power
Power Low and
Repeaters Low and Pwr Pwr Pwr separ-
separ- Pwr high
high sep sep sep ation
ation sep band
band fltr fltr fltr filter
filter fltr filters
1 N filters N+1 N+10 N+20
(N+20)+j
K2 K2
Ocean block equalizer Ship
Ocean block equalizer high voltage
power plant
Block being measured
Fig. 2.9.3.2(a) Assembled shipload transmission test, coaxial cable.

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Printer
Computer
Interface
Repeater Receive Transmitting Transmitting

monitor cable laying Laying Laying Receive Repeater
order wire cable laying cable laying
set test set order wire cable laying monitor
test set test set
test set set
Line
Line
terminal
terminal
equipment
equipment
Ocean
Ocean
cable
cable
termin-
termin-
ation
ation
Repeaters
Ship
high voltage
power plant
Fig. 2.9.3.2(b) Assembled shipload transmission test, optical system.

Page 75
2.9.3.3 Tests Done During Laying.
The tests during laying are basically the same as for the assembled shipload except that the
test path is between the cable ship and a shore station, rather than only with the shipload.
Communication and control is by laying order wire data inserted into the test data stream.
The beginning of the cable lay starts with a cable splice ( or landing the shore end ). Before
the splice is made, a transmission reconciliation test is made to verify the performance of the
previously installed portion of the system ( if not beginning at a shore site ). If this
reconciliation ( comparison with the measurements made earlier ) is satisfactory, the splice is
made. After the splice, another reconciliation transmission test is performed between the
shore station and the test lead of the most outboard equalizer in the shipload. Again, the data
are analyzed using the shipboard computer to determine if the measurement is consistent with
the previous reconciliation and the assembled shipload measurements.
The primary reasons for transmission tests during laying are to confirm proper operation of
the system and to obtain the data necessary to choose the optimum ocean-block equalizer
settings ( if included in the system ). For coaxial systems, using a typical test configuration
shown in figure 2.9.3.3(a), transmission tests are made at regular intervals. Similarly for
optical systems, using a typical test configuration shown in figure 2.9.3.3(b), transmission
tests are made at regular intervals. At the end of a measurement run, each station has only the
measurement data for its receive band. These data are then exchanged via the laying
orderwire. Thus the shore station and the ship obtain measurement data for two way
transmissions.
Again the data is analyzed using the shipboard computer to determine if the measurement is
consistent with the previous reconciliation and the assembled shipload measurements.
For coaxial systems, between standard frequency runs, while the ocean cable is being paid
out, the cable laying test sets are used to send and monitor a single tone in each direction of
transmission. Also, the supervisory tone power from each repeater is measured and recorded
using the repeater monitoring set. Because adjacent repeaters in many systems transmit
supervisory tones in opposite directions, the data must be exchanged between the ship and
shore station. Additional tests performed during laying include (i) a transmission test
through the next to be laid block to ensure that its transmission has not changes since the
assembled shipload tests, (ii) transmission tests at closely spaced frequency intervals, called
ripple runs, and (iii) monitoring the power plant voltage and current.
The process of choosing the optimum equalizer setting, typically starts about three hours
before the equalizer is scheduled to go overboard. This interval allows time for the equalizer
setting decision to be made and for the test and stepping leads to be sealed by overmolding.
First, a transmission objective is computed using the shipboard computer. The transmission
objective is the expected test tone power which would be measured at the input to the receive
cable laying test set, assuming that the only misalignment in the system is the planned
misalignment ( e.g. planned misalignment can be the gain provided at the time of installation
to precompensate for the anticipated increased cable loss with time, ie. cable aging ). All the
components of this calculation are known either by calculation or by direct measurement with
the cable laying test set.
At the time of any standard frequency run, the misalignment of the system consists of the sum
of residual misalignment and temporary misalignment. The temporary misalignment is due to
the fact that not all of the block being laid has stabilized at ocean bottom conditions. The
temporary misalignment must be removed from the measurement data since the equalizer
should compensate for only the residual misalignment. This is accomplished as follows. Under
steady state conditions ( ie. constant ship speed, cable payout rate, and shipboard cable and
Page 76
Printer Printer
Computer Computer
Data Data
Interface translator Interface
translator
Data Data
set set
Transmitting Laying Receive Repeater Transmitting Laying Receive Repeater

cable laying order cable laying monitor cable laying order cable laying monitor
test set wire test set set test set wire test set set
A K
Shore Ship J
high high
frequency frequency
B
line line
C Shore station I Ship test room
H G
K2
Power Power
separ- E Pwr Low and F separ-
F Pwr
ation sep high ation
sep
filter fltr band filter
fltr
filters
K2
Shore Ocean block equalizer Ship
power power
plant Portion of system plant
laid or about
to be laid Remainder of shipload
Fig. 2.9.3.3(a) Transmission test during laying, coaxial cable.

Printer Printer
Computer Computer
Interface
Interface
Transmitting Laying Receive Repeater Transmitting Laying Receive Repeater

cable laying order cable laying monitor cable laying order cable laying monitor
test set wire test set set test set wire test set set
Line Line
terminal Shore station Ship
terminal test room
equipment equipment
Ocean Ocean
cable cable
termin- termin-
ation ation
Shore Ship
power power
plant plant
Portion of
system laid Remainder of shipload
Fig. 2.9.3.3(b) Transmission tests during laying, optical cable.

Page 77
Page 78
repeater temperature ), which are normally closely approximated during laying, temporary
misalignment decreases linearly with time ( and distance ) until the equalizer is overboarded.
The shipboard computer sorts the standard frequency run data and extrapolates to the
expected value corresponding to the time that the equalizer would go overboard. The amount of
remaining temporary misalignment due to the cable suspended between the ship and the ocean
bottom and due to the thermal inertia of the cable and repeater, is calculated from theoretical
considerations and used to correct extrapolated data.
Direct comparison of the corrected extrapolated data to the transmission objective yields the
residual misalignment to be compensated for by the equalizer, which is referred to as block
deviation, The computer equalization program then compares the block deviation to the loss
shapes available in the equalizer and orders the various setting choices, based on a weighted
sum of squared error criterion. The equalizer setting that is selected is typically the one with
the minimum sum-of-squared-error. The transmission engineers, however, examine the top
several choices, taking into account auxiliary information ( e.g. anticipated misalignment in
the next block ), and occasionally choose a different setting.
Once the choice of equalizer setting has been made, four standard frequency runs are
performed. The first two are made immediately before and after the equalizer is switched. A
comparison of these two standard frequency runs is made to verify that the correct change in
loss has been achieved. Second, the shipboard transmission test lead is moved to the next
inboard equalizer, adding the next ocean block to the measurement path. The next two runs are
performed before and after the transmission test pad is switched out or disconnected in the
equalizer about to be laid. A comparison of these two standard frequency runs is made to
verify that the test pad has, in fact, been switched out. At this point, the equalizer stepping
and transmission test leads are sealed, and the equalizer is ready for overboarding.
Transmission testing then continues through the next inboard equalizer.
For optical systems, between standard test runs, while the ocean cable is being paid out, the
cable laying test sets are used to send and monitor a signal in each direction of transmission.
Also, the supervisory signals from each repeater is measured and recorded using the repeater
monitoring set. Also the power plant voltage and current are monitored.
Because of the large spacing of repeaters along the cable in optical systems compared to
coaxial systems, equalizers, where used, tend to be much fewer in number. If the equalizer is
of a type that can be set onboard, then the procedure is similar to that for coaxial equalizers,
except that the attenuation must be set for each optical fiber. If the equalizer is remotely set,
then this can be done after laying. Because the optical fibers are essentially protected from
pressure and tension in the cable, there should be no detectable laying effect.
2.9.3.4 Commissioning Tests.
Upon completion of the final splice. there is continuity between the shore stations. At this
point the cable ship's job is complete and commissioning activity begins.
The test equipment is essentially the same as the laying test set though the accuracy for
transmission tests is increased. For analogue systems typically to 0.01 dB, and the step
frequency intervals are smaller to give a finer structure on the transmission characteristics.
The tests are used to select any attenuation required at the shore station to compensate for the
shorter length of ocean cable out to the first repeater, to measure the system's ongoing
performance characteristics and also aid in the detecting of possible faults or anomalies
which nay occur in the life of the system.
Page 79
The commissioning tests can be expected to extend over many months if optimal performance
is to be achieved and they are generally repeated during the life of the system to allow for
correction of any changes. If shore controlled equalizers are included in the system this
becomes essential if they are to be used effectively to offset long term changes.
2.9.4 Environmental Considerations and Measurements.
2.9.4.1 Repeater Temperature Control.
2.9.4.1.1 Requirement.
In simple ocean cable systems, no special effort is made to control the temperature of
repeaters ( and equalizers ) on the cable laying ship. For large capacity systems or where
temperature controlled repeaters are used, reasonably precise control is required. For optical
systems with their larger power dissipation in the repeaters, adequate cooling must be
provided.
2.9.4.1.2 Control Requirements.
Even though repeaters and equalizers are vacuum-dried during manufacture, some water
remains, much of it dissolved in polymeric materials. At high storage temperatures a
significant amount of water exists as vapor within the free volume of the repeater. If such a
repeater were launched into the ocean, where the bottom temperature is typically 2.5o C, there
is a possibility that the water would condense on surfaces within the repeater before it could
be reabsorbed by the polymers. Condensed water on and between conducting surfaces can
cause repeater failure. Experimental investigation has shown that condensation will not occur
if the ambient storage temperature is less than 32o C for unpowered repeaters and 27o C for
powered repeaters ( for coaxial system ). The lower of these two values is controlling, since
the repeaters are powered when they are laid.
Table 2.9.4.1.2(a)
Typical Shipboard Repeater Temperature Objectives.
Non-
temperature-
controlled
Temperature- repeaters
controlled and
repeaters equalizers
_____________________________________________________
Setability <27o C * <27o C
Stability in 12 hours 0.2o C 2.0o C
Measurement accuracy 0.2o C 0.5o C
_____________________________________________________
* The maximum temperature for the temperature-controlled repeaters is determined in part by

the ocean cable temperature. The specific requirement depends on a number of factors. In the
worst case, it is sufficient to keep the repeater temperature at or below that of the ocean cable.
Page 80
If temperature-controlled repeaters are included in a shipload, it is necessary to know their

temperature in order to predict what their transmission characteristics should be. To limit
positive misalignment in blocks containing temperature-controlled repeaters, the difference
between repeater and ocean cable temperatures must be controlled. Because the thermal mass
of the ocean cable is much greater than that of the repeaters, it is more efficient to control
repeater temperature than ocean cable temperature. Thus it is necessary not only to limit the
maximum value of repeater temperature but to be able to set it and maintain it with reasonable
precision.
Temperature control is also needed for other repeaters, but the requirements are less
stringent because temperature changes produce a much smaller change in transmission. Table
2.9.4.1.2(a) summarizes typical repeater temperature stability, setability, and measurement
accuracy objectives.
2.9.4.l.3 Temperature Control Facilities.
To achieve the required setability of repeater temperature, air conditioning units can be
installed in each repeater bay and tents erected over each repeater stack. The air conditioning
units can be located along a bulkhead in each repeater bay. The chilled air is piped into
rectangular telescoping ducts located beneath the repeater stacks.
When a full load of repeaters is in place, the duct is extended to its full length, spanning the
entire stack. As repeaters are paid out during a cable-laying operation, the duct can be
shortened ultimately to approximately reach only the last repeaters. The telescoping feature
is provided to keep the incoming air flow concentrated around the remaining repeaters. The
return duct for the air flow is on the deck next to the telescoping inlet duct. It contains a
series of holes on the top and side opposite the inlet duct to receive the air. Each hole is fitted
with a swivel plate which can be moved to open or close the hole. As repeaters are paid out, the
unused holes are sequentially closed.
The repeater stack is covered by an insulating tent with openings on the sides to pass the
ocean cable bights. The tent is made in sections so that, as repeaters are paid out, sections can
be removed to allow the size of the tent to conform approximately to the size of the stack of
remaining repeaters.
Under unusual conditions of very high humidity, condensation can occur on the repeaters and
equalizers in the tent. Drains must be provided to remove the water.
2.9.4.1.4 Repeater Temperature Measurement.
An automatic temperature measurement and recording system is normally installed.

Thermocouples are used in the repeater stacks to measure the temperature. The thermocouples
are attached to the periphery of holes in the end cones of the repeaters using clamps which
can be removed readily before the repeater is paid out.
The thermocouple identifying number, the indicated temperature, and the time of
measurement are printed out and recorded by the computer. The equipment can be
programmed to scan and record data from all of the thermocouples as set intervals, e.g. every
eight hours. When calibration and correction procedures are used, the temperature
measurement accuracy is about 0.05o C.
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2.9.5.2 Ocean Cable Temperature Control.
2.9.5.2.1 Requirement.
With many ocean cable systems, there is no need to control cable temperature. The
temperature is measured with thermocouples at several points in each cable tank, giving
adequate information for transmission measurements. For some high capacity systems, it is
necessary to maintain ocean cable temperature stability in each cable tank to allow
transmission tests and calculations to be made with the required accuracy.
2.9.5.2.2 Control Requirements.
Temperature setability requirements are normally applied to the repeaters rather than the
ocean cable. Measurements to determine equalizer setting/network selection, however, require
that the ocean cable temperature remain stable for the measurement period. Specifically, the
stability objective is typically 0.2o C over a 12 hour period. Similarly, the measurement
accuracy objective is typically 0.2o C.
2.9.5.2.3 Temperature Control Facilities.
As a means to provide a uniform ocean cable temperature, the cable tanks can be flooded with
water during cable laying operations. The water level is typically maintained about two feet
below the top of the cable to protect people working in the tank. The water in each cable tank
can be circulated by draining it from the drains in the bottom of the tank and pumping it into
the top of the tank along the walls ( instead of through the sprays ). While the tank water
temperature does change slowly in response to sea temperatures, the circulating water
arrangement will provide adequate stability.
2.9.5.2.4 Ocean Cable Temperature Measurement.
Two means can be provided for measuring the ocean cable temperature. The first consists of
thermocouples in each cable tank which are connected to the temperature recording system for
the repeater stacks. This is the only method for optical systems. The thermocouples are taped
to the ocean cable during loading so that they are distributed throughout each cable tank.
Thermocouples have the advantage of simplicity and accuracy but the disadvantage that they
provide only point measurements. If the ocean cable temperature is not uniform, it is not
possible to determine precisely the average temperature of a cable section or a block from the
thermocouple readings.
For transmission measurements, the average temperature of the ocean cable in a block is the
most important item of cable temperature data. To provide this information directly a second
ocean cable temperature measurement system can be used for coaxial ocean cables. This
method consists of measuring the DC resistance of the outer conductor of the ocean cable and
inferring from this and the factory test data the average temperature.
The repeater and equalizer high-pressure housings are connected in series with the ocean
cable outer conductors but contribute negligible resistance. The conductivity of the copper
used for the outer conductor of ocean cables is carefully controlled. Since the temperature
coefficient of resistivity is directly related to the conductivity, it is thus also carefully
controlled. During cable manufacture, the factory determines the DC resistance of the outer
conductor of each cable section at 10.0o C. This reference reading and the known temperature
coefficient are then sufficient to relate temperature to DC resistance throughout the range of
interest. Working the outer conductor during cable handling in the factory and from the
Page 82
factory to the ship increases the resistance by an amount equivalent to approximately 0.25o C
temperature change on the average. A correction for this is made in the temperature
calculation.
If the ship is stationary. a satisfactory measurement can be made as described above. If the
ship is pitching or rolling, however, the motion of the coiled ocean cable in the earth's
magnetic field induces voltages which can cause errors in the measurements. To overcome this
problem, instead of measuring a block directly, the two halves are measured in parallel. In
this ways the voltages induced by the ship motion in the two halves tend to cancel. As an
added precaution, high measuring currents ( up to 500 mA ) are used to make the voltage drop
from the measuring current much larger than the motion-induced voltages.
The correlation under carefully controlled conditions between thermocouple and direct
current resistance ( DCR ) measurements has been quite satisfactory. The high-current DCR
method is regarded as the primary ocean cable temperature measurement. The thermocouple
results are used for check and backups.
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3. Installation of Arrays.
3.1 Overview.
The installation of arrays for an ocean cable system is generally a more complex and difficult
procedure than the laying of trunks. The sensor units forming the arrays must be placed on
the sea floor, or suspended in mid-water, within tight tolerances and on completion of the
laying, their positions determined accurately. This normally requires the navigation systems
used, both above and below the water, to be of the highest possible accuracy and able to be
related to geodetic survey grids to ensure repeatability. The forces in the installation are
often high and more than one ship may be required with the need for a very high degree of
cooperation between all participating units if the installation is to be successful and safety
standards maintained. The officers and crew of the vessels involved must not only be
competent in cable work but must be adaptable to the unusual conditions involved in array
installation and be extremely cooperative with the customer team.
Arrays can be generally classified as bottom mounted, that is with the sensor units sitting on
the sea floor, or mid-water with the sensor units on some form of taut subsurface mooring. A
given system may contain one or both types though normally a separate trunk ocean cable will
be used for each type. Because of the possible variations in array design and resulting
installation procedures, the following sections describe "standard" methods to provide
guidance in determining the installation procedures that may be applicable to the system
being installed.
Because of the difficulties in laying arrays, it is normal to include practice in laying a

representative unit made up from normal stocks of cables, ropes and sensor units prior to the
actual installation. This will provide experience for the officers and crews of the vessel(s)
involved and the customer team, as well as checking out all the systems to be used.
3.2 Inshore and Nearshore Bottom Mounted Array Installation.
3.2.1 General.
Inshore and nearshore bottom mounted arrays are those laid in water depths where divers can
be used to position sensor units, and carry out cable burial, etc. This implies a typical depth
of about 60 feet - 18 meters for the array and generally not exceeding 100 feet - 30 meters for
non-saturation diving. The length of the ocean cable run to shore is typically 5 to 10 n. miles
and not generally exceeding 20 n. miles. The definition covers most bottom mounted
calibration ranges and harbor surveillance systems. Saturation diving can be used for deeper
depths as can ROV's and manned submersibles, but limitations imposed and cost normally
make the offshore installation methods more suitable.
Vessels used for the installation are typically lighters, either self propelled or aided by tugs,
or if available, a suitable auxiliary cable ship. Chapters 2 and 3, Volume 3 of the Handbook
covers these vessels and the type of cable handling equipment normally used.
3.2.2 Navigation Systems.
Three main types of navigation systems can be used for the installation of inshore and near
shore systems. Differential GPS is best suited, particularly if the system extends well out
from the shore or if visibility is poor. If visibility is good then a theodolite/EDM ( Electronic
Distance Measuring ) unit can be used with a suitable target on the laying vessel, with the
Page 84
advantage of using only one shore station, though a transit is normally used at a second station
for reliability. Two theodolites can be used if none of the above are available, however their
use is slow and requires very good communications. An alternative is the laser positioning
system, mounted on the shore with reflector(s) on the laying vessel(s). Of the above systems
only the Differential GPS provides direct navigation data onboard the laying vessel(s). The
others require radio links to relay the navigation information and require the establishment
of benchmarks at the shore station(s) of high accuracy ( See Section 2.2.3.2.1, Volume 9 of the
Handbook for discussion of benchmarks. ) They are also limited in maximum range from the
shore to about 1 n. mile.
3.2.3 Procedure
3.2.3.1 General.
For individually cabled sensor units, the procedure is normally the same for each sensor unit
of the same type. If a system has several types of sensor units, it may be necessary to modify
the procedure for each type. To begin the installation of a sensor unit, the sensor laying vessel
is positioned over the datum with the sensor unit ready for connection into the ocean cable
and for lowering. The cable laying vessel comes as close to the beach as is practical and the
inshore end of the ocean cable is passed to the beach and taken into the cable vault where it is
connected to the test set. The cable laying vessel then proceeds down the cable route paying
out the ocean cable until she is close to the sensor laying vessel. The offshore end of the ocean
cable is passed to the sensor laying vessel, is connected to the sensor unit and the ocean cable
and the sensors are tested from the shore station. If operating correctly the sensor unit is
lifted outboard and into the water where divers guide it onto the datum and place the bight of
the ocean cable onto the bottom.
An alternative method is to use one vessel. The vessel is positioned over the sensor datum and
the sensor unit is laid. The operation of the sensor unit is checked and if operating correctly,
the vessel then proceeds to the shore station laying the ocean cable. When the vessel is close
to the beach the cable end is passed to the shore and taken up to the cable vault. If divers are
used in the positioning of the sensor unit and landing the shore end, they will require a
support vessel. The laying vessel will need to be able to position herself accurately
throughout the lay and will need a suitable integrated navigation system and position control,
whereas for the previous method, the vessels need not be as capable.
For a single main ocean cable with a junction and separate ocean cables between the junction
and the sensor units, the installation normally starts with the laying of the junction unit. A
suitable vessel, such as used to lay the sensor units is moored over the junction datum and the
junction is lifted outboard and into the water. It is then lowered onto the bottom, positioned
and secured. Junction units can vary in size from a simple bell form, such as shown in figure
3.2.3.1(a), which provides a dry area for connection of ocean cables, to a two story unit with
the second story used for electronics as well as cable junctions, such as shown in figure
3.2.3.1(b). When the junction unit has been laid, the cable laying vessel comes as close to the
beach as is practical and the inshore end is passed to the beach and taken into the cable vault
where it is connected to the test set. The cable laying vessel then proceeds down the cable
route laying the ocean cable until she is over junction unit. The offshore end of the main ocean
cable is lowered to the bottom and is taken into the junction unit by divers and terminated.
The rest of the installation is essentially the same as for an individually cabled sensor system
except that each sensor ocean cable is laid from the junction unit, instead of the beach, out to
the sensor unit, or from the sensor unit to the junction unit, whichever is most suitable.
Page 85
Fig. 3.2.3.1(a) Simple bell type junction box enclosure.
Fig. 3.2.3.1(b) Two story type junction unit enclosure.

Page 86
For a single main ocean cable with breakouts at each sensor unit, the ocean cable is laid first.
The cable laying vessel comes as close to the beach as is practical and the inshore end is
passed to the beach and taken into the cable vault where it is connected to the test set. The
cable laying vessel then proceeds down the cable route laying the ocean cable, stopping at each
breakout. The breakout is lowered to the bottom and the length of ocean cable to the sensor
unit is coiled on the bottom using divers. When the cable lay is completed the sensor laying
vessel takes position over each sensor datum, the end of the coiled ocean cable is raised to the
surface using divers and connected to its sensor unit. the shore station tests the ocean cable
and the sensors, and if operating correctly the sensor unit is lifted outboard and into the
water where divers guide it onto the datum as it is lowered to the bottom. The bight of the
connecting ocean cable is also placed on the bottom by the divers.
If burial of the ocean cable(s) is required it can normally be done using divers and jetting the
ocean cable into softer bottom materials. Rock or other hard bottom materials can be trenched
prior to laying the ocean cables ( see Section 2.4.3.4 ). Cable burial is not done near the sensor
units to allow the ocean cable to be raised when the sensor unit is recovered for repairs or
maintenance.
3.2.3.2 Sensor Unit Installation.
The most commonly used procedure for the installation of sensor units is a lighter or similar
vessel fitted for a multipoint mooring and with a suitable crane able to lift the sensor units
over the side and lower them to the bottom. The use of a multipoint mooring is required as
divers are used to work both the sensor units and the ocean cables as they are being installed.
It also allows fine adjustment of the position of the sensor laying vessel needed to meet the
positioning requirements typical for sensor units in these types of arrays. However great care
must be taken in installing and recovering, the mooring anchors so as not to damage the ocean
cables and sensor units that have been laid. Figure 3.2.3.2(a) shows a typical arrangement for
the installation.
The accurate positioning of the sensor units can be carried out in two ways. The first is to
survey in the position of each sensor unit prior to the laying and place a suitable marker on
the bottom that can be used to position each sensor unit as it is laid. Divers can use a staff or
surface float ( see Section 2.2, Volume 9 of Handbook ), the position of which can be
determined using the navigation system. This requires a stable bottom material.
The second method is to lower the sensor unit to the bottom and using a staff or surface float,
determine its position. The sensor unit is then moved and its position redetermined until it is
in the correct position.
The alternative method where one vessel is used for the lay and the sensor unit is laid first,
requires a different approach. The sensor unit must be designed to be laid using the ocean
cable. The vessel positions herself above the sensor datum using her thrusters and main
propulsion. The sensor unit is lowered to the bottom. If the water is deep enough for divers to
safely work on the bottom under the vessel, they can help controlling the sensor unit as it
bottoms. If not, then the sensor unit must be heavy enough to hang vertically under the vessel
to ensure that it will bottom be as close to the datum as possible. If the position of the sensor
unit is critical, after it is laid, its position can be determined and if necessary it can be lifted
and moved to reposition it. Great care must be taken after the sensor unit is laid, not to pull it
out of position as the laying of the ocean cable to the beach begins.
Page 87
Mooring
Crane winches
Sensor unit
storage area
Sensor
Ocean unit
cable
Multipoint
mooring
Sensor
unit
datum
Fig. 3.2.3.2(a) Typical arrangement for sensor laying vessel.
3.3 Offshore Bottom Mounted Array Installation.
3.3.1 General.
Offshore bottom mounted arrays are typically laid in water depths ranging from about 100
feet - 30 meters down to the abyssal plains ( 2 to 3 n. miles - 4000 to 6000 meters ) though
the ocean cable run to the shore may run through much deeper depths. The arrays are laid by
vessels working on the surface. If ROV's are used, it is normally for inspection of the sensor
units after laying is complete. The length of the cable run to the shore can be from tens of n.
miles to many hundreds of n. miles, and often contains repeaters. The definition covers most
large tracking ranges and longer range surveillance systems.
The arrangement of the sensor units in an array fall into two main types:
a) Individually cabled sensor units.
b) Line arrays, with sensor units along one ocean cable.
An array system may contain one or both types.
Individually cables sensor unit installation is generally straightforward with the method used
determined primarily by the size of the sensor unit, accuracy of laying, and winches and
handling gear available.
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The method for installation of line arrays is determined by the form of the array and the water
depth. The primary factors are the length of the array relative to the water depth and the
strength of the ocean cable in the array ( stub cable ) and the section adjacent to the array (
array cable ). The requirements on the vessel(s) carrying out the installation are generally
more stringent than for individually cabled sensor units.
Vessels used for the installation can be a cable ship and support vessels such as offshore work
boats and ocean going tugs, or a specially fitted out vessel or vessels. The latter become
necessary when the arrays are large and/or require special handling equipment, or the array
cable requires special handling. Chapters 2 and 3, Volume 3 of the Handbook cover cable ships
and their equipment.
Surface navigation is normally done using GPS or eLoran navigation systems. If the array site
is close to the shore then Differential GPS or a wide area system, if available, can be used. It
Differential GPS is suitable but not available, it may be necessary to install a base station for
the system installation.
For tight tolerances on the laying of the sensor units, it will be necessary to consider using an
underwater acoustic navigation system in conjunction with the surface navigation system. The
alternative is to lay a sensor unit, then determine its position, and if not correct pick up the
sensor unit and move it to correct the position, determine its position again and repeat the
procedure until the sensor unit is in the correct position. This requires very good conditions
and may not be suitable for all types of sensor units. In some cases even with an acoustic
navigation system, this may still be necessary to get the sensor units positioned correctly.
3.3.3 Sensor Unit First, Single Ship, Individually Cabled Sensor Unit.
3.3.3.1 Application.
This method is suitable for smaller sensor units and allows, given suitable
navigation/positioning systems, a high accuracy in placing the sensor unit on the sea floor. It
requires the sensor unit to have a pivoted arm to transfer the ocean cable from the lowering
position above the sensor unit to a position where it will lie on the sea floor when the unit has
bottomed. A typical sensor unit of this type is shown in figure 3.3.3.1(a). The installation is
shown being done from a bow working cable ship.
Prior to installing a sensor unit, normal practice is to lay the section of ocean cable out from
the shore station and buoy its end. If the sensor unit is in deep water, the complete shore end
is laid, if the sensor unit is in shallower water ( e.g. on the continental shelf ) the ocean cable
can be laid out to some intermediate point.
3.3.3.3 Ship Positioning and Control.
To obtain the necessary accuracy in positioning and controlling the cable ship, it is necessary
that she be fitted with thrusters in addition to the main propulsion.
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Ocean cable
Sensor
Pivoted arm
deployment
Tower position
Base
Pivoted arm
laid position
Fig. 3.3.3.1(a) Typical sensor unit, for single ship

deployment.
Page 90
3.3.3.4 Procedure.
Stage 1 Figures 3.3.3.4(a) and 3.3.3.4(b).
On arriving at the array site the cable ship positions her bow sheaves over the sensor datum.
The ocean cable is made up on one cable engine drum, and attached to the sensor unit and
tested. The sensor unit is lifted outboard and lowered into the water and the weight of the unit
is then transferred to the ocean cable ready for lowering. The actual procedure depends on
how the sensor unit was transported.
For small sensor units and where the array site is relatively close to the shore facility being
used to support the installation, the sensor unit can be carried under the bow gantry, as
shown in figure 3.3.3.4(a). This may require some modifications to the bow gantry to
accommodate the sensor unit and to provide for securing it during transit. The sensor unit is
lifted into the water using the gantry hoist.
For larger sensor units or where the cable ship has sufficient capacity to lay several sensor
units on each trip to the array site, the sensor units can be carried on deck. This is also more
suitable if the array site is remote from the shore facility. The ocean cable is then taken out
through the bow sheaves and down the side of the ship to the sensor unit where it is attached.
The sensor unit is lifted outboard and into the water by a crane with the ocean cable being
allowed to hang free. When ready, the sensor unit is slipped from the crane to transfer its
weight to the ocean cables as shown in figure 3.3.3.4(b).
Sensor unit
transit supports
Ocean cable
Sensor unit
Fig. 3.3.3.4(a)
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Page 92
Blank page.
Stowage
area
Crane
Slip line
Ocean cable
Sensor unit
Fig. 3.3.3.4(b).
Page 93
Page 94
Stage 2 Figure 3.3.3.4(c).
Keeping the cable ship's bow sheaves over the sensor datum, the sensor unit is slowly lowered
until it is approximately 50 to 100 feet - 15 to 30 meters above the bottom, depending on the
water depth and the slope of the bottom.
If an underwater acoustic navigation system can be used with the sensor, the cable ship
interrogates the acoustic transponders and using the replies received at the ship and the
sensor, determines the sensor position. If necessary, the cable ship moves the bring the sensor
unit above the datum, allowing sufficient time for the sensor unit to move given the lag
between ship movement and movement of cable and sensor unit, between each position fix.
Once the sensor unit is above the datum, it is lowered onto the bottom. Care must be taken to
ensure that cable payout continues until there is sufficient excess ocean cable out to prevent
the sensor unit being lifted off the bottom by movement of the cable ship in the seaway.
If an underwater acoustic navigation system is not available or cannot be used, then the cable
ship checks its positions and then makes any adjustment needed to allow for current effects on
the sensor unit and supporting ocean cable to place the sensor unit over the datum, and after
allowing for the lag between ship and sensor unit movement, lowers it onto the bottom in the
same manner described previously. It may be necessary to carry out a current profile before
the lay so that the effects of the current(s) on the sensor unit and ocean cable can be
determined.
Ocean cable
Acoustic
transponder Sensor unit
Fig. 3.3.3.4(c).
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Page 96
Stage 3 Figure 3.3.3.4(d),
Once the sensor unit is on the bottom, the cable ship backs down the cable route paying out
cable until she is some distance away, typically at least one water depth from the sensor
datum, where she stops. Great care must be taken in doing this, not to pull the sensor unit out
of position as the laying of the ocean cable begins. Functional testing is carried out on the
sensor unit, either by the cable ship alone, or in conjunction with a support vessel. If
successful the cable ship turns around and lays the ocean cable down the cable route to the
buoyed shore end. ( If testing is not successful, then the sensor unit is recovered. )
The cable buoy and cable end are recovered, the two cable ends are spliced together, the shore
station carries out tests on the ocean cable and sensor unit, and then the bight containing the
splice is laid on the sea floor to complete the sensor unit installation. ( If the testing is not
successful then the cable ship carries out the necessary cable repairs or recovers the sensor
unit as is determined from the testing. )
Ocean cable
Pivoted arm
in laid
position Sensor unit
Fig. 3.3.3.4(d).
Page 97
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Blank page.
Page 99
3.3.4 Sensor Unit First, Two Ships, Individually Cabled Sensor Unit.
This method is suitable for larger sensor units, such as short baseline arrays, and allows,
given suitable navigation/positioning systems, a high accuracy in placing the sensor unit on
the sea floor. It requires the sensor unit to have a suitable lifting point to take the lowering
line and release, and the ocean cable to be terminated such that it will not fall under the feet
of the unit as it bottoms. A typical sensor unit of this type is shown in figure 3.3.4.1(a). The
installation is shown being done by a bow working cable ship and offshore work boat.
Prior to installing a sensor unit, normal practice is to lay the section of ocean cable out from
the shore stat,ion and buoy its end. If the sensor unit is in deep water, the complete shore end
is laid, if the sensor unit is in shallower water ( e.g. on the continental shelf ) the ocean cable
is laid out to some intermediate point.
To obtain the necessary accuracy in positioning and controlling the cable ship as she works
around the support vessel, it is necessary that she be fitted with thrusters in addition to the
main propulsion.
As the sensor unit is lowered to the sea floor by the support vessel ( normally an offshore
work boat or ocean going tug ) it is necessary that this vessel be able to maintain position over
the sensor datum and make adjustments in her position to bring the sensor unit onto datum. If
she is fitted with thrusters in addition to the main propulsion and has a navigation system
compatible with that being used for the installation, no additional equipment should be
required.
If not, then the support vessel can be moored above the datum on a three point moor, such as
shown in figure 3.3.4.3(a). Winches are required for the span wires to allow fine control of the
vessel's position to compensate for wind and current and adjustment of the sensor unit
position during the installation. The stern of the support vessel should face down the cable
track from the sensor datum.
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Sensor
(one of five)
50 ft - 15m
typ. Lift
eye
Ocean
cable
Fig. 3.3.4.1(a) Typical sensor unit, for two

ship deployment.
Mooring winches
Stern mooring (2) (3) Bow mooring (1)
Buoy
Riser wire
Span wire
Stern roller
directly above
array datum
Catenary leg
Anchor
Fig. 3.3.4.3(a) Support vessel moor.

Page 101
Page 102
3.3.4.4 Procedure.
Stage 1 Figure 3.3.4.4(a).
On arriving at the array site the support vessel ( work boat ) positions her stern over the
array datum, either using thrusters and main propulsion or by laying a mooring. Once in
position, the array is readied for lifting outboard by the crane and the lowering line is
attached to the array by the release and the acoustic beacon is made up on the lowering line
and tested.
The cable ship then positions herself off the stern of the work boat, along the direction of the
cable route. A line is passed between the cable ship and the work boat and the end of the ocean
cable is paid out over the bow sheaves across to the work boat using this line connected to a
stopper on the ocean cable.
When the cable end is onboard the work boat, the ocean cable is made fast using the stopper,
and the end is connected to the array, electrically and mechanically. Care must be taken to
keep the tension on the ocean cable between the ships as low as is possible by maneuvering the
cable ship and by picking up or paying out cable as is required. On completion of the
connection of the ocean cable to the array, electrical testing is carried out.
Stopper securing Array on deck
ocean cable
Ocean cable
Fig. 3.3.4.4(a).
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Page 104
Stage 2 Figure 3.3.4.4(b).
The stopper on the ocean cable is freed from the work boat and the ocean cable is allowed to
hang free between the ships. The array is lifted and swung outboard over the stern in
conjunction with the freeing of the ocean cable. When the handling lines are released, the
array is lowered into the water until it is about 20 feet - 6 meters below the keel of the work
boat. Acoustic testing of the array is now carried out ( or equivalent if a non-acoustic array ).
On successful testing, the weight of the array is transferred to the lowering line and the crane
hook is slipped.
Crane supporting
array over stern
Lowering line
Array Acoustic beacon
Release
Ocean cable
Fig. 3.3.4.4(b).
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Page 106
The array is lowered slowly by the work boat using the lowering line and the cable ship pays
out cable as required.
When the array is approximately 50 to 100 feet - 15 to 30 meters above the bottom, lowering
is halted and the position of the array checked using the acoustic beacon and the underwater
transponders. If necessary the work boat and the cable ship maneuver to bring the array over
the datum, allowing sufficient time for the array to move in relation to the ships between each
maneuver.
When the array is over the datum, it is slowly lowered onto the bottom. When the array
touches down, the release is activated and the lowering line recovered. The release of the
lowering line requires care as the motion of the work boat can cause the array to be bounced
up and down on the bottom. If the array will sink in an upright position, it may be practical to
release the array just above the bottom to alleviate the problem. The monitoring of a
hydrophone on the array can aid control of the bottoming as motion of the array on the bottom
can be heard, particularly if it is being bounced or the release snags in the structure after
release.
Acoustic navigation
system transponder
Lowering line
Ocean cable
Array
Acoustic beacon
Acoustic
Release
transponder net
Fig. 3.3.4.4(c).
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Page 108
Stage 4 Figure 3.3.4.4(d).
Once the array is on the bottom, the cable ship backs down the cable route paying out cable
until she is some distance away, typically at least one water depth from the array datum,
where she stops. Great care must be taken in doing this, not to pull the sensor unit out of
position as the laying of the ocean cable begins. Functional testing is carried out, and if
successful, the cable ship turns around and lays the ocean cable down the cable route to the
buoyed shore end. ( If the testing is not successful, the array is recovered using a ROV. It is
not possible to leave the lowering line in place as it is likely to foul the array. )
The cable buoy and cable end are recovered, the two cable ends spliced together, the shore
station carries out tests on the ocean cable and the array, and then the bight containing the
splice is laid on the sea floor to complete the array installation. ( If the testing is not
successful then the cable ship carries out the necessary cable repairs or the array is
recovered, as is determined from the testing. )
Lowering line
being recovered
Ocean cable being

laid along cable route
Array on bottom
Fig. 3.3.4.4(d).
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Page 110
3.3.5 Sensor Unit Last, Individually Cabled Sensor Unit.
This method is suitable for most sensor units and is simpler than the sensor unit first
methods in most cases. The main disadvantage is that the slack must be controlled very
carefully during the laying of the ocean cable out from the shore and it is not possible to
achieve the same degree of accuracy of sensor unit placement on the sea floor. It requires the
sensor unit to have a suitable lifting point to take the lowering line and release, and the ocean
cable to be terminated such that it will not fall under the feet of the unit as it bottoms,
To obtain the necessary accuracy in positioning and controlling the cable ship ( or other
laying vessel ) it is necessary that she be fitted with thrusters in addition to the main
propulsion.
3.3.5.3 Transportation of Sensor Unit.
To allow working the sensor unit into the water in the most effective manners the best location
for transporting the sensor unit during the laying of the trunk ocean cable and then being able
to lift it into the water with the minimum risk, is on the bow of the cable ship above the bow
sheaves. For smaller sensor units this can be done in the manner shown in figure 3.3.3.4(a).
Large sensor units will require the removal of the bow gantry and its replacement with a
suitable lifting system, and supports, such as an A frame, for transporting and then lifting
the sensor unit outboard and into the water. The support must be such that it allows work to
be done around the bow sheaves during laying of the trunk and rigging for the lowering of the
sensor unit.
An alternative arrangement is to use a specially modified vessel for laying the ocean cable and
the sensor units, such as the modified offshore work boat shown in figure 3.3.5.3(a) that was
used for installation of short baseline arrays in the range off St. Croix. This allow easier
working of the sensor unit but lacks the flexibility of a cable ship and its systems for laying
the trunk ocean cable. It is not practical if the length of the trunk is significant and/or
requires the use of heavy armor.
3.3.5.4 Procedure.
The installation begins with landing the cable end at the shore station. The cable ship the lays
the ocean cable ( with repeaters if used ) down the cable route until she is at a point one water
depth distance short of the sensor datum. At this point the ocean cable should be almost all
laid except for the slack in the distance to the datum. It will be necessary to take the ocean
cable off the cable engine drum while holding the load on a side rope on the other cable engine
just prior to reaching this point, attaching the cable end to the sensor and carrying out
testing.
The sensor unit is lifted outboard into the water and its weight is taken by a lowering line
fitted with a release. This line is made up on the cable engine used for laying the ocean cable.
The ocean cable is now slipped from side rope to hang free under the sensor unit.
The cable ship then moves slowly towards the sensor datum lowering the sensor unit as shown
in figure 3.3.5.4(a). If done correctly, the sensor unit will touch bottom as the cable ship
reaches the datum on the surface and the ocean cable will lie along the bottom with the correct
slack. When the sensor unit touches down, the release is activated and the lowering line
recovered. The release of the lowering line requires care as the motion of the cable ship can
Cable laying rig
Traction wheels
TV cable for planting array
Array ocean cable
Spare drum
Working Trolley drum
whip drum
Array ocean cable
Working
whip
TV camera
Side thruster
Side thruster
drive (4 places)
(4 places)
Short baseline array
Fig. 3.3.5.3(a) Alternative installation system.

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cause the unit to be bounced up and down on the bottom. If the sensor unit includes a
hydrophone, it can be monitored to aid control in bottoming as the motion of the sensor unit on
the bottom can be heard, particularly if it is being bounced or the release snags in the
structure after release. Alternatively, an expendable pinger can be mounted on the array to
determine the height off the bottom, and if the array is of suitable design, the array can be
dropped onto the bottom from a height slightly greater than the movement due to the effect of
the waves and swell on the laying ship.
Adjustments to the movement of the cable ship during the laying of the sensor unit may be
required to compensate for current effects so that the sensor unit will bottom as close to the
datum as possible.
The method described above is for a flat or nearly flat bottom over the last section of the cable
route at the datum. For a sloping bottom the starting point and trajectory of the laying of the
sensor unit will have to be modified. If possible, in order to keep the operation as simple as
possible, the last section of the cable route into the datum should be along a horizontal
contour on the bottom even if this requires a slightly longer route length.
h
Lowering
line
Sensor
platform
trajectory h
Ocean
cable
Datum
Fig. 3.3.5.4(a).
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3.3.6 Short Strong Line Arrays.
This method is suitable for line arrays where the array length is less than the water depth and
the strength of the ocean cable in the array ( stub cable ) and the section adjacent to the array
( array cable ) is sufficient to allow straightening of the array by tensioning after it has been
laid. Line arrays of this type have inline sensor units and must be able to pass through the
cable machinery under tension. The installation is shown being done from a bow working cable
ship, though specially equipped vessels may also be used.
Prior to installing the array, normal practice is to lay the section of the ocean cable out from
the shore station and buoy its end. If the array is in deep water, the complete shore end is
laid, if the array is in shallower water ( e.g., on the continental shelf ) the ocean cable is laid
out to some intermediate point.
3.3.6.3 Ship Equipment, Positioning and Control.
To provide the handling ability for strong line arrays under the installation tensions
typically encountered, the cable ship must have drum type cable machinery with a pull of up
to 100000 lbf - 45000 Kgf ( preferred ), and not less than 60000 lbf - 27000 Kgf. To obtain
the necessary accuracy in positioning and controlling the cable ship, it is necessary that she
be fitted with thrusters in addition to the main propulsion. During the laying and tensioning
of the array, it may be necessary to use tugs to aid the cable ship even with the thrusters,
particularly if the tensions are high.
3.3.6.4 General Configuration of Array.
The general configuration of a short strong line array is shown in figure 3.3.6.4(a). It should
be noted that because the array is likely to rotate under the high laying tensions, sensor units
are normally inline with no external components that could become twisted around the sensor
units or stub cable. The anchor is used to provide the initial positioning for the array and to
resist the laying tensions. The latter is aided by the clump. Depending on the weight of the
array, its strength and the bottom material, the size of the Danforth or Lightweight anchor and
the clump typically varies from 1000 lb to 5000 lb - 450 to 2250 Kg. The chain assembly is
connected to the outer end of the array by a suitable grapnel rope with a length of 1-1/2
times the water depth. An acoustic beacon is normally mounted at or near the bottom end of
the grapnel rope for use in positioning the anchor. Swivels allow the anchor, clump and
grapnel rope to rotate freely under lowering, bottoming and tension loads.
The ocean cable forming the stub cable and the array cable are normally of the same strength
which it typically between 60000 lbf- 27000 Kgf and 100000 lbf - 45000 Kgf, depending on
the form, and weight of the array and the maximum depth the array is intended to be laid in.
The strength of the stub and array cables and the length of the array cable are determined
from calculations of the shape and tension of the array as it is laid and tensioned to straighten
it.
The lengths of the chain shown in the figure 3.3.6.4(a) vary to suit the array but a value for x
of 100 feet - 30 meters would be typical. The clump can be added to improve the holding power
of the anchor, particularly if the tension used to straighten the array is high. For deeper
waters, the use of an acoustic beacon and transponder net, to get the anchor on its datum is
probably essential.
Acoustic
Clump beacon
Anchor (opt) (opt) Swivel
Swivel
Stud link
x
chain
2x x
Grapnel rope End unit
Sensor unit Stub cable
Array cable Junction Trunk cable
Fig. 3.3.6.4(a) Typical configuration of a short strong line array.

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3.3.6.5 Procedure.
Prior to reaching the anchor datum, the grapnel rope for the anchor is made up on one cable
engine drum and its inboard end attached to the array stub cable and its outboard end to the
anchor chain assembly. The anchor is held over the bow sheaves by a side rope. The clump and
acoustic beacon are on the foredeck just inboard of the bow sheaves.
On reaching the anchor datum, the weight of the anchor is taken by the grapnel rope and the
side rope disconnected. The anchor is lowered until the point where the clump is to be
shackled in reaches a position just inboard of the bow sheaves. The pendant from the clump is
shackled into the chain assembly and the clump lifted outboard and into the water using the
bow gantry hoist, where it is slipped. Payout of the grapnel rope continues until the point at
which the acoustic beacon is to be attached is just outboard of the bow sheaves. The beacon is
attached using a bosun's chair.
The anchor is lowered until it is about 100 feet - 30 meters above the bottom. Using the
acoustic beacon and the acoustic underwater navigation system, the ship is maneuvered until
the anchor is above the datum, allowing time for the anchor to complete its movement after the
movement of the ship. The anchor is then lowered onto the bottom and the cable ship backs
down the array line of bearing paying out grapnel rope. At a suitable distance from the anchor
datum the cable ship stops and while holding position. increases tension in the grapnel rope
until the clump lifts off the bottom to allow the anchor to set. The tension is reduced slowly to
allow the clump to re-bottom. If during the setting of the anchor it moves sufficiently so that
the array will not be in the laying box, it will be necessary to recover and relay the anchor at
a modified datum to compensate for the dragging during the setting.
If the anchor and clump are heavy and the currents small, it may be possible to lay the anchor
without the use of an acoustic beacon. However the accuracy that can be obtained by this
alternative method must be carefully evaluated in relation to the accuracy requirement for the
array position. It is normally only practical on relatively flat bottoms or gently sloping
bottoms.
Grapnel
rope
Acoustic
beacon
Clump
Acoustic
transponder Anchor
net
Fig. 3.3.6.5(a).
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Page 118
Once the anchor is set, the cable ship backs slowly down the array line of bearing paying out
the remaining part of the grapnel rope followed by the stub cable ( array ), and then the array
cable until the array is on the bottom. A small amount of slack can be included in the laying,
less than 1%, but zero slack is optimal.
The cable ship then moves until she is over the array line of bearing and the correct distance
from the anchor datum for tensioning, if necessary paying out additional array cable.
Array
cable
Grapnel Anchor
Stub
rope
cable
Fig. 3.3.6.5(b).
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Stage 3 Figure 3.3.6.5(c ).
Using her main propulsion and thrusters to maintain position ( and tugs if necessary ), the
cable ship very slowly picks up the array cable until the tension in the cable is sufficient for
the stub cable ( array ) to be lifted off the bottom and the grapnel rope to the anchor to pull
straight. The tension is then slowly reduced by paying out the array cable until the stub cable
is once again on the bottom. For arrays with acoustic sensors the movement of the sensor units
and the stub cable along the bottom and when they lift off the bottom can be heard which
allows the monitoring of the straightening operation.
A support vessel fitted with a suitable navigation system and transducers ( e.g. acoustic
sources ) then carries out a series of runs or stations to allow the array position to be
determined using analysis equipment onboard the cable ship. If the array is not in the correct
position, the cable ship moves to one side of the array line of bearing to compensate for the
effects due to currents, etc. and repeats the tensioning and straightening operations until the
array is in the correct position. When the array is in the correct position, the cable ship pays
out the rest of the array cable while backing down the array line of bearing, then turns around
and begins to lay the trunk cable to the buoyed shore end.
When the buoyed shore end is reached, the cable buoy and cable end are recovered, the cable
ends spliced together, the shore station carries out tests on the ocean cable and the array, and
then the bight containing the splice is laid on the sea floor to complete the installation. ( If
testing is not successful then the cable ship carries out the required repairs. )
Array cable
tensioned
Stub cable
lifted off
bottom
Grapnel Anchor
rope
Fig. 3.3.6.5(c).
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3.3.7 Weak and Long Line Arrays.
This method is suitable for line arrays where the array length is greater than the water depth
or the strength of the ocean cable in the array ( stub cable ) and in the section adjacent to the
array ( array cable ) is insufficient to allow straightening of the array by applying tension
after it has been laid. Line arrays of this type must have sensor units able to pass through the
cable machinery under laying tensions ( If buoyed sensors are used, then they can be attached
to the sensor units inboard of the bow sheaves ). The installation is shown being done from a
bow working cable ship, though specially equipped vessels may also be used.
the shore station and buoy its end. If the array is in deep water, the complete shore end is
laid, if the array is in shallower water ( e.g. on the continental shelf ) the ocean cable is laid
3.3.7.3 Ship Equipment, Positioning and Control.
To provide the handling ability for the array to be laid under tension, the cable ship must
have drum type cable engines able to handle in-line units ( self fleeting preferred ), or a
linear cable engine ( the tracked type is the most suitable as the multi-tired type have
difficulty in handling non-concentric shaped units ). Maximum pull for the cable engines
depends on the weight of the ocean cable and sensor units, the water depth and tensions that
will occur in the laying. Cable machinery must be fitted with an integrated control system
with the navigation system directly inputting laying parameters into it, as the requirements
for slack are the most stringent in cable laying. This implies that the navigation system must
have the highest accuracy possible and be redundant. Further, to obtain the necessary
accuracy in positioning and controlling the cable ship, it is essential that she be fitted with
thrusters in addition to the main propulsion, preferably with thruster and main propulsion
controls being integrated.
3.3.7.4 General Configuration of Array.
The general configuration of the array can take two forms, a weak array which can vary in
length from less than the water depth to many times the water depths and has a configuration
such as shown in figure 3.3.7.4(a). The alternative is a strong array which is longer than the
water depth, though it will still have the general configuration as shown in figure 3.3.6.4(a).
Both forms have the characteristic that they cannot be straightened after laying by tensioning
and lifting off the bottom, weak arrays do not have the strength, and long weak or strong
arrays would require a length to be lifted that would be impractical.
Array rotation can be made essentially zero under laying tensions, allowing the use of moored
sensors supported by floats to keep them off the bottom ( as for the BSURE array off Hawaii).
The anchor is used to provide an initial positioning for the array and to resist the laying
tensions. The latter is aided by the clump. Depending on the weight of the array, its strength
and the bottom material, the size of the Danforth or Lightweight anchor and the clump
typically varies from 500 lb to 2000 lb. The chain assembly is connected to the outer end of
the array by a suitable grapnel rope with a length of 1-1/2 times the water depth. An acoustic
beacon is normally mounted at or near the bottom end of the grapnel rope. Swivels allow the
anchor and clump, and the grapnel rope to rotate freely under laying, bottoming and lowering
tensions.
Clump Acoustic
(opt) beacon Swivel
Swivel
Anchor
x
2x x
Grapnel rope End unit
Sensor unit Stub cable
Array cable Junction Trunk cable
Fig. 3.3.7.4(a) Typical arrangement of weak and long line arrays.

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The ocean cable forming the stub cable and array cable are often the same as the trunk cable
and for deep water with an armorless ocean cable have a strength of order 16000 lbf - 7270
Kgf, for caged armor 10000 lbf - 4545 Kgf and for external deep sea armor ( D or H ) of about
20000 to 30000 lbf - 9090 to 13640 Kgf. In shallower waters the strength may be much higher
as heavier armor ( A or B ) is required for wear and protection.
3.3.7.5 Procedure.
Prior to reaching the anchor datum, the grapnel rope for the anchor is made up on one cable
engine drum and its inboard end attached to the array stub cable and its outboard end to the
anchor chain assembly. The anchor, clump and acoustic beacon are on the foredeck just
inboard of the bow sheaves.
On reaching the anchor datum the anchor is lifted outboard of the bow sheaves using the
gantry hoist and its weight taken by the grapnel rope. The anchor is lowered until the point
where the clump is to be shackled in reaches a position just inboard of the bow sheaves. The
pendant from the clump is shackled into the chain assembly and the clump lifted outboard
using the gantry hoist and slipped. Payout of the grapnel rope continues until the point where
the acoustic beacon is to be attached is just outboard of the bow sheaves. The beacon is
attached using a bosun' s chair.
The anchor is then lowered until it is about 100 feet - 30 meters above the bottom. Using the
acoustic beacon and the acoustic underwater navigation systems the cable ship is maneuvered
until the anchor is above the anchor datum, allowing time for the anchor to complete its
movement after the movement of the cable ship. Any offset from the array line of bearing is
noted. The anchor is lowered onto the bottom and the cable ship backs down the array line of
bearing paying out the grapnel rope. At a suitable distance from the anchor datum,, the cable
ship stops and while holding position, increases tension in the grapnel rope until the clump
lifts off the bottom and allows the anchor to set. The tension is then reduced slowly to allow
the clump to re-bottom. If during the setting of the anchor it moves sufficiently so that the
array will not be in the laying box, it will be necessary to recover and relay the anchor at a
modified datum to compensate for the dragging during the setting.
Because of the light rig it is not practical to lay the anchor accurately without an acoustic
beacon except in shallow water.
Acoustic
beacon
Acoustic Clump
Anchor
transponder
net
Fig. 3.3.7.5(a).
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Stage 2 Figures 3.3.7.5(b) and 3.3.7.5(c).
Once the anchor is set, the cable ship backs slowly down the array line of bearing or on a
parallel course to allow for any offset required to compensate for currents, paying out the
remainder of the grapnel rope, followed by the array stub cable and sensor units. Control of
the cable payout and the cable ship's position must be precise to ensure that the stub cable
will lie along the contour of the bottom ( zero excess slack ) with the sensor units at the
required spacing.
If the array is short, or with closely spaced sensors, the after the stub cable is on the bottom
the cable ship continues down the course before stopping and paying out array cable to bring
the cable to near vertical to reduce the possibility of moving the array to a minimum. A
support vessel fitted with a suitable navigation system and transducers ( e.g. acoustic sources
) then carries out a series of runs or stations to allow the position of the array to be
determined by the analysis equipment on the cable ship. If the array is in the correct
position, the cable ship continues laying the rest of the array cable followed by the trunk
cable, turning around at a suitable point down the course to continue the lay to the buoyed
shore end. If the array is not in the correct position, it is picked up, the laying course
corrected to bring the array into the correct position and then relayed and its position
determined again. This is repeated until the array is in the correct position ( More than one
relay would indicate problems with the laying method or calculations and would probably
cause wear on the stub and array cables and the sensor units ).
For a long array where the sensor units are widely spaced ( greater than about 1-1/2 water
depths ), then as each sensor unit is laid its position is determined and corrected if,
necessary before continuing with the lay. In this case the allowable error for the sensors along
the array line of bearing must increase with increasing distance from the anchor to
compensate for cumulative errors.
In determining the installation procedure details, account must be taken of the array
configuration. If all the sensor units are inline then the array can be laid with zero bottom
tension ( straight line configuration ) and the cable ship can stand to the cable with the cable
vertical. For an array where there are sensor units with a buoyed sensor ( or similar ) then it
will be necessary to maintain some bottom tension ( catenary configuration both during laying
and when standing to, to prevent the possible entanglement of the buoyed sensor with the stub
cable. However once the stub cable is on the bottom, the cable ship can stand to with the cable
vertical ( array or trunk cables ).
To complete the installation, when the buoyed shore end is reached, the cable buoy and the
cable end are recovered, the cable ends spliced together, the shore station carries out tests on
the ocean cable and the array, and then the bight containing the splice is laid on the sea floor.
( If testing is not successful then the cable ship carries out the required repairs )
Sensor
unit
Stub
cable
Fig. 3.3.7.5(b).
Page 127
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Blank page.
Sensor unit
with buoyed
sensor
Stub
cable
Fig. 3.3.7.5(c).
Page 129
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Blank page.
Page 131
3.4 Taut Sub-Surface Moored Array Installation.
3.4.1 General.
Taut sub-surface moored arrays are normally installed in water depths where the top
components will not be affected by sea and swell, which implies offshore areas. The arrays are
laid by vessels working on the surface though divers may be used to remove laying ropes, etc.
from the top components. The ocean cable run to the shore can be from tens of n. miles to a few
hundred n. miles and often contain repeaters. Very long cable runs are unusual. The
definition includes water column property monitoring arrays, special calibration ranges and
many research arrays.
Vessels used for the installation can vary from offshore work boats to special lighters, though
a cable ship is very suitable for much of the installation work and for laying the ocean cable
to the shore.
It should be noted that taut sub-surface moorings tend to have relatively short times between
failures due to wear and the need to refurbish sensor units regularly. This requires that the
installation method should be reversible to allow recovery, or include the laying of
components that can be used in the recovery.
Navigation systems for the installation of taut subsurface moored arrays are normally of the
same type as used for offshore bottom mounted arrays, though array sensors are often used to
aid positioning and it is common to pick up and move sections of the array until they are in
the correct positions or at the correct depths.
3.4.3 Single Leg Taut Moor, Three Ships.
This method is suitable for single-leg taut moors of all types. The method while relatively
complex has several major advantages:
a) The mooring with its sensor units is not handled under tension.
b) Standard ocean cables can be used right up to the anchor/array junction as the ocean cable
is not subjected to higher tension than during normal cable working and zero rotation is not
required.
c) A recovery line is laid to allow grappling for the mooring if there is a sensor or mooring
failure and the mooring must be refurbished,
d) The laying may be stopped and the mooring recovered at any time if a failure occurs.
e) The position of the anchor may be adjusted to bring it onto datum or to place the anchor at
the correct depth if the datum is found not to be at the correct depth.
The main disadvantage of the method is the need to use and coordinate three ships during the
laying. The installation is shown being done using a bow working cable ship.
Page 132
Prior to installing the mooring, normal practice is to lay the section of the ocean cable out
from the shore station and buoy its end. If the mooring is in deep water, the complete shore
end is laid, if the mooring is in shallower water ( e.g. on the continental shelf ) the ocean cable
To obtain the necessary accuracy in positioning and controlling the cable ship and the work
boat ( or tug ), it is necessary that they be fitted with thrusters in addition to the main
propulsion and use the same navigation system(s).
3.4.3.4 Procedure.
On arriving at the site, the work boat positions her stern over the array anchor datum, with
her bow facing down the direction in which the lowering /recovery line will be laid. The
anchor, transfer line and lowering/ recovery line are prepared for deployment.
The cable ship approaches and holds position a safe distance from the work boat, positioned
down the cable track from the anchor datum, bow towards the work boat. The buoyancy tank is
rigged for lifting outboard and the array is brought out over the bow sheaves and down the
side to the buoyancy tank ready for attachment.
The support vessel approaches the cable ship and passes a line which is then used to pull the
crown line and release across. The release and the array top end are made up onto the
buoyancy tank, which is then lifted outboard into the water and slipped. The support vessel
tows the buoyancy tank around to be ahead of the cable ship. The array is paid out slowly over
the bow sheaves until the fish plate which joins the array cable, the ocean cable, the
lowering/recover line and the anchor is on the foredeck. To support the array as the support
vessel pulls it away from the cable ship, inflatable flotation is attached as it is paid out. The
ocean cable is made up on the drum of a cable engine ready for laying. The support vessel
keeps the array stretched out under light tension.
As the array is deployed, the cable ship begins monitoring the sensors to check for possible
failures.
Anchor
Floats
Array
Buoyancy tank
Crown line
Fig. 3.4.3.4(a).
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Page 134
The transfer line is passed from the work boat to the cable ship via a ship's boat or Zodiac. It
is brought inboard over the bow sheaves and attached to the fish plate.
The fish plate is lifted outboard of the bow sheaves, paying out ocean cable as necessary, with
a suitable float attached. The work boat picks up the transfer line as the cable ship pays out
the ocean cable to transfer the fish plate to the work boat. The support vessel continues to
keep the array stretched out under light tension. This operation requires careful control of
the ships, winches and cable machinery to prevent excessive tension being applied to the
components.
Once the fish plate is onboard the work boat, it is joined to the anchor and lowering/recovery
line and they are prepared for lifting outboard.
A Zodiac is made ready to cut the flotation from the array as the anchor is lowered.
Transfer line
Fishplate Ocean cable
Array
Fig. 3.4.3.4(b).
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Page 136
Stage 3 Figure 3.4.3.4(c)
The cable ship backs down the cable route, paying out ocean cable, until she is about one third
to one half the water depth away from the anchor datum. The fish plate/anchor is lifted
outboard of the work boat and the load transferred to the lowering/recovery line.
The anchor is slowly lowered with the support vessel maintaining tension on the array to keep
it clear of the lowering/recovery line. As the anchor is lowered the cable ship pays out ocean
cable at the same rate, and floats are removed from the array. The distance out of the
lowering/recovery line is monitored and when the anchor is about 100 feet - 30 meters off the
bottom, lowering is stopped and the position of the stern of the work boat checked and
adjusted if necessary. Lowering is recommenced until the anchor bottoms.
If the distance out of the lowering/recovery line exceeds the expected water depth, lowering
must stop as there is a danger of the buoyancy tank collapsing. If there is an apparent current
effect, the amount of excess line needed to bottom the anchor is estimated and the required
offset to bring the anchor on datum determined. The work boat is moved the required offset
and the line paid out to bottom the anchor.
The other causes in addition to currents of the anchor not bottoming at the expected line out
can be a hole or that the work boat is further down the slope than expected ( e.g. due to
currents or inadequate echo sounding equipment used in the survey ). In these cases the
anchor should be lifted and the work boat moved to be further up the slope or away from the
hole and the bottoming of the anchor carried out again. If necessary, more than one such move
may be required.
It should be noted that the time between adjustment of the position of the work boat to correct
the position of the anchor and the corresponding movement of the anchor to this position can
take several minutes depending on the water depth. This delay should be determined in the
laying calculations.
Lowering/recovery
line
Ocean cable
Anchor
Array
Fig. 3.4.3.4(c).
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Page 138
Once the anchor is correctly positioned on the bottom the cable ship carries out final testing
of the array sensors. If failures have occurred then the array is recovered by the reverse
procedure to laying. If operating correctly the work boat moves away paying out the
lowering/recovery line and the support vessel releases the crown line from the buoyancy tank
and recovers it. When the work boat reaches the end of the lowering/recovery line it is
dropped onto the bottom.
The cable ship then proceeds to lay the ocean cable to the buoyed shore end cable. When the
buoyed shore end is reached, the cable buoy and cable end are recovered, the cable ends
spliced together, the shore station carries out tests on the ocean cable and the array, and then
the bight containing the splice is laid on the sea floor to complete the installation. ( If testing
is not successful then the cable ship carries out the required repairs )
Laying/recovery
line
Buoyancy Ocean cable

tank
Array
Released crown line
being recovered
Anchor
Fig. 3.4.3.4(d).
Page 139
Page 140
Blank page.
Page 141
3.4.4 Single-Leg Taut Moor, Two Ships.
This method is suitable for single-leg taut moors of all types. The method has several
advantages:
b) The laying may be stopped and the mooring recovered at any time if a failure occurs.
and several disadvantages:
a) The ocean cable used to lay the anchor must be of a non-rotating design and of sufficient
strength to take laying loads for a length of about 1-1/2 times the water depth back from the
array/anchor junction.
b) The positioning of the anchor is not precise, though it can be adjusted if significantly out.
The method is best suited to a flat bottom, or the buoyancy float must have a good safety factor
on crushing.
c) Recovery of the mooring if a sensor failure occurs is by grappling for the ocean cables,
cutting, buoying the shore side end and then lifting the anchor.
The installation is shown being done from a bow working cable ship.
Prior to installing the moorings normal practice is to lay the section of the ocean cable out
3.4.4.4 Procedure.
On arriving at the site the cable ship positions herself slightly down the cable track from the
anchor datum with the support vessel nearby. The anchor is on the foredeck just inboard of the
bow sheaves and the buoyancy tank is rigged for lifting outboard.
The array is brought out over the bow sheaves and down the side to the buoyancy tank where it
is attached. The support vessel approaches the cable ship and passes a line, which is then
used to pull the crown line and release across. The release is attached to the buoyancy tank
which is lifted outboard into the water and slipped. The support vessel tows the buoyancy
tank around to be ahead of the cable ship. The array is paid out slowly over the bow sheaves
until the fish plate that joins the array cable, the ocean cable and the anchor, is just inboard
of the bow sheaves. To support the array as the support vessel pulls it away from the cable
ship, inflatable flotation is attached as it is paid out.
Page 142
The ocean cable is made up on the drum of a cable engine ready for laying. The support vessel
keeps the array stretched out under light tension. The fish plate is attached to the anchor and
the anchor is lifted outboard using the gantry hoist and the load transferred to the ocean
cable.
As the array is deployed, the cable ship monitors the sensors for possible failure.
Floats Buoyancy
tank
Array Crown
line
Fig. 3.4.4.4(a).
Page 143
Page 144
The anchor is slowly lowered by paying out the ocean cable. The support vessel maintains
sufficient tension to keep the array and the ocean cable apart. When the anchor is about 100
feet - 30 meters above the bottom, payout is stopped and the position of the anchor relative to
the anchor datum determined by the measurement of the cable angle at the bow sheaves and the
position of the cable ship. If the anchor is not above the anchor datum, the cable ship is moved
to correct it. When the anchor position is satisfactory it is lowered onto the bottom.
It should be noted that the time between adjustment of the position of the cable ship to correct
the position of the anchor and the corresponding movement of the anchor can take several
minutes depending on the water depth. The delay should be determined in the laying
calculations.
Crown
line
Buoyancy
Ocean tank
cable
Array
Anchor
Fig. 3.4.4.4(b).
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Page 146
Once the anchor has bottomed, the cable ship backs down the cable route paying out ocean
cable until she is at least one half water depth from the anchor datum. The cable ship then
carries out final testing of the array sensors. If failures have occurred the array is recovered.
If operating correctly the support vessel releases the crown line and recovers it.
spliced together, the shore station carries out tests on the ocean cable and the array, and then
the bight containing the splice is laid on the sea floor to complete the installation. ( If testing
is not successful then the cable ship carries out the required repairs )
Released crown
line being recovered
Buoyancy
Ocean
tank
cable
Array
Anchor
Fig. 3.4.4.4(c).
Page 147
Page 148
Blank page.
Page 149
3.4.5 Single-Leg Taut Moor, Single Ship.
This method is suitable for single-leg taut moors of all types. The method has several
advantages:
b) The laying may be stopped and the mooring recovered at any time if a failure occurs.
c) Only a single ship is required for the installation.
and several disadvantages:
a) The ocean cable used to lay the anchor must be of a non-rotating design and of sufficient
strength to take laying loads for a length of about 1-1/2 times the water depth back from the
array/anchor junction.
b) There is the need to lay and recover a relatively large mooring and buoy.
c) The positioning of the anchor is not precise, with very little room for adjustment of the
position. The method is best suited to a flat bottom, or the buoyancy float must have a good
safety factor on crushing.
d) Recovery of the mooring if a sensor failure occurs is by grappling for the ocean cable,
cutting, buoying the shore side and then lifting the anchor.
The installation is shown being done from a bow working cable ship.
Prior to installing the mooring, normal practice is to lay the section of the ocean cable out
To obtain the necessary accuracy in positioning and controlling the cable ship, it is
recommended that she be fitted with thrusters in addition to the main propulsion particularly
if strong currents can occur at the site.
3.4.5.4 Procedure.
On arriving at the site the cable ship has the array anchor on the foredeck just inboard of the
bow sheaves and a cable buoy ( No 0 or 0-0 ) ready for use. The buoyancy tank is rigged for
lifting outboard. At the calculated distance from the anchor datum, the cable buoy is laid. On
the bottom end of the riding leg is shackled a crown line, with the other end of the crown line
secured inboard of the bow sheaves.
The inboard end of the crown line is taken down the side of the ship to the buoyancy tank
Page 150
where it is made up onto an acoustic release and a float, which in turn are attached to the
buoyancy tank. The array is brought out over the bow sheaves and down the side of the ship to
the buoyancy tank where its top end is attached.
The buoyancy tank is lifted outboard into the water and slipped. The crown line is freed so
that it hangs between the buoyancy tank and the cable buoy. The cable ship then slowly backs
toward the anchor datum to bring the buoyancy tank ahead of the ship. Keeping a light tension
in the crown line, the cable ship continues to back paying out the array until the fish plate
that joins the array cable, the ocean cable and the anchor, is just inboard of the bow sheaves
when she stops. To support the array as it is paid out, inflatable flotation is attached.
The ocean cable is made up on the drum of a cable engine ready for laying. The fish plate is
attached to the anchor and the anchor is lifted outboard using the gantry hoist and the load
transferred to the ocean cable.
As the array is deployed, the cable ship monitors the sensors for possible failures.
Buoyancy
Floats Acoustic release
tank Cable
and float
buoy
Array Crown
line
Mooring
Fig. 3.4.5.4(a).
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Page 152
The array anchor is lowered slowly by paying out the ocean cable. To keep the array cable and
the ocean cable apart, the cable ship may have to back away from the cable buoy. Using the
cable angle at the bow sheaves and laying calculations, the depth of the anchor is estimated.
When the anchor is about 100 feet - 30 meters above the bottom, payout is stopped. The
position of the anchor is estimated relative to the anchor datum, and if necessary the position
of the cable ship is adjusted to bring the anchor over the datum. This may require paying out
or picking up of the ocean cable to keep the anchor above the bottom. When the anchor is over
the datum the ocean cable is paid out to bottom the anchor.
It should be noted that the time between adjustment of the position of the cable ship to correct
the position of the anchor and the corresponding movement of the anchor can take several
minutes depending on the water depth. Adjustment of the anchor depth by paying out or
picking-up ocean cable is normally much quicker. The delays should be determined in the
laying calculations.
Cable
buoy
Buoyancy
Ocean tank Crown
cable line
Array
Anchor
Fig. 3.4.5.4(b).
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Page 154
Once the anchor has bottomed, the cable ship backs down the cable route paying out ocean
cable until she is at least one half water depth from the anchor datum. The cable ship then
carries out final testing of the array sensors. If failures have occurred the array is recovered.
If operating correctly the acoustic release is activated to free the crown line from the
buoyancy tank.
spliced together, and the shore station carries out tests on the ocean cable and the array, and
then the bight containing the splice is laid on the sea floor. ( If testing is not successful then
the cable ship carries out the required repairs ) To complete the installation, the cable ship
returns to the site and recovers the cable buoy and the crown line.
Buoyancy Released
Ocean tank
cable crown
line
Array
Anchor
Fig. 3.4.5.4(c).
Page 155
Page 156
Blank page.
Page 157
3.4.6 Mid-Water Horizontal Line Arrays.
This method is suitable for mid-water horizontal line arrays laid in deeper waters with a flat
bottom. Given suitable navigation/positioning systems and with depth sensors in the array,
the array can be placed with good accuracy and at the required depth. To allow for recovery of
the the array if a sensor or mooring failure occurs, a recovery line is generally included.
Laying in shallower water ( e.g. on the continental shelf ) is not common due to the high risk of
failure from fishing and similar activities, but if a very short term installation is to be done,
the method should be generally suitable. Laying on a bottom with significant slope is not
generally recommended as it is very difficult to place the second anchor and get the array
horizontal even with the legs adjusted in length to account for the slope.
The installation is shown being done using a bow working cable ship.
the shore station and buoy its end. If the array is in deep waters the complete shore end is
laid, if the array is in shallower water ( e.g. on the continental shelf ) the ocean cable is laid
3.4.6.4 Procedure.
On arriving at the site the cable ship takes position over the first anchor datum, stern facing
down the array line of bearing, with the support vessel nearby. The first and second array
anchors are on the foredeck just inboard of the bow sheaves with the array floats stored
nearby.
The support vessel approaches the cable ship and a line is passed between them. This line is
used to pull the end of the recovery line across to the support vessel. The support vessel
moves away from the cable ship as the recovery line is paid out until the inboard end of the
recovery line is just inboard of the bow sheaves, when she stops.
The first leg of the mooring is made up on the drum of a cable engine and its outer end is
joined to the first fish plate which in turn is joined to the recovery line and the first anchor.
The first anchor is lifted outboard by the gantry hoist and the load transferred to the first
leg.
The first anchor is lowered slowly by paying out the first leg. When the array cable which is
connected to the end of the first leg reaches the foredeck, the payout is stopped to attach the
first array float. Payout continues, stopping for each array float attachment, until the first
anchor is about 100 feet - 30 meters above the bottom. The support vessel maintains a light
tension in the recovery line during the lowering of the first anchor to keep the first leg and
the recovery line apart.
Page 158
The position of the first anchor relative to its datum is estimated from the cable angle at the
bow sheaves and the position of the ship. If the anchor is not above the anchor datum, the cable
ship is moved to correct it. When the anchor position is satisfactory, the anchor is lowered to
the bottom.
It should be noted that the time between adjustment of the position of the cable ship and the
corresponding movement of the anchor ( and in later stages the array ) can take several
minutes depending on the water depth. These delays should be determined at the critical
points in the installation in the laying calculations.
Float
First
leg
Recovery
line
First
anchor
Fig. 3.4.6.4(a).
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Page 160
Once the first anchor is on the bottom the cable ship backs slowly down the array line of
bearing paying out the remainder of the array and attaching the array floats until the second
leg reaches the water. Payout is stopped and testing of the array is carried out. If the array is
working properly, the support vessel drops the end of the recovery line to the bottom. If not
working properly the array is recovered.
Care must be taken during this stage not to place too much tension on the array in keeping it
stretched out, otherwise the first anchor may be moved or the mooring damaged.
Array
Floats
First
leg
First Recovery
anchor line
Fig. 3.4.6.4(b).
Page 161
Page 162
Payout of the second leg continues until the fish plate joining the second leg, the ocean cable
and the second array anchor is just inboard of the bow sheaves, when it is stopped. During this
part of the operation the cable ship may have to maneuver to keep the array stretched out.
The second anchor is attached to the fish plate and lifted outboard using the gantry hoist and
the load transferred to the ocean cable. The second anchor is slowly lowered by paying out the
ocean cable until it is about 100 feet - 30 meters above the bottom. The cable ship backs down
the array line of bearing during this operation to keep the ocean cable and the second leg
apart.
Depth sensors in the array are now checked and the calculation of the adjustment in position
of the second anchor to bring the array to the correct depth is carried out. The cable ship
moves along the array line of bearing to bring the second anchor to the required position and
then lowers it to the bottom. If the position is substantially out it may be necessary to pay out
or pickup the ocean cable during the movement of the cable ship to keep the anchor off the
bottom. The array depth is measured after the movement of the array has stopped. If necessary
the second anchor is lifted, moved and bottomed until the array is at the correct depth.
Ocean
Array
cable
Floats
Second
leg
First Recovery
Second First leg line
anchor anchor
Fig. 3.4.6.4(c).
Page 163
Page 164
Once the second anchor is correctly positioned, the cable ship backs down the cable route
paying out ocean cable until she is at least one half water depth from the position of the
second anchor. The cable ship then carries out final testing of the array sensors. If failures
have occurred the array is recovered. If operating correctly the cable ship proceeds to lay the
ocean cable to the buoyed shore end cable.
testing is not successful then the cable ship carries out the required repairs )
Ocean
cable
Array Floats
Second First
leg leg
Second First
anchor anchor
Fig. 3.4.6.4(d).
Page 165
Page 166
Blank page.
Page 167
3.4.7 Goal Post or Linear Chair Array.
This method is suitable for goal post or linear chair arrays laid in deep water where the legs
of the mooring between the anchors and the goal post array base are longer than the water
depth, and the bottom is flat. Given suitable navigation/positioning systems and with depth
sensor(s) in the array, the array can be placed with good accuracy and at the required depth.
To allow for recovery of the array if a sensor or mooring failure occurs, a recovery line is
generally included. Figure 3.4.7.4(d) show's a typical arrangement of this type of array.
Laying on a bottom with significant slope is not recommended as it is difficult to ensure that
the base of the goal post will be horizontal.
The installation is shown being done using a bow working cable ship
the shore station and buoy its end. As the array is a deep water array the complete shore end
would be laid.
that she be fitted with thrusters in addition to the main propulsion. The supporting vessels
should also be similarly fitted, particularly if of the size of offshore work boats or larger.
3.4.7.4 Procedure.
On arriving at the site the cable ship takes position over the first anchor datum, stern facing
down the array line of bearings with the support vessel and work boat nearby. The first and
second array anchors are on the foredeck just inboard of the bow sheaves with the array floats
stored nearby.
The support vessel approaches the cable ship and a line is passed between them. This line is
used to pull the end of the recovery line across to the support vessel. The support vessel
moves away from the cable ship as the recovery line is paid out over the bow sheaves until the
inboard end of the recovery line is just inboard of the bow sheaves, when she stops.
The first leg of the mooring is made up on the drum of a cable engine and its outer end is
attached to the first fish plate which in turn is attached to the recovery line and the first
array anchor. A length of manila rope is made up on the inboard end of the first leg. The first
anchor is lifted outboard by the gantry hoist and the load transferred to the first leg.
The first anchor is lowered slowly by paying out the first leg until the first anchor is about
100 feet - 30 meters above the bottom. The support vessel maintains a light tension in the
recovery line during the lowering of the first anchor to keep the first leg and the recovery line
apart.
The position of the first anchor relative to the datum is estimated from the cable angle at the
bow sheaves and the position of the ship. If the anchor is not above the anchor datum, the cable
Page 168
ship is moved to correct it. When the anchor position is satisfactory, the anchor is lowered to
the bottom.
It should be noted that the time between adjustment of the position of the cable ship and the
corresponding movement of the anchor ( and in later stages the arrays ) can take several
minutes depending on the water depth. These delays should be determined at the critical
points in the installation in the laying calculations.
First
leg
First
anchor
Recovery
line
Fig. 3.4.7.4(a).
Page 169
Page 170
Once the first anchor is on the bottom, the cable ship backs slowly down the array line of
bearing paying out the remainder of the first leg until its inboard end is on the foredeck. The
support vessel drops the end of the recovery line to the bottom, and comes close to the bow of
the cable ship and a crown line is passed to the cable ship.
This crown line is attached to the upper float of the first array by a release. The first array is
attached to the float and then paid out over the bow sheaves as the support vessel moves away
until the bottom of the first array is on the foredeck. The inboard end of the first leg is
attached to the bottom of the first array, as is the lower float. These are then paid out over the
bow sheaves into the water using the middle leg and the manila rope.
The work boat now comes close to the bow of the cable ship and a second crown line is passed
to the cable ship. The second array is now paid out in the same manner as the first array. The
second leg is made up onto the drum of the other cable engine and takes the load. The slack
manila rope is disconnected from the end of the first leg using divers if necessary.
Second
array
Middle leg
Floats
First
array First leg
First anchor
Recovery line
Fig. 3.4.7.4(b).
Page 171
Page 172
The second leg is paid out until the fish plate joining the second leg to the ocean cable and the
second array anchor is just inboard of the bow sheaves, when it is stopped. During this part of
the operation the cable ship may have to maneuver to keep the mooring stretched out.
The second anchor is attached to the fish plate and lifted outboard using the gantry hoist and
the load transferred to the ocean cable. The second anchor is lowered slowly by paying out the
ocean cable, stopping when required, until it is about 100 feet - 30 meters above the bottom.
The cable ship backs down the array line of bearing as the anchor is lowered to keep the
second leg and the ocean cable apart.
As the second anchor is lowered, the two arrays will be pulled under the water. The support
vessel and the work boat must maneuver and pay out their crown lines to prevent excessive
strain being applied to the arrays. During the lowering of the second anchor, the cable ship
monitors the array sensors. If at the point where the upper floats of the arrays have just
submerged all the sensors are operating correctly, the crown lines are released. If not, the
mooring is recovered.
Also during the lowering of the second anchor, after the crown lines have been released, the
depth sensors in each array are checked to ensure that the arrays will not pulled below their
operating depth. If necessary, the cable ship must move towards the first anchor to prevent
this from happening, otherwise the floats may be crushed.
With the anchor just above the bottom, the depth sensors are checked again and the calculation
for the adjustment of the position of the second anchor to bring the arrays to the correct depth
is carried out. The cable ship moves along the array line of bearing to bring the second anchor
to the required position and then lowers it to the bottom. If the position is significantly out it
may be necessary to pay out or pickup the ocean cable to keep the anchor off the bottom. The
depth of the arrays is measured after the movement of the mooring has stopped. If necessary
the second anchor is lifted, moved and bottomed until the arrays are at the correct depth.
Second array Ocean cable
Second
First array leg
Second anchor
First
leg
First anchor
Recovery line
Fig. 3.4.7.4(c).
Page 173
Page 174
Stage 4 Figure 3.4.7.4(d) .
Once the second anchor is correctly positioned, the cable ship backs down the cable route
paying out ocean cable until she is at least one half water depth from the position of the
second anchor. The cable ship then carries out final testing of the array sensors. If failures
have occurred the array is recovered. If operating correctly the cable ship proceeds to lay the
ocean cable to the buoyed shore end cable.
testing is not successful then the cable ship carries out the required repairs. )
Ocean cable
Float Second
Float array
Second
First leg
array
Second anchor
Middle
First leg
leg
First anchor
Recovery line
Fig. 3.4.7.4(d).
Page 175
Page 176
3.5 Array Laying Calculations.
Array laying calculations can vary from the relatively simple, such as current effects on a
sensor unit first, single ship, individually cabled sensor unit installation, to a complex
interaction of currents and forces, such as on a sensor unit first, two ships, individually
cabled sensor unit installation as shown in figure 3.5(a).
In most cases it will be necessary to develop a method for the laying calculations to suit the
installation being done. Two basic methods are used, quasi-static methods in which it is
assumed that movement is slow enough to allow a series of static solutions to be used to
describe the installation, and dynamic methods where movement is considered to be
sufficiently fast as to effect the solution. In many cases the quasi-static methods are adequate
to calculate the major forces and position of components during the installation, and
simplified dynamic models can be used to determine effects such as the time delay between
the movement of the ship and the movement of an anchor or sensor unit suspended below her
on a rope or cable.
Quasi-static methods can be derived from the following:
a) Calculations for straight line laying and slack are given in Chapter 2 and 3, Volume 2 of the
Handbook.
b) Catenary calculations given in Section 4.5 and Annex F, Volume 2 of the Handbook.
c) Iterative methods using similar methods as for static analysis of moorings and towed
systems, though modifications are required to allow solution of array configurations.
Typically these include selection of a suitable point for commencement of the iterations along
the array installation components, and the need to repeat the iterations with adjusted starting
conditions to match the boundary conditions.
Dynamic methods are relatively complex and generally have some limitations. Typical of the
solution methods for two dimensions is the computer program SNAPLD ( US Navy Civil
Engineering Laboratory, Port Hueneme, CA ). Three dimensional solutions are available from
some commercial vendors. In many cases they can handle a range of installations.
d
dSP
Lowering
line
Ocean
cable
hSP
h
Sensor
platform
TL
TOC
WSP
Fig. 3.5(a) Example of parameters involved in array laying calculations.

Page 177
Page 178
Annexes
Page A1
A. Characteristics of Rock and Coral.
A1 General.
The knowledge of rocks and coral needed by the construction engineer who is primarily interested
in drilling and blasting, is very elementary. The "drill and shoot" man wants to know how the
rock drills and how it breaks when blasted. How it drills will help to tell him the number of feet
of hole he can expect per drill per shift. How it shoots will tell him which explosive to use to
obtain a particular type of breakage. The engineer does, however, require some simple
nomenclature to define terms, so that others can tell from his descriptions the type of rock he is
discussing.
The ability to cut of rocks is in many ways similar to the ability to drill, and the comments for
drilling will apply largely to cutting.
There is a natural tendency to pick up a variety of rock names in ones travels. These names are
frequently either technical or local, and their use may make it difficult for others to understand.
Therefore, the following simplified classification is presented to provide a common terminology
that is relatively easy to learn and widely understood. This classification system will also
provide necessary information to drilling and cutting.
A.2 Characteristics of Rock
2.4.3.5.2.6.2.1 Overview.
The drilling and blasting characteristics of rock are determined by four factors: hardness,
toughness, density, and structure. These are determined by the rocks mineral composition, origin,
and subsequent geological history. Since rocks are naturally occurring substances, rather than
controlled man-made structures, even very similar rock can vary greatly in their drilling and
blasting characteristics. Only a rough outline can be given here. There is no substitute for
experience.
A.2.2 Hardness.
Hardness is best measured in the field by the case with which a freshly exposed rock surface can
be scratched. Care must be taken that the surface is fresh and not weathered. Most commonly
encountered rocks can be scratched with the point of a geologist's pick, but the softer point of a
common nail will scratch them only with difficulty, if at all. Drilling characteristics are
primarily determined by hardness. Hard rocks those that scratch only with difficultly or not at
all, will drill slowly, while most soft rocks will drill quickly. In some soft rocks a heavy blow
may seat a bit so that it sticks. Also in some soft rocks the accumulation of sludge in the hole may
prevent the bit from striking an effective blow and thus reduce penetration.
A.2.3 Toughness.
Toughness is a measure of the interaction between mineral grains in a rock. It is best measured in
the field by the response of the rock to a blow. A tough rock will resist breaking, while a brittle
Page A2
rock will shatter into small pieces. Other things being equals a tough rock will drill slower and
require more powder to blast than a brittle rock. Some very hard rocks are easy to work with
because of their brittleness, other softer rocks are hard to drill and require very heavy charges
because of their toughness.
A.2.4 Density.
Density is a measure of the weight per unit volume ( gm/cc or lb/cub. ft. ) of the rock. Because a
major portion of the energy release in an explosion is used to lift and move rock, the amount of
explosive needed increases as the density of the rock increases.
A.2.5 Structure.
Structure is the gross physical makeup of the rock. Rock with many closely spaced joints (
fractures ) may be very difficult to drill and also difficult to blast since the explosive gases can
escape through the joints. Rocks with many voids and holes can cause loss of drill bits and can
often absorb a large explosion with little effect. Drilling and blasting in porous rocks found near
the surface of many volcanic islands or coral reefs can be a very discouraging experience.
A.3 Classification of Rocks.
A.3.l Overview.
As noted above, rocks even of the same type, vary widely in their physical characteristics.
However, rock type is a general guide to its blasting characteristics. Generally speaking, rocks
are divided into four major classes based on their mode of origin: extrusive igneous rocks,
intrusive igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.
A.3.2 Extrusive Igneous ( Volcanic ) Rocks.
A.3.2.l Form.
Extrusive igneous rocks are those that solidified at or near the surface of the earth from molten
lava.
A.3.2.2 Characteristics.
They are usually found in irregular layers, representing individual lava flows. They are above
average in hardness, but not extremely hard, most can be scratched by a pick. They are usually of
above average toughness, some ranging to very tough. They are often jointed and may, especially
towards the top of a flow, be quite porous. While in general they are not easy to drill and blast,
they present no great difficulties unless they are extremely fractured or porous. Drilling deep
holes through piles of volcanic rocks can present severe difficulties because the tops of the
underlying flows may be quite fractured and porous, leading to the sticking of bits and drill rods.
A.3.2.3 Naming.
The names applied to the individual volcanic types are based on the texture and color of the rock
when viewed on a freshly broken surface.
Obsidian is the name used for any glassy igneous rock. It is usually dark in color, often black,
Page A3
but may be dark red.
Felsite refers to a light colored volcanic rock. The texture of a fractured surface has a fine-
grained, stony appearance, similar to that of a piece of broken pottery.
Basalt is any black, dark grey or dark red volcanic rock without a glassy texture. It is the most
common of the volcanic rocks found on the oceanic islands, such as Hawaii.
Andesite is an intermediate volcanic rock. It is often green, or grey-green, with shades of red and
orange. On close inspection it can often be found to consist of pieces of rock that have been broken
by the force of the volcanic eruption and recemented ( Pyroelastic ). It is especially important on
the islands surrounding the Pacific Ocean basin, such as the Aleutians and Japan.
A.3.3 Intrusive Igneous ( Plutonic ) Rocks.
A.3.3.1 Form.
Intrusive igneous rocks are those formed by the slow cooling at depth of the molten lava and are
now exposed at the surface because of the uplift and erosion of the overlying rocks.
They are generally recognized by their lack of layering, the presence of visible mineral grains,
and the presence of veins and dikes cutting the otherwise massive rock. In general, they tend to be
harder than the volcanic rocks, but not as tough. Unless they have large joints, which some times
develop near the surface, they usually drill with little difficulty and break well on blasting.
A.3.3.3 Naming.
A large and complicated nomenclature has grown up around the naming of plutonic rocks. Even an
expert can be easily confused. In general, it is better to use a simplified system that makes it
obvious that you are not trying to use specific rock names. Color is the best guide.
Granitic rocks are those which are generally light in color. The term granitic should be used
rather than "granite" since the latter has a specific meaning, and most of the rocks that make up
the mountains of the world are, while granitic in appearance, not true granite. A "pepper-and-
salt" appearance caused by the intergrowth of light and dark minerals is typical of granitic rocks.
Dioritic rocks are those with an intermediate coloration.
Gabbroic rocks are dark in color, are usually denser, and often are quite tough.
A.3.4 Sedimentary Rocks.
A.3.4.1 Form.
Sedimentary rocks are those formed by the consolidation of layers of sediments.
They are recognized by their regular layering ( bedding ) and mineral composition. They are
Page A4
generally softer than igneous rocks, and some are very soft. They are generally not tough and, as a
group, drill and blast easily. Because of their soft nature and the fact that the sedimentary grains
may not be well cemented together, they sometimes present special drilling problems which
require great care to prevent holes from caving in behind the bit and binding the drill string.
A.3.4.3 Naming.
The naming of sedimentary rocks is based primarily on the composition of the sedimentary
material that was consolidated into rock.
Sandstone is composed of cemented grains of sand. Each sand grain may be quite hard, but the
hardness of the rock is dependent on the cementing of the grains. Some sandstones are quite soft,
others quite hard. The abrasive nature of the sand grains can cause excessive bit wear while
drilling.
Conglomerate is a sandstone with rounded pebbles and cobbles distributed through it.
Shale is consolidated silt and mud. This rock is often finely layered and composed of grains too
small to be seen even with a magnifying glass. It is generally quite soft and may wash away from
the hole when drilling, giving an oversized, irregular blasting hole.
Limestone consists of consolidated calcium carbonate ( lime ). It can be recognized easily because
the rock, or rock powder will fizz ( give of bubbles of gas ) when wetted with dilute acid. A well
consolidated limestone without voids in it is soft but firm, drills easily, and usually presents no
blasting problems. At times the rock will contain large solution cavities that may make drilling
and blasting a real problem.
A.3.5 Metamorphic Rocks.
A.3.5.1 Form.
Metamorphic rock is formed from previously existing igneous or sedimentary rock by the
application of great heat and pressure or chemical action.
Its characteristics vary widely and present some of the most difficult blasting problems faced by
the blaster.
A.3.5.3 Naming.
Metamorphic rocks are named according to their texture and mineral composition. In general, they
can be divided into two classes based on texture. Many metamorphic rocks are "foliated", that is,
they have minerals lined up in obvious layers, giving a strong tendency to split along these
layers. There are three common foliated metamorphic rocks classed by the amount of change they
have undergone, and also by the size to which the mineral grains have grown in the rock.
Slate is a rock of medium hardness with a pronounced tendency to split into even slabs. The
individual mineral grains are not visible. If the tendency to split does not interfere, it generally
drills and blasts well.
Page A5
Schist, usually relatively soft, also splits into slabs, but not evenly. The grains have grown to be
easily visible, and mica is often a major constituent. Because of its foliated nature schist exhibits
wide differences in drilling and blasting characteristics, often being easy to drill in one
direction but quite difficult in the other. Blasting can be a problem as schist has a tendency to
break preferentially along the plane of the foliation and may give an uneven break and erratic
throw.
Gneiss is a relatively hard rock. While made up of the same "pepper-and-salt" minerals as the
granitic rocks, they are arranged in definite bands. A combination of hardness and toughness
often makes gneiss a very difficult rock to work with.
There are two common nonfoliated metamorphic rocks. These do not show the strong tendency to
split along the direction of alignment of mineral grains as do the foliated rocks.
Quartzite is the metamorphic equivalent of sandstone. Heat, pressure and the introduction of
secondary silica have cemented the grains together so that quartzite breaks across the grains
rather than around them. A freshly broken surface has a sugary texture. It is quite hard, but also
quite brittle. It often drills and blasts better than softer rocks.
Marble is the metamorphic equivalent of limestone. It is composed of recrystallized calcium

carbonate, and the grains are often easily visible. It is recognized by its relative softness, being
easily scratched with a pick, and by its ability to "fizz" when the rock or rock powder is
dampened with diluted acid. Pure marble offers no particular blasting problems, impure marble,
however, may be quite tough.
Serpentine, a relatively rare rock of uncertain affiliations, is found in the foothills of the
mountains bordering the Pacific Ocean basin, especially in northern California and southern
Oregon. It is recognized by its dark green to greenish black color and greasy luster on a broken
surface. Amateurs often mistake it for jade. It presents one of the most difficult blasting
problems because, although it is relatively soft it is extremely tough. By the ease with which it
can be drilled, one can be lulled into a false sense of security and under load the holes. The
charge has a tendency to spring and so gives a very unsatisfactory break. Serpentine often stands
as resistant ledges in the near shore environment in regions where it is common.
A.4 Criteria for Selection of Explosive.
The choice of an explosive to be used for a particular job depends on the hardness and density oil
the rock to be shot and on the type of breakage desired. Matching the detonation velocity and gas
production of the explosive to the relative toughness and density of the rock will result in a
"balanced" shot. For example, tough, heavy rock requires a fast high-gas-producing explosive to
break and move it. Tough light rock requires a fast lower-gas-producing explosive to break and
move it. Amounts and kinds of explosive are determined only by test or experience. Table A.4(a)
gives an indication of the proper explosive to use when blasting particular rock formations.
The size of the pieces into which rock breaks depends somewhat on toughness, but more on the
presence or absence of joint planes and the effect of radiating fracture planes which emanate from
the borehole at the time of detonation of the explosive. Since rock is weakest in tension, when
internal stresses are applied, the rock fractures along the natural joint planes and along fracture
planes emanating from the borehole. Reinforced shock waves, magnified by reverberant collision
within the rock mass, cause internal ruptures and surface spalling.
Page A6
Table A.4(a)
Density and Relative Toughness of Rocks.
Density Relative
Kind of rock Toughness a,b
gm/cc lb/ft3 (Limestone=1)
_________________________________________________________________
Andesite 2.4 to 2.8 150 to 175 1.1
Basalt 2.4 to 3.2 150 to 200 1.7 to 2.3
Conglomerate 2.0 to 2.6 125 to 162 N/A
Dioritic 2,5 to 3.2 156 to 200 1.9 to 2.1
Felsite 2.4 to 3.2 150 to 200 N/A
Gabbroic 2.7 to 3.2 169 to 200 N/A
Gneiss 2.4 to 2.9 150 to 181 1.0 to 1.9
Granitic 2.5 to 3.1 156 to 194 1.5 to 2.1
Limestone 1.7 to 3.0 106 to 187 1.0
Marble 2.1 to 2.9 131 to 181 N/A
Quartzite 2.0 to 3.2 125 to 200 1.9 to 2.7
Sandstone 2.0 to 3.1 125 to 194 1.5 to 2.6
Schist 2.4 to 2.8 150 to 175 1.0 to 2.1
Shale 1.8 to 3.1 112 to 194 N/A
Slate 2.5 to 3.1 156 to 194 1.2
________________________________________________________________
a) Found in "Energy of Explosives and Toughness of Rock in Selecting Explosives,

W.O.Snelling, Eng. and Con. Jan 8, 1913".
b) N/A - not available.
A.5 Coral.
Coral is the hard deposit built up by minute colonial animals called polyps that live in the
warmer oceans. The deposits consist principally of calcium carbonate. Coral colonies form both
coral heads and reefs in areas where the water is clear and the water temperature does not fall
below 68o F - 20o C. Reefs are formed by the intergrowth of coral heads and the cementation of the
coral and fragmental reef materials. Reef coral is commonly massive in nature and may range from
porous to dense depending on the manner of cementation. Its color may be white, grey-white, buff,
yellow or brown. Chemically, it is principally calcium carbonate but often contains chert,
gypsum, and streaks of clay. Because of fissures, veins of clay, and other unconsolidated
sediments that can be present, it can be difficult to blast. Porous coral is easily shot using
contact charges because it pulverizes easily. Dense coral is similar to sedimentary rock in its
shooting characteristics.
A.6 Rock Hardness.
The hardness of the various rocks becomes important when they must be drilled, such as for
blasting, or cutting rock, as in trenching. Table A.6(a) gives the hardness of a range of rock types
Page A7
as a guide to the difficulty in drilling or cutting the various rocks found in the surveys. Some
rock types have a range of hardness depending on how they have been formed.
Table A.6(a)
Hardness of Various Rocks
Rock
Formation Typical Rock
Hardness
Characteristics Types
(Mohs)
Soft, Very Abrasive, Calcite, Limestone,

4
Highly Fractured. Sandstone, Shale, Siltstone
Medium Soft, Abrasive, Dolomitic Limestone, Norite,
5
Medium to Coarse Granite, Schist, Serpentine
Andesite, Dacite, Diabase,
Medium Hard,
6 Diorite, Dolomite, Hematite,
Moderately Abrasive,
Mica, Schist, Peridotite,
Medium to Fine
Silicified
Basalt, Diorite, Gabbro, Garnet,

Skarns, Gneiss, Granite,
Hard, Moderately
7 Pegmatite, Porphyry,
Abrasive
Quartzite, Rhyolite,Trachite,
Silicified Volcanics
Hard, Non-abrasive, Chert, Jasperite, Quartzite,

8
Fine Grained Rhyolite, Taconite
Very Hard,
Chert, Ironstone, Glassy
9 Non-abrasive,
Quartzite, Rhyolite, Tacinite
Very Fined Grained
Page A8
B. Ocean Cable Burial by Cable Plows and

Cable Trenching ROVs.
B.1 Introduction.
The burial of ocean cables by cable plows, cable trenching ROVs and cable repair ROVs has
become necessary due mainly to the increased use of bottom trawls in fishing, the increasing size
of fishing vessels and and their gear, and increases in the depth for bottom trawling. This annex
covers the characteristics of the cable plows and cable trenching ROVs and their use. Burial of
ocean cables by cable repair ROVs is covered in Annex B, Volume 9 of the Handbook.
Cable burial by plowing is the most widely used method.
B.2 Cable Plows.
B.2.1 General.
The cable plows are capable of burying ocean cables and repeaters in sedimentary bottom
materials consisting of silt, sand, clay ( including hard clay ) and gravel. Small rocks will be
pushed out of the way, however, boulders will in most cases stop the plow, hence the need for
careful selection of the cable route along the sections to be plowed.
The plowing of ocean cables was first done in the late 1930s/early 1940s by the Western Union
Telegraph Company who developed the first cable plow. In the late 1950s, AT&Ts Bell
Laboratories began development of the first series of cable plows, based on the Western Union
plow, with their introduction into service in 1967. In the 1980s a new series of cable plows was
developed for the optical fiber ocean cables. These plows were of a passive design where a plow
was pulled across the bottom with the plowshare cutting a trench, into which the plow placed the
ocean cable and repeaters. The nominal burying depth was about 3.28 feet - 1 meter and required
a bollard pull of order 50 tons/tonnes.
The Bell Sea Plow has undergone substantial development since its introduction in 1967, though
the basic construction and operation has remained the same. Sea Plows I and II were 24 feet - 7.3
meters long, 11 feet - 3.35 meters wide and 9 feet - 2.75 meters high. The front runners were 6
feet - 1.83 meters long by 2-1/2 feet - 0.76 meters wide and the rear runners were 4 feet - 1.22
meters long. These plows weighed about 15 tons and were designed to be used down to depth of
about 0.3 n. miles - 500 meters. The nominal depth for plowing the ocean cable was 2 feet - 0.6
meters, repeaters however were buried just below the surface.
Sea Plow III was larger, approximately 30 feet - 9.14 meters long, wider and heavier and has a
large single front runner. Sea Plow IV was slightly larger than Sea Plow III at approximately 31
feet - 9.45 meters long, has a weight of 35 tons and can be used down to depths of approximately
0.5 n. miles - 1000 meters. Both Sea Plow III and IV are designed to bury the repeaters to the same
depth as the ocean cable. Sea Plow V came into service in 1987/88.
To handle the optical fiber ocean cables, Sea Plow VI was developed in the 1980s. While still of
passive design, it incorporated a steering system, which allowed the plow to track along the cable
Page A9
laid on the bottom.
Towing speed for all Sea Plows is 0.5 to 1.5 knots, with 0.75 knots being the normal speed.
Passive plows are still in use and being developed by several companies. Modifications include
variable depth plow shares, and a rock plow that precedes the main plow to allow burial in
sedimentary rocks such as chalk. The main advantage of passive plows is their reliability,
relative simplicity and low wear rate on components. Their main disadvantage is the high bollard
pull, size and weight.
More recently a series of jetting assisted cable plows, such as Sea Plow VIII, have been developed
that use jet assisted plows to reduce bollard pulls by at least 50 percent or more and allow
increased burial rate at full depth. They incorporate a rudder to improve steering of the plow, a
combined tow and control cable, and an on-board cable engine for cable slack and tension
management. Burial of cable and hardware/repeaters to 3.6 feet - 1.1 meters in soft mud and
compacted sand to hard clay ( 7.25 lbf/sq. in - 50 KPa ) to water depths of 0.8 n. miles - 1500
meters. Burial speeds have also been increased, up to 2.5 knots.
The plowing consists of two stages, an initial run over the cable route with the plow to perform the
final check of the route and to provide practice in the use of the plow along the route. This is
followed by a second run in which the ocean cable is laid and plowed in. Because the initial run is
a simpler version of the burial run, only the method for the plowing in of the ocean cable is given.
B.2.2 Description of the Sea Plows.
B.2.2.1 General.
The first generation of passive cable plows, which were based on the Western Union Telegraph
Companys design were the Bell Sea Plows I to IV. The description is based on Sea Plows I and II.
However, as all of these Sea Plows work in essentially the same way and have similar systems, the
description applies generally to Sea Plows III and IV as well.
The basic construction of the Sea Plows is shown in figure B.2.2(a). The plow is built around a
girder chassis mounted on sled like runners at each corner of the plow ( Sea Plows III and IV have
a single large runner at the front ). The ocean cable enters through a bellmouth at the front and is
passed along the feed tube to the back of the plowshare where a tailgate inserts it into the trench.
The plow is propelled along the bottom by the tow rope, which also is used to lower and recover
the plow with the transfer bail moving the attachment point of the tow rope between towing and
lifting positions, as required. Power to actuate the various mechanisms is provided by a hydraulic
system which includes electrically driven pumps and accumulators. Sensors to monitor the
plowing operation are mounted at suitable points on the plow. The electrical power to drive the
hydraulic system, control signals and sensor information are transmitted along the power and
control cable which is attached to the rear of the plow.
To allow monitoring of the operation of the plow, various sensors are mounted on it. The sensors
consist of TV cameras mounted on pan and tilt heads, associated high power lights, hydrophone,
instruments to measure distance traveled and speed, vibration, plow attitude, plowshare depth,
tailgate position, bail position, and hydraulic system operation.
Page A10
Hydraulic
components
Hydraulic reservoir tank
Davit Lifting and lowering point

Power and
eye
control
cable Davit
TV Camera eye TV Camera and light
and lights ( Pan and tilt )
Bail locks
Buried Tow line
cable
Distance
wheels TV Light
Bellmouth
Tailgate
Plowshare Cable
TV Light
Transfer bail
Feed tube
Fig B.2.2(a) General arrangement of passive Sea Plows
The plowshare is mounted on the centerline of the plow and is attached to the feedtube and
bellmouth ( through which the ocean cable and housings are guided ) and can be raised or lowered
as required to increase or decrease the burying depth by two hydraulic cylinders. The plowshare
consists of a fixed vertical blade with a perpendicular tongue forming a "T" at its forward edge to
bulldoze the earth upward and out of the trench. In later designs the plow can bury the housings
to the same depth as the ocean cable.
A feedtube gate ( located at the end of the feedtube ) allows passage of ocean cable. Ordinarily the
tailgate at the back of the plowshare remains down to guide the ocean cable into the trench. The
feedtube gate and tailgate open upward to allow housings to pass.
Two mechanisms are required in lowering and recovering the plow. The first is ship mounted and
is used to lower and recover the plow between the stowage on the cable ship's stern and the water.
The second mechanism is on the plow and is used to lower and recover the plow between the
bottom and a position just under the ship's stern.
To lower and recover the plow between the stowage position on the ship's stern and the transfer
position in the water under the ship's stern, many cable ships have a pair of davits mounted
athwartships across the stern, as shown in figure B.2.2(b). There is sufficient wire rope on the
associated winches to allow the plow to be lowered to at least 20 feet - 6 meters below the keel. At
this transfer point the weight of the plow is transferred between the falls of the davits and the
towing cable during lowering, and vice versa during recovery. Some cable ships use a large crane
Page A11
Davit
Falls
Sea Plow IV
Fig. B.2.2(b) Stowage and handling equipment on stern of

cable ship ( USNS Zeus ).
for handling the plow to and from the water.
To lower and recover the plow between the transfer point and the bottom, the tow cable is used.
The plow has a moving bail to which the tow cable connects. For lowering, the bail is moved to an
upright position placing the attachment to the tow rope over the c.g. of the plow, as shown in
figure B.2.2(c). When the plow is on the bottom, the bail is lowered to bring the attachment to the
tow rope into the correct position for plowing, as shown in figure B.2.2(d) . On completion of the
plowing, the bail is once again moved into the upright position for recovery.
The control console on the ship monitors and controls all plow functions including raising and
lowering the plowshares opening and closing the tailgates movement of the bail between the lifting
and towing positions and operation of the hydraulic system.
The output of the sensors on the plow displayed include the TV cameras, hydrophone, plow
attitudes distance traveled, speeds plowshare depth and feed tube gate position. Also displayed
are tow cable, power and control cable tensions. The console also provides for control of TV
cameras' pan and tilt, activation of the still cameras and switching of the lights.
The console feeds power and control signals into the power and control cable and receives the
output of the sensors from this cable. Video and chart recorders are mounted in the console to
provide a history of the plowing operation for later analysis. The console also provides control
signals to the cable machinery to ensure that correct fill slack is laid.
Page A12
Monitors for the plow TV cameras, distance traveled, speed and towing tension are mounted on the
bridge, fed from the control console, to provide the necessary information for the control of the
ship. Also provided is a monitor for a TV camera on the stern of the ship to observe the towing
rope and the power and control cable positions.
Fig. B.2.2(c) Bail in lower/recover position.
Fig. B.2.2(d) Bail in towing position.

Page A13
Due to the fact that once plowing has commenced, it is impractical to interrupt the operation, the
plowing system includes a degree of redundancy. The TV cameras and lights are duplicated, and
the distance and speed measuring systems are triplicated because of the extreme importance of
the accuracy in their measurements. In the event that power fails to the plow at the critical time
when a housing is about to pass through, it is possible to use the hydrophone to tell when the
housing is approaching the plow and the tailgate can be operated using the reserve hydraulic
pressure in the accumulators.
The towing rope is a steel wire rope with a strength of 203000 lbf - 92300 Kgf. It is wound on a
specially designed towing winch that is mounted in the stern of the cable ship. The winch is
equipped with automatic controls to pay out whenever excessive tension is encountered. The
towing rope passes over a sheave or roller fairlead mounted on the centerline at the stern of the
ship.
A second winch is used to stow and deploy the power and control cable and it is also situated in
the stern of the ship, off to one side with a separate fairlead for its cable.
The passive cable plows now in use differ from the Sea Plows I to IV in that the plowshare is fixed
to the body, and that the height of the body above the sea floor is controlled. Figure B.2.2.(e)
shows one of these cable plows with two runners at the front and two wheels at the back. Some
designs use two runners at the back instead of wheels. Hydraulic rams extend or retract the
runners and wheels to control the depth of the burial.
Fig. B.2.2(e) SMD model SCP1 cable plow

Page A14
Figure B.2.2(f) shows the basic operation of the plow, which is essentially the same as the Sea
Plows. Changes include the use of the disc cutter ahead of the plow to improve plowing
performance, and in some units, the inclusion of an articulated steering system operating in
conjunction with the tow bridle to allow the plow to track the ocean cable lying on the sea bed.
Bellmouth Cable being

picked up
from sea floor
Cable trough -
depressor not
shown
Buried cable Disc cutter
Plowshare
Fig. B.2.2(f) Basic arrangement of SMD type cable plow.
The operation, support equipment, etc., is of the same form as for the Sea Plows.
The jetting assisted cable plows use water jets to aid the plowing operation. These were developed
in the late 1990s-2000s. One design, Sea Plow VIII, is similar to the later passive plows but with
addition a jetting or water assisted plowshare, pumps, piping, etc., to supply the jets. Figure
B.2.2(g) shows the plowshare, showing the forward rudder hinged on the plowshare, the lower tip
for harder soils, and the downward pointing recessed nozzles along the leading edge.
Figure B.2.2(h) shows the action of the operation of the swept flow type jetting plowshare. The
jetting action is a combination of soil erosion and soil removal. The downward pointing nozzles
loosen and erode the soil away from the trench walls, creating a slurry that transports the soil
away from the trench face. The design of this type of plowshare allows for the burial of repeaters,
etc. to the same depth as the ocean cable.
Page A15
Fig. B.2.2.(g) Jetting plowshare for Sea Plow VIII cable plow.
Undisturbed soil line Swept flow jetting plowshare
Undisturbed soil
Water jets
Resultant slurry along plowshare

sides and bottom
Fig. B.2.2(h) Operation of swept flow jetting plowshare.

Page A16
A second design differs from previous cable plows in that there is only one cable, which both tows
the plow and provides the communication link. This plow is launched vertically, from its nose. In
addition it has an on-board tracked linear cable engine to aid cable control, particularly on
slopes and undulating terrain, to prevent the ocean cable being pulled out of the trench. This
design is intended to be used of smaller, less powerful vessels. The arrangement of this vehicle is
shown in figure B.2.2.(i) ( Shown in a field during terrestrial trails ).
Fig, B.2.2(i) GT-ADS Undersea Cable Plow.
B.2.2.2 Cable Ship Requirements.
The successful operation of the cable plow depends on the capabilities and operation of the cable
ship, or other vessel, used.
The cable ship must be able to stow sufficient ocean cable to allow the plowing to be done in one
run. This typically requires that the cable tanks have a capacity of about 100 n. miles of the
ocean cable with A armor. For passive cable plows the cable ship must be powerful enough to
exert a steady pull of up to 100000 lbf - 45000Kgf at slow speeds ( up to 1 knot) and have rapid
control of the propulsion machinery. For jetting assisted cable plows the pull can be as low as
half as that for passive cable plows. Extreme maneuverability is required even when stopped ( and
effectively anchored by the plow at the stern ) in adverse winds and currents. This requires that
the cable ship be fitted with bow and stern thrusters.
In addition to the officers and crew being competent in cable work, they must be adaptable to the
unusual conditions involved in plowing and be extremely cooperative ( Similar requirements are
also essential for any assisting tugs ).
To carry, deploy, tow and recover the cable plow, the cable ship must be fitted with the equipment
covered in the description of the plows, that is a clear area on the stern of the ship for stowing
Page A17
and working on the plows special davits and associated winches to handle the plow over the sterns
towing winch and stern sheave or fairlead, power and control cable winch and fairlead, space in
the drum room for the control console and electronics ( typically 5 bays, approximately 30 inch
by 30 inch - 760 mm by 760 mm footprint each ), mountings for TV monitors and displays on the
bridge and cabling for both power and signal between the various components. Ideally the control
console should be on the bridge to allow optimum communication between the ship and plow
controllers. In addition, the cable machinery must be fitted with precision controls to ensure that
the correct fill slack is laid.
B.2.3 Operation.
B.2.3.1 General.
The method described is for the burial of an ocean cable using the cable plows with both ends of
the ocean cable buoyed, using a cable ship able to work over the bow. For working over the stern,
the method is the same except that all operations are conducted in one area, requiring careful
consideration when setting up and handling lines, ocean cables and equipment.
To allow for splicing of the buried ocean cable into the adjacent unburied sections of ocean cable,
at each end of the buried section a length of ocean cable is laid on the bottom for a distance equal
to several times the water depth.
If one or both ends are not buoyed, a length of grapnel rope is laid out from the end(s) of the ocean
cable to be picked up by grappling when the adjacent section is to laid.
To provide a visual navigation aid, a mark buoy may be laid at one or both ends of the plowing run
( See Chapter 13, Volume 5 of the Handbook ).
B.2.3.2 Equipment.
The following equipment list is indicative of the types of equipment to be used from cable
handling equipment stocks for a plowing run with both cable ends left buoyed.
For cable end buoys, 2 off - see Chapter 14, Volume 5 of the Handbook.
For plow operations:
Quantity Description
As calculated Line for initiation of plowing ( typically 3x3 grapnel rope ). Three
sections to be made up with shackles and swivels as required, first for
between cable ship and first cable end buoy, second for festooning down
ship's side, and third for festooning down ship's side and leading ocean
cable into plow.
As calculated Line for finishing of plowing ( typically 3x3 grapnel rope ), Two
sections made up as above, first to follow ocean cable through plow, and
second for festooning down ship's side.
As required Handling ropes for festooning lines down ship's sides.

Page A18
1 4 inch circumference Manila rope, typically 150 feet long with thimble
spliced in one end.
1 Tow rope for cable buoy.
Note: Calculation of lengths of sections of lines must be based on previous experience with cable
plows and includes factors such as expected towing tension, depth of water, distance between
stern and bow sheaves, and distance from bow sheaves, around cable engine drum and into cable
working deck.
B.2.3.3 Procedure.
Stage l.
The end of the ocean cable that will be laid first is on the cable working deck, sealed, with two
stoppers, preventer and swivel made up ( See Chapter 21, Volume 5 of the Handbook ).
The cable buoys to be used for the two ends of the buried ocean cable are on the buoy skids, with
riding leg, bridle and buoy chain attached. The lowering line for the buoy to be used first is
rigged. The scope for the buoys is ready in the rope bins and the ground chains are in the holds
The mushroom anchors are on the foredeck.
The line ( normally 3x3 grapnel rope ) to be used to pull the ocean cable through the plow is in
three sections, two festooned down the sides of the ship between the bow sheaves and the stern,
and the third in a rope bin or cable tank.
Stage 2. Figure B.2.3.3(a).
When the cable ship reaches the datum for laying the first cable end buoy, the ship's boat is
launched. The scope of the cable end buoy is made up on one cable engine drum and paid out over
the bow sheaves and down the ship's side to the cable buoy where it is shackled to the end of the
buoy chain. A tow rope is attached to the cable buoy and passed to the ship's boat. The cable buoy
is lowered into the water and towed around to be directly ahead of the ship. As the scope is paid
out by the cable engine, the boat pulls the cable buoy away from the ship. The ground chain is
brought up from the hold and shackled to the inboard end of the scope. The section of the line in
the rope bin, or in the cable tank, is then shackled to the inboard end of the ground chain. When
the ground chain is at the bow sheaves, the anchor is attached and lifted outboard. The line is
paid out until the anchor has bottomed. A Manila rope is shackled to the inboard end of the line
and the line is paid out followed by the Manila rope until the inboard end of the line is on the
foredeck.
The section of the line down the ship's side on the bellmouth side of the stowed plow is shackled
into the section of the line that is connected to the anchor on the cable end buoy ( The section
being held by the Manila rope on the cable engine ). The junction of the sections of the line is then
paid out over the bow sheaves using the Manila rope and slipped so that the line to the anchor is
transferred to the stern.
Line festooned
along both sides
Cable Ships
buoy boat
Line
( Grapnel rope )
Scope
Mushroom
anchor
Fig. B.2.3.3(a)
Page A19
Page A20
Stage 3 Figure B.2.3.3(b).
The cable ship twists so that she is facing down the cable route away from the cable end buoy and
in the direction in which the plowing will be done.
The stern end of the remaining section of line festooned down the ship's side is passed through
the plow and shackled to the inboard end of the section of the line attached to the anchor of the
cable end buoy. The bow end of the festooned section of the line is made up on the cable engine
drum and and passed into the cable working deck where it is shackled to the end of the ocean
cable.
The plow is readied for lifting outboard with the towing rope and power and control cables
attached.
Line threaded
through plow
Line festooned along ships

side between plow and bow
To anchor sheaves
Fig. B2.3.3.(b)
Page A21
Page A22
Stage 4 Figure B.2.3.3(c).
The divers are put into the water and the plow is lifted over the stern using the davits and
lowered until it is about 20 feet below the keel. The lines, ropes and cables are paid out as is
necessary to prevent unwanted strain being applied to them, with the divers keeping them in
position.
When lowered, the plow is rechecked for correct operation of its systems. Then the weight of the
plow is transferred to the towing rope and the divers release the now slack falls from the plow and
they are recovered. During these operations after checking,, the plowshare is put in the raised
position
Plow lowered to about
20 ft - 6 m below
keel using davits
Plow Line
To anchor
Fig. B.2.3.3(c)
Page A23
Page A24
Stage 5 Figure B.2.3.3(d).
The line between the plow and the bow sheaves is slipped so that it hangs free, and the line at the
stern to the anchor is also slipped. The line now passes from the bow sheaves through the plow
and down to the anchor on the bottom. Divers check that the lines, tow rope and cables are free
and correctly positioned. When this is completed, the divers are recovered.
The cable ship is now free to maneuver and position herself down the cable route from the anchor
and apply sufficient tension to the line to pull it straight along the cable route. The plow is then
lowered to the bottom with the line being paid out as is required and the ship continuing to
maneuver down the cable route to maintain the plow facing down the route to ensure that it will be
correctly orientated when it bottoms.
When the plow is on the bottoms the bail is lowered to the towing position and the cable ship
continues down the cable route paying out line, tow rope and power and control cable until the
ship is in the correct position relative to the plow to begin the plowing, This position is
determined by the estimated pull required and the depth of water.
Line attached to
ocean cable end
Power and
control cable
Plow
Towing cable
supporting plow
Line hanging free between
plow and bow sheaves
To anchor
Fig. B.2.3.3.(d)
Page A25
Page A26
Stage 6 Figure B.2.3.3(e).
The cable ship begins the burial run by first pulling the plow along the cable route with the
plowshare raised to lay the remainder of the line and the section of the ocean cable to be used in
splicing to the adjacent section on top of the bottom. On reaching the point where burial is to
begin, the plowshare is lowered slowly and the cable ship increases the pull to counter the
increased force on the plow, and burial commences.
During the burial the distance and speed output from the plow is used to control the ocean cable
payout by the cable machinery to ensure that the ocean cable is laid with only fill slack as no
excess ( or negative ) slack can be tolerated.
The cable ship is controlled from the bridge using the monitors to check the plow operation.
Continuous communication with the control console in the drum room is maintained. Should the
plow encounter resistance and come to a sudden halt, this is shown on the bridge monitors by the
speedometer. The ship's master, or one of his officers, who continually man the monitors, must
bring the ship to a stop immediately. At 3/4 knot, a cable ship of about 6000 tons can come to a
complete stop in about 10 feet - 3 meters.
Maintaining the cable ship over the cable route during plowing is done using the thrusters. If
these become inadequate, an assisting tug must be used. A suitable rig for the tug to use is a
Liverpool bridle which ensures that the tug is clear of the ocean cable and the tow rope and power
and control cable.
During burial, transmission tests are made to ensure that the ocean cable and units such as
repeaters are not damaged by the handling or by the plow.
The ultimate success of this part of the operation demands extreme skill and a high degree of
coordination on the part of those involved.
Stage 7.
When the plow approaches the point where cable burial is to stop, a line is festooned along one
side of the cable ship between the stern and the bow sheaves. The second cable buoy and its scope
are readied for deployment. The end of a second line is passed into the cable working deck and
shackled to the inboard end of the ocean cable, which has been sealed and stoppers, preventer and
swivel made up on it.
On reaching the point where burial is to cease, the plowshare is slowly raised and the ocean cable.
followed by the second line, are laid along the bottom until the plow is some distance down the
cable route from the end of the burial. The cable ship is stopped and the bail on the plow is raised
to the recovery position. The plow is then recovered from the bottom until it is about 20 feet
below the keel. The divers are put into the water and the falls on the davits lowered and attached
to the plow by the divers, The weight of the plow is transferred from the tow rope to the davits and
the plow is recovered onto the ship's stern.
The second line through the plow is unthreaded and shackled to the end of the line festooned
along the ship's side, The bow end of this line is then shackled to the ground chain of the scope of
the cable end buoy and the line is slipped, transferring it to the bow. The cable end buoy is then
laid in the normal manner ( See Chapter 14, Volume 5 of the Handbook ).
Floats
Power and Towing cable

control cable Ocean cable
Plow
Buried ocean cable
Fig. B2.3.3(e) Note: Distance of plow behind ship foreshortened for clarity.
Page A27
Page A28
B.3 Cable Trenching ROVs.
B.3.1 General.
The development of cable trenching ROVs came about to provide cable burial into sea floors where
plowing was not possible due to the bottom material type, or where it was too shallow to operate a
cable plow, such as the inshore areas. Unlike cable plows, the cable trenching ROV is normally
used after the ocean cable has been laid. Also they can pick up the ocean cable off the sea floor
and load it into the trencher and at the completion of the burial, remove the ocean cable from the
trencher, so that the cable does not have to be cut when using a trencher. Some trenchers have the
ability to eject the cable in the case of total power loss. In hard sea beds it may be necessary to
recover the trencher for maintenance one or more times during the burial.
Cable trenching ROVs come in many forms, the one shown in figure B.3.1(a) is typical of most. The
trencher shown is a 12 ton machine, later ones are around 18 tons to provide deeper trenching.
Acoustic navigation
beacon Umbilical cable termination
Electric motors/
main jetter pumps
Docking yoke
Crane manipulator
Hydraulic oil
pressure compensator
Forward camera
Electronics pod
Crane camera Jetter inlet
Rear cameras
Single point jetter
Cable grabber Jetter eductor
Bellmouth color Pacer wheel
camera
Cable tracker
Cable bellmouth
Obstacle Jetter sled
avoidance sonar Individually
operated tracks
Fig. B.3.1(a) Cable trenching ROV, with jetting tool

( SMD RT-1 type/AT&T Sea Bed Tractor).
Page A29
Cable tracking is done using the same method as used for repair operations, that is, a 25 Hz AC
tone is applied to the ocean cable and magnetometers are used to track the cable.
The trenching ROVs can be fitted with up to three trenching tools:
i) Jetting tools can cut trenches up to 6.6 feet - 2 meters deep and require minimal contact with
the ocean cable using a properly formed depressor. This system can provide high work-rates in
sandy seabeds and is reliable with low down-time. Normally alternative jetter nozzles can be
fitted to vary pressure and water flow for different bottom materials.
ii) Rock wheels requires a cable route over the top of the vehicle and will create a trench up to 3.9
feet - 1.2 meters deep in any seabed up to quite strong rock. This system is robust, but work-rate
can be low, and wear and consequent down-time is high. Careful control of the cable is required to
assure safe cable passage and burial away from the cutter wheel.
iii) Chain cutters can provide trenches over 6.6 feet - 2 meters deep in quite hard material. This
system suffers significant wear, and low work rates in difficult conditions. The same type of cable
control is required as for the cutter wheel.
The typical performance of these tools is given in table B.3.1(a).
Table B.3.1(a)
Typical Burial Speeds.
Method Depth Material Strength Speed

ft. m. lbf./sq. ft. kPa n. miles/hr. m./hr.
__________________________________________________________________
Jetting 3.28 1.0 Sands 0.27 500
Gravels 0.22 400
Clays 2.9 20 0.19 350
7.25 50 0.16 300
14.5 100 0.05 100
29.0 200 0.03 50
Rock wheel 3.9 1.2 Sands 0.54 1000

Clays 14.5 100 0.32 600
29.0 200 0.16 300
Rock 145 1000 0.08 150
11600 8000 0.03 50
Chain 7.2 2.2 Sands 0.54 1000

Clays14.5 100 0.32 600
29.0 200 0.16 300
Rock 145 1000 0.08 150
_____________________________________________________________________________
Page A30
Supporting equipment includes an A-frame or heavy crane with docking head for handling the
vehicle over the side, a platform for attaching floats on the umbilical cable, the umbilical winch
and the control cabin.
B.3.2 Operation.
Cable trenching ROVs are not normally deployed from cable ships, typically sea going barges,
offshore work boats, or other vessels of opportunity are used. The vessel must be highly
maneuverable to be able to maintain the vessels position in relation to the ROV. In some cases the
vessel will also lay the ocean cable at the same time. The typical arrangement of equipment for
both handling the cable burial ROV and laying ocean cable at the same time is shown in figure
B.3.2(a).
Spares storage van

Umbilical winch
Main generator
Reserve generator
Ships crane
Control van
Spares and
maintenance van Hydraulics van
Floats van
Cable jockey wheel
A-Frame
Ocean cable tank Docking head
Cable engine
Dynamometer
Cable bellmouth
Floats attachment
platform
Fig. B.3.2(a) Typical arrangement of equipment on vessel for simultaneous

laying and burial ocean cable using cable burial ROV.
Page A31
For an ocean cable that has been previously laid, the cable trenching ROV is lowered to the
bottom, it then locates the ocean cable, loads it and following the cable along the bottom,
commences burial. When the end of the section to be buried is reached, the cable is offloaded and
the ROV recovered. If necessary the ROV can be used to bury the cable up onto the beach, or
conversely the burial can be started from the beach. In some cases it may be necessary to recovery
the ROV for maintenance of its burial tool, or to change the burial tool.
If the ocean cable is laid at the same time as it is buried, then the procedures resemble that of
cable plowing ( Section B.2.3.3 ).
Cable burial ROVs can also be used in repair of buried cable, using their magnetometers to locate
the cable and a jetter to uncover the cable and after repairs are completed, to rebury the cable.
The crane manipulator can be fitted with a cable clamp and a cable cutter and with ability to lay
acoustic pingers for marking.
Page A32
C. Laying Ocean Cables Across Bottoms Composed of Deep Mud.
C.1 General.
In some cases it is not possible to avoid laying cables across bottoms composed of a soft, deep
mud. This can occur on sea shores but is more common in bays. The depth of this soft silt mud can
be 100 feet - 30 meters with pockets up to 3 to 4 times as deep. The weight of typical ocean cable
of sufficient strength, is high enough so that it would slowly sink into the mud. How deep the
cable would sink or how long it would take it to reach a state of equilibrium cannot not be
determined accurately because of the variable character of the soils in bottom and their varying
depths.
The method described below was used for laying a cable across Oso Bay at Corpus Christi, Texas.
C.2 Method.
A solution is to lay the cable across the bay bottom in a looped line of sufficient length to provide
for settlement of the cable to the bottom of the soft mud. Figure C.2(a) shows the arrangement of
the loops.
Fig. C.2(a) Looped submarine cables exposed on the mud flats

at edge of Oso Bay at Corpus Christi during an
extremely low tide.
Page A33
The first stage is to compute a tentative final profile of the cable in the mud, based on the best
available information on the depth and nature of the mud bottom. The length of cable from this
profile is then increased about 60 percent as a precautionary measure to reduce strain on the
cable should settlement be rapid at any one point along the cable line.
In addition, 60 feet - 18 meters is added to the length of the cable to permit a reserve length of 30
feet - 9 meters to be coiled in a big anchor manhole at each end of the cable line. In each manhole,
tension is applied to the cable by heavy springs attached to split cable grips with rawhide lacing.
These grips will permit the 30 feet - 9 meters of reserve cable to be played out slowly when
tension in the line due to unexpected settlement of the cable passes a predetermined amount. This
arrangement has the advantage of simplifying the task of adding to the length of the ocean cable
should periodic inspection of the manholes indicate that the computed amount of settlement was
in error.
The installation is done using floats to support the cable as it is formed into loops. When the
cable is in the correct position, the floats are cut free.
Page A34

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2. Installation of Trunk Ocean Cable. 2

2.9.2.5.2 Optical Line Terminal Equipment. 70

3.3.5 Sensor Unit Last, Individually Cabled Sensor Unit. 110

A. Characteristics of Rock and Coral. A1

B. Ocean Cable Burial by Cable Plows and Cable A8

B.3 Cable Trenching ROVs A28

C. Laying Ocean Cables Across Bottoms Composed of Deep Mud. A32

C.1 General. A32

2.2.3(a) Form of plotting sheet. 6

2.3(a) Arrangement of bellmouths in hatches over portable 8

2.4.1.1(a) Arrangement of typical shore site with the cable landing 9

2.4.1.1(b) Arrangement of a typical shore site with cable landing 10

2.4.1.3(a) Arrangement for heavy rope to be carried back along 12

2.4.1.3(b) Arrangement of rollers for use in landing cable end. 13

2.4.3.2.2.1(a) Typical cross section of cable trench across land area. 17

2.4.3.2.21(c) Use of pipes to allow cable to pass under made road. 18

2.4.3.4.2.1(a) Form of cable trench in rock. 22

2.4.3.4.2.3(a) Trench end cover assembly. 23

2.4.3.4.3(a) Concrete block beach anchor ( one or two ocean cables ) 24

2.4.3.4.3(b) Steel H-beam beach anchor ( one or two ocean cables ). 25

2.4.3.4.3(c) Rock bolted eye-plate beach anchor. 25

2.4.3.4.3(d) Deadman beach anchor grouted into fractures or soft rock. 26

2.4.3.4.3(e) Connection of ocean cable to beach anchor. 27

2.4.3.4.3(f) Additional beach anchors for high down beach pull on 28

2.4.3.4.4(a) Vertical pole type temporary deadman. 29

2.4.3.4.4(b) Buried pole type temporary deadman. 29

2.4.3.6.2.3.1 Contact blasting. 33

2.4.3.6.2.3.1 Borehole orientation in blockholing for maximum 34

2.4.3.6.2.3.1 Borehole orientation in blockholing for splitting. 34

2.4.3.6.2.3.2 Comparative depth and width in trench in coral by 35

2.4.3.6.2.3.2 Comparative depth and width of trench in coral by hose 35

2.4.3.6.2.3.2 Comparative depth and width of trench in coral by 35

2.4.3.6.2.3.3 Typical idealized ramp. 36

2.4.3.6.2.3.3 Ramp shot using contact charges. 36

2.4.3.6.2.7(a) Transporting charges from support vessel to bottom. 40

2.4.3.6.4(b) Components in one leg of mooring. 43

2.4.4.2(a) Sacked concrete laid over ocean cable. 45

2.4.4.2(b) Sacked concrete surrounding ocean cable. 45

2.4.4.2(c) Sacked concrete bridging crevice in rock bottom. 46

2.4.4.3.2(a) 3-1/2 inch diameter articulated split pipe - U.S. pattern. 48

2.4.4.3.2(b) 5 inch diameter articulated split pipe - U.S. pattern. 49

2.4.4.3.2(c) Cast iron articulated split pipe - U.S. pattern. 50

2.4.4.3.2(d) 1 foot long articulated split pipe - U.K. pattern. 52

2.4.4.3.2(e) 2 foot long articulated split pipe - U.K. pattern. 53

2.4.4.3.2(f) Newer type articulated split pipe. 54

2.4.4.3.3(a) Installation of split pipes on deck of lighter. 56

2.4.4.3.4(a) Use of rock bolt to directly bolt split pipe to bottom 57

2.4.4.5(a) Direct immobilization of ocean cable to sea floor. 59

2.8.2(a) Modifications to North Atlantic Slip ( Alternative Method ) 64

2.8.3(b) Non-optimum position for laying branch unit onto ocean 66

2.9.2.3.1(a) Cable laying test set. 68

2.9.3.2(a) Assembled shipload transmission test, coaxial cable. 73

2.9.3.2(b) Assembled shipload transmission test, optical system. 74

2.9.3.3(a) Transmission test during laying, coaxial cable. 76

2.9.3.3(b) Transmission test during laying, optical cable. 77

3.2.3.1(a) Simple bell type junction box enclosure. 85

3.2.3.1(b) Two story type junction unit enclosure. 85

3.2.3.2(a) Typical arrangement for sensor laying vessel. 87

3.3.3.1(a) Typical sensor unit, for single ship deployment. 89

3.3.4.1(a) Typical sensor unit, for two ship deployment. 100