Ocean Cable Engineering Handbook Vol7 Compiled by Ian S. Coote

Ocean
Engineering Notes.
Compiled
by
Ian S. Coote
Part 3
Handbook
for
Ocean Cable Engineering.
Volume 7
Types of Systems
and
Design Considerations.
1st. Edition
This compilation
Copyright 2009 by Ian S. Coote.
Neither Ian S. Coote, or any of his associates

makes any warranty, express or implied,
or assumes any legal liability or responsibility
for the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of
any information, apparatus, product or process
disclosed, or represents that its use would not
infringe privately-owned rights.
Page i
Contents.
Page No.
1. Introduction. 1
2. Types of Systems. 2
2.1 General. 2
2.2 Power Transmission. 2
2.3 Communications Systems. 3
2.4 Data Systems. 5
2.5 Surveillance Systems. 6
2.6 Tracking Ranges. 10
2.6.1 Overview. 10
2.6.2 Long Baseline Arrays. 11
2.6.2.1 General. 11
2.6.2.2 Tracking Method. 17
2.6.3 Short Baseline Arrays. 18
2.6.3.1 General. 18
2.6.3.2 Tracking Method. 21
2.6.3.3 Underwater Communications. 23
2.7 Calibration Ranges. 23
2.7.1 Overview. 23
2.7.2 Bottom Mounted Arrays. 24
2.7.3 Taut Moored Arrays. 28
2.7.4 In-Situ Calibration of Range. 34
2.8 Environmental Systems. 35
2.9 Research Arrays. 38
3. Design Considerations. 39
3.1 Introduction. 39
3.2 Prerequisites. 39
3.3 Preliminary Design. 39
3.4 Overview of Design Considerations. 39
3.4.1 Power Systems. 39
3.4.2 Communications and Data Systems. 40
3.4.3 Ranges, Surveillance and Other Systems. 40
3.4.4 Installation. 40
3.4.5 Commissioning. 40
3.4.6 Maintenance. 40
3.5 Design. 40
3.5.1 General 40
3.5.2 Electronics, Optronics and Sensors. 41
3.5.3 Ocean Cables. 41
3.5.3.1 Overview. 41
3.5.3.2 Ocean Cable Selection. 42
3.5.3.3 Cable Couplings. 43
3.5.3.4 Armor Selection. 43
Page ii
Contents ( Continued ).
Page No.
3.5.4 Electro-Mechanical Cable Selection. 44

3.5.5 Underwater Housing Design and Cable Seals. 45
3.5.6 Testing. 45
3.5.7 Installation and Maintenance. 45
Annexes.
A. Ocean Grounds. A1
A.1 Function and Form. A1

A.2 Calculation of Surface Potential for a Three Layer Earth A1
Resistivity Model.
B. Hydrodynamic Forces on Ocean Cables. A4
B.1 Introduction. A4
B.2 Overview. A4
B.3 Steady Current. A4
B.4 Transverse Wave Action. A9
C. Active Beach Profile. A16
C.1 Introduction. A16

C.2 Estimation of Limit or Closure Depth. A16
D. Bottom Penetration by Trawls, Anchors, etc. A18
D.1 Data. A18
Appendices.
AA. Underwater Housings. AA.1
AA.1 Introduction. AA.1

AA.2 General Arrangement. AA.1
AA.3 Pressure Housings. AA.13
AA.4 Cable Seals. AA.16
AA.4.1 Bridgeman Seal. AA.16
AA.4.2 B.P.O. Seal. AA.18
AA.4.3 Prevention of Electro-Chemical Corrosion of AA.20
Return Conductors.
AA.4.4 Optical Fiber Seals. AA.21
AA.4.5 Diaphragm Seals. AA.22
AA.4.6 Boot Seal. AA.23
AA.5 Cable Couplings. AA.24
AA.5.1 Armorless Coaxial Ocean Cable - External AA.24
Termination Coupling (STC).
Page iii
Page No.
AA.5.1.1 Form. AA.24

AA.5.1.2 Assembly. AA.26
AA.5.2 Armorless Coaxial Ocean Cable - Central Termination AA.26
Coupling (AT&T).
AA.5.3 Armorless Coaxial Ocean Cable - Swaged Sleeve AA.29
Armor Coupling (AT&T).
AA.5.4 Optical Fiber Ocean Cable - Coupling (Alcatel-Lucent). AA.31
AA.5.5 Optical Fiber Ocean Cable - Gimballed Couplings. AA.33
AA.5.6 Armored Ocean Cables - Armor Coupling. AA.36
AB. Ocean Cable Types. AA.40
AB.1 Introduction. AA.40

AB.2 Conductor Types. AA.40
AB.2.1 General. AA.40
AB.2.2 Multiconductor. AA.40
AB.2.3 Coaxial. AA.42
AB.2.4 Optical Fiber. AA.45
AB.2.5 Power. AA.47
AB.3 Armor/Strength Member. AA.48
AB.3.1 Armor Types. AA.48
AC. Electro-Mechanical Cable Types. AA.52
AC.1 Introduction. AA.52

AC.2 Conductors. AA.52
AC.3 Strength Member. AA.52
AC.4 Terminations and Seals. AA.57
AC.5 Strumming Reduction. AA.58
AD. Mechanical Testing. AA.59
AD.1 General. AA.59

AD.2 Pressure Testing. AA.59
AD.2.1 General. AA.59
AD.2.2 Pressure Testing of Ocean Cables. AA.59
AD.2.3 Cable Sea Trials. AA.61
AD.2.4 Pressure Testing of Conductor Seals. AA.62
AD.2.5 Pressure Testing of Pressure Housings. AA.63
AD.2.6 Leakage Testing. AA.64
AD.3 Tension, Working, Handling and Operational Testing. AA.69
AD.3.2 Tensile Tests. AA.69
AD.3.3 Fatigue Tests. AA.69
Page iv
Page No.
AD.3.4 Sheave Tests. AA.69

AD.3.5 Crush Resistance. AA.70
AD.3.6 Impact Resistance Tests. AA.70
AD.3.7 Flexure Resistance Tests. AA.70
AD.3.8 Cable Stopper Tests. AA.70
AD.3.9 Installation Equipment Tests. AA.71
AD.4 Other Tests. AA.71
AD.4.2 Water Ingress Test. AA.71
AD.4.3 Corrosion Tests. AA.71
AD.4.4 High Voltage Test. AA.71
AD.4.5 Insulation Resistance Test. AA.72
AD.5 Note.
AE. Electronics and Optronics. AA.73
AE.1 General. AA.73

AE.2 Mechanical Requirements. AA.73
AE.3 Mechanical Design. AA.73
AE.4 Reliability. AA.75
AE.4.1 Introduction. AA.75
AE.4.2 Reliability Calculations. AA.76
AE.4.2.1 Basis. AA.76
AE.4.2.2 Shape of the Mortality Function. AA.76
AE.4.2.3 Single Component Type Reliability. AA.76
AE.4.2.4 Multiple Component System Reliability. AA.77
AE.4.2.5 Achieved Component Reliability. AA.78
AE.4.2.6 Component Screening. AA.79
AE.5 Assembly. AA.83
AE.5.1 General. AA.83
AE.5.2 Planning. AA.83
AE.5.3 Environment. AA.83
AE.5.4 Inspection and Testing. AA.84
AE.5.5 Training and Qualification. AA.84
AE.6 Ocean Cable Installed Transmission Characteristics. AA.85
AE.6.2 Multi-Conductors. AA.85
AE.6.3 Coaxial. AA.85
AE.6.4 Optical. AA.86
AE.7 Repeater and Equalizer Design. AA.86
AE.7.1 Function. AA.86
AE.7.2 Multi-Conductor Ocean Cables. AA.86
AE.7.3 Coaxial Ocean Cables. AA.87
AE.7.3.1 Repeaters. AA.87
AE.7.3.2 Ocean Block Equalizers. AA.89
AE.7.3.3 Shore Controlled Equalizer. AA.90
AE.7.4 Optical Fiber Ocean Cables. AA.91
AE.7.4.1 Repeaters. AA.91
AE.7.4.2 Equalizers. AA,92
Page v
Page No.
AE.7.4.3 Branch Units. AA.92

AE.8 Shore Station Equipment. AA.93
AE.8.2 Multiconductor Ocean Cable Systems. AA.93
AE.8.3 Coaxial Ocean Cable Systems. AA.93
AE.8.4 Optical fiber Ocean Cable Systems. AA.94
AE.8.5 Power Feed Equipment. AA.95
AE.8.5.1 General. AA.95
AE.8.5.2 Coaxial and Optical Fiber Ocean Cable Power Feed AA.96
Equipment.
AE.8.5.3 Control of Two Ended System Power Supplies. AA.97
AE.8.6 Shore Station Power Separation Filter. AA.98
Page vi
Figures.
Page No.
2.3(a) Arrangement of a typical communications system with 4

two shore stations.
2.3(b) Typical layout of trunk cable with one branch unit. 5
2.5(a) Simple harbor defense surveillance system. 6
2.5(b) Littoral surveillance system. 7
2.5(c) Barrier surveillance system comprised of a large number of 8

short arrays.
2.5(d) Barrier surveillance system comprised of a small number of 8

large arrays.
2.5(e) Typical deep water surveillance array ( fixed distributed 9

system ).
2.6.2.1(a) Layout of SCARF and Sandia ranges. 12
2.6.2.1(b) Long-baseline array hydrophone unit ( SCARF type dual 13

hydrophone ).
2.6.2.1(c) Long-baseline array hydrophone unit ( AUTEC type single 14

hydrophone ).
2.6.2.1(d) Original BSURE system. 15
2.6.2.1(e) Arrangement of a TATU. 16
2.6.2.1(f) Ocean cable paths and hydrophone positions, SOAR II. 17
2.6.2.1(g) General arrangement of hydrophone unit/repeater. 17
2.6.3.1(a) Location of arrays and cables - July 1970 - St. Croix. 19
2.6.3.1(b) Low frequency buoyant short baseline array ( Dabob Bay range ). 20
2.6.3.1(c) Low frequency 3-D range multiplex array ( 12000 lb - 5454 Kg ) 21

( St. Croix ).
2.6.3.2(a) Geometry used to calculate the position of a vehicle relative to 22

the array. Rc ,Rx ,Ry , and Rz represent receiver hydrophones at
four adjacent vertices of cube, side d , mounted on framework,
r is range of vehicle from origin at Rc . Angles of vehicle are
also determined relative to array axes.
Page vii
Figures ( Continued ).
Page No.
2.7.2(a) Typical arrangement of bottom mounted calibration range. 24
2.7.2(b) Alternative methods for ocean cables connecting sensor units 25

to shore.
2.7.2(c) Typical arrangement of sensor unit for a bottom mounted 27

magnetic calibration range.
2.7.2(d) Sensor unit mounted on a pile driven into the bottom. 27
2.7.3(a) Taut sub-surface mooring for acoustic calibration range 29

( SCARF range ).
2.7.3(b) Typical sensor housings for taut moored magnetic calibration 30

ranges.
2.7.3.(c) Methods of mounting housings on electro-mechanical cables with 31

synthetic strength members.
2.7.3(d) Single leg,taut sub-surface moored magnetic calibration range. 32

( Preliminary design - St. Criox )
2.7.3(e) Linear chair ( Goalpost ) taut moored magnetic calibration range 33

( Preliminary design St. Croix ).
2.7.3(f) Linear chair range configurations for installed ( Operational ). 34

and maintenance modes.
2.8(a) Environmental sensor single leg, taut, sub-surface mooring 37

( AUTEC environmental monitoring array, Salvador Point ).
2.9(a) Neptune Regional Observatory System location and layout (2004). 38
Annexes.
B.3(a) CDC versus Reynolds number. A5
B.3(b) CL + versus Reynolds number. A8
B.4(a) Relationship of wave period, length and depth A11

( Airy wave theory ).
B.4(b) CI + versus Reynolds number. A13
B.4(c) CI + versus K. A14
B.4(d) CDC versus K. A14

Page viii
Page No.
B.4(e) CL + versus K. A15
Appendices.
AA.2(a) SB flexible repeater. AA.2
AA.2(b) Details of construction of B.P.O. housing. AA.3
AA.2(c) SF/SG rigid housing. AA.4
AA.2(d) B.P.O. rigid repeater for Lightweight coaxial cables. AA.5
AA.2(e) Optical fiber ocean cable system repeater and branch unit AA.6
- Tyco.
AA.2(f) Optical fiber ocean cable system repeater and branch unit AA.7
- Alcatel-Lucent.
AA.2(g) Optical fiber ocean cable system repeater and branch unit AA.8
- Fujitsu.
AA.2(h) Optical fiber ocean cable system branch unit with separate AA.9
ocean ground - Tyco.
AA.2(i) BSURE terminal and telemetry unit (TATU). AA.10
AA.2(j) Typical hydrophone/electronics unit for range. AA.11
AA.2(k) Use of oil filled chamber around to make conductor entry AA.12
into pressure housing.
AA.2(l) Typical housing mounted to the side of the ocean cable AA.13
AA.3(a) AT&T pressure housing. AA.14
AA.3(b) STC pressure housing. AA.15
AA.3(c) Pressure housing with metal O-ring seal. AA.16
AA.4.1(a) Bridgeman seal type 3C, shown with separate casing. AA.17
AA.4.1(b) Typical arrangement of Bridgeman seal type 8 shown integral AA.18

with end closure.
AA.4.2(a) B.P.O. seal shown integral with end closure. AA.19
AA.4.3(a) Insulation of return conductor from sea. AA.20

Page ix
Page No.
AA.4.4(a) Basic arrangement of optical fiber seal shown integral with AA.21
end closure.
AA.4.5(a) Diaphragm seal for pair of conductors. AA.22
AA.4.6(a) Boot seal made up on single conductor. AA.23
AA.5.1.1(a) External termination of armorless ocean cable. AA.25
AA.5.2.1(a) Typical arrangement of armorless cable coupling (SG). AA.27
AA.5.2.2(a) Anchor molding assembly. AA.28
AA.5.3.1(a) Typical gimballed armor coupling (SG). AA.30
AA.5.4(a) Flexible optical fiber cable coupling (Alcatel_Lucent). AA.32
AA.5.5(a) Gimballed optical fiber cable coupling - deep sea ocean cable. AA.34
AA.5.5(b) Gimballed optical fiber cable coupling - shore end ocean cable. AA.35
AA.5.6(a) Deep sea armored cable field coupling. AA.37
AA.5.6(b) Layout of slotted armor termination ring. AA,38
AB.2.2(a) Twin conductor ocean cable. AA.41
AB.2.2(b) Single quad ocean cable. AA.41
AB.2.2(c) Four quad ocean cable. AA.42
AB.2.3(a) Coaxial ocean cable ( Type SB ). AA.43
AB.2.3(b) Caged armor ocean cable. AA.44
AB.2.3(c) Armorless or Lightweight coaxial ocean cable. AA.45
AB.2.4(a) Optical fiber communications ocean cable. AA.46
AB.2.4(b) Optical fiber range ocean cable. AA.46
AB.2.5(a) Single conductor, polyethylene insulated, shielded power cable. AA.47
AB.2.5(b) Three conductor, ethylene propylene, shielded power cable. AA.48
AB.3.1(a) Optical fiber double armored ocean cable. AA.51

Page x
Page No.
AC.3(a) Breaking strength of double armored steel electro-mechanical AA.53

cable versus diameter.
AC.3(b) Approximate weight in water of double armored steel AA.54

electro-mechanical cable versus breaking strength.
AC.3(c) Lifetime and creep under deadweight load 1/4 inch diameter AA.55
Kevlar Uniline.`
AC.3(d) Lifetime and creep under dead weight load 1/2 inch diameter AA.56
Polyester Uniline.
AD.2.2(a) Pressure testing systems for ocean cables. AA.60
AD.2.3(a) Typical cable arrangement for sea trial. AA.62
AD.2.4(a) Pressure testing vessel for conductor seal testing. AA.63
AD.2.5(a) Arrangement of pressure vessel for testing pressure housings. AA.64
AD.2.6(a) Arrangement of pressure vessel system for leakage testing of AA.65

pressure housings.
AD.2.6(b) Isolation of test point in pressure test vessel. AA.66
AD.2.6(c) Tube form test point ( integral design ). AA.67
AD.2.6(d) Plug form test point ( integral design ). AA.68
AD.2.6(e) Leakage testing of a conductor seal. AA.68
AD.3.4(a) High tension testing of ocean cable, repeater and couplings AA.70
around a sheave.
AE.3(a) Mechanical arrangement of four amplifier pair repeater ( Tyco ). AA.74
AE.3(b) Cutaway of repeater electronics unit, inner assembly, showing AA.75

frame, components, and insulation around unit ( SG System ).
AE.4.2.6(a) Example of a pattern of accelerated aging for transistors AA.80
AE.7.3.1(a) Block diagram of a typical repeater ( SF ). AA.88
AE.7.4.1(a) Block diagram of typical optical amplifier for fiber pair. AA.91
AE.8.3(a) Simplified arrangement of shore station equipment - coaxial AA.94

ocean cable system. ( monitoring order wire equipment not
shown. )
Page xi
Page No.
AE.8.4(a) Simplified arrangement of shore station equipment - optical AA.95

fiber ocean cable system.
AE.8.5.2(a) Arrangement of typical power feed equipment. AA.97
AE.8.6(a) Simplified circuit of the shore station power separation filter. AA.100
Page xii
Tables.
Page No.
2.7.3(a). Components of Single Leg, Taut Subsurface Moored Magnetic 32

Calibration Range.
2.7.3(b) Components of Linear Chair Taut Moored Magnetic 33

Calibration Range.
Annexes.
A.2(a) Resistivity of Materials. A3
B.3(a) Values of Mass Density for Fresh and Salt Water. A6
B.3(b) Values of Kinematic Viscosity for Fresh and Salt Water. A7
C.2(a) Calculated Closure Depths for 10 Design Wave Conditions. A17
D.1(a) Bottom Penetration. A18
Appendices.
AB.3.1(a) Size Ranges for Armor Wires in Ocean Cables ( External Armor ). AA.49
AB.3.1(b) Armor Combinations for Ocean Cables. AA.50
AB.3.1(c) Armor Combinations for Optical Fiber Ocean Cables. AA.51
AC.3(a) Properties of Metal Wires. AA.54
AC.3(b) Comparison of Yarn, Filament and Wire Nominal Properties. AA.57

Page xiii
Sources of Material Used.
The following are the identifiable sources from which the material used in this volume has
been derived.
Chapters, Sections.
The Bell Systems Technical Journal, September 1978. 2.3
IEE - Submarine Telecommunications Systems, International 2.3, AA.2, AA.3, AA.4,

Conference, 1980, publication. AA.5, AB.3, AE.4
STC ( Non -specific ) 2.3
NEC Corporation HTTP document. 2.3, AE.7
Sea Sentinel Undersea Surveillance System, D. J. Meggitt, 2.5, AA.2

D. K. Roderick, H. P. Cooke, Sea Technology, November 2000
The Next Generation in Underwater Acoustic Detection, 2.5

J. R. Eickmyer, B. E. Epting, m. V. Thompson, AT&T Technical
Journal, Julky-August 1996.
SCARF Sea Operations, AC Electronics, S68-07, July 1968. 2.6.2, 2.7.3
NAVFAC P-906 Submarine Cables System Design and 2.6.2, 2.6.3, AC.3
Installation Planning Manual, Vol. II.
Cable terminations for the BSURE, NAVFAC Washington, DC 2.6.2, AA.2

Chesapeake Engineering Command, CHES/NAVFac-FPO-1-85
(12).
Validation of a real time cable deployment control system 2.6.2

for slack cable laying, J. M. Andres, S. R. Jefferies,
G. Gillenwaters, Makai Ocean Engineering Inc.
Installation of a three dimensional underwater tracking range, 2.6.3

Yett, APL, University of Washington.
Linear chair deep water array, preliminary design, NAVFAC, 2.7.3

Chesapeake Division, CHES/NAVFAC-FPO-7820
A taut wire buoy array for environmental monitoring in AUTEC, 2.8

NAVOCEANO, October 1967.
Neptune Gigabit Ethernet Submarine Cable System, A. R. Mafei, 2.9

et. al.
Page xiv
Sources of Material Used ( Continued ).
Chapters, Sections.
Earth-Current Effects on Communications-Cable Power Annex A.

Subsystems, IEEE, Transactions on Electromagnetic
Compatibility, Vol. EMC-21, No 2, May 1979, Henry G. Root.
Studies of Large-Scale Earth Potentials Across Oceanic Annex A.

Distances, AT&T Tech. Journal, May/June 1995, Lanzerotti,
Medford, Maclennan, Thomson.
Engineering report on wave tank tests on split pipe, Annex B.

Oregon State University, Yamamoto.
Calculating the yearly limit depth to the active beach Annex C.

profile, CERC, Sept. 1977, Hallermeier.
Coastal Engineering Manual, Chapter 3, III-3-3, April 2002. Annex C.
The Bell Systems Technical Journal, January 1957 AA.2, AB.2
The Bell Systems Technical Journal, July 1964. AD.2, AE.4
The Bell Systems Technical Journal, May-June 1970 AA.2, AA.3, AA.4, AB.2,
AE.4, AE.5, AE.7, AE.8
The Bell Systems Technical Journal, September 1978 AA.2, AA.4, AA.5, AD.2,
AE.2, AE.3, AE.7, AE.8
Tyco, Undersea Sub-systems brochure, 2003. AA.2, AE.7, AE.8
An Update on Transpacific Cables. AA.2
Alcatel, Branching Unit (BU), 1999. AA.2
Fujitsu, Product Detail: Repeater, Branching Unit. AA.2, AE.7
Summary of Undersea Fiber Optic Network Technology and AA.2, AB.3, AE.3
Systems, Terremark Worldwide Inc.
Analysis of an underwater hydrophone recovered from the AA.2, AA.4

Barking Sands Tactical Underwater Range after 21 years of
service, C.J. Sandwith, E. R. Dunston, A. A.Sieger, J. W. Cox,
IEEE 1990.
British Plastics, January 1957. AA.4
Cabled Ocean Observatory Systems, A. D. Chave, G. Waterworth, AA.4, AA.5

A. R. Maffei, G Massion
Page xv
Sources of Material Used ( Continued ).
Chapters, Sections.
United States Patent 4,786,759, November 1988. AA.5
Simplex Wire and Cable, Specification sheets ( various ) AB.2
Simplex Wire and Cable, Technical Bulletin No. SL-1001. AB.2, AB.3
Alcatel OALC4 fiber optic cable for repeatered submarine AB.2

systems, July 1999.
U.S. Navys AUTEC Ranges, J. T. Michaelis, Sea Technology, AB.2

July 1999.
International Standards for Undersea Cable System Testing, AD.3, AD.4

M. E. Kordahi, S. Shapiro, G. Lucas, K. Moore, SubOptic 2004.
WDM Technologies, N. K. Dutta, M. Fujiwara. AE.7, AE.8

Page xvi
Page 1
1. Introduction
The design of an ocean cable system can vary significantly, depending on the type of system
and whether it is based on standard components, it is a unique system, or it is the prototype (
first of type ) of a new system. It is not possible to give design methologies that would cover
all the types of ocean cable systems, hence an outline of the various types of systems is given,
that can be used in forming the basis for design considerations. A brief outline of the
considerations that would typically occur in the design of a system is given, supported by the
annexes and appendices.
The annexes contain design calculations that are generally needed in the design of most
systems. Calculations are for ocean grounds and earth resistivity, hydrodynamic forces on
ocean cables including split pipe protection, and active beach profile.
The appendices contain descriptions of components that have been used in making up ocean
cable systems, in order to provide examples that can be used to aid design and to provide some
historical perspective on designs. The components include underwater housings, ocean cable
types, and pressure testing. Included in the underwater housings are pressure housings, cable
seals, and cable couplings. A brief description of electronics and optronics is given to provide
some background of their requirements in the mechanical and structural design of
components, and of those electronic and optronic components unique to ocean cable systems.
Page 2
2. Types of Systems.
2.1 General.
This chapter contains descriptions of various ocean cable systems that are in use today, or
have been used in recent times. It is intended as a guide to help in the design, or selection, of
an ocean cable system to meet the requirement of the customer, and to help the customer in
formulating their requirement.
Systems covered include power transmission, communications, surveillance, ranges and

research.
Obviously there are very specialized, one off, systems outside the scope of this chapter. In
this case some of the systems described may be of use in formulating the requirement and in
the design.
2.2 Power Transmission.
The configuration of power transmission systems is relatively straightforward in that the only
underwater components are the ocean cables, with the terminal equipment at the shore
stations normally supplied by others. The major design requirements are in achieving the
power transmission and ensuring adequate protection for the ocean cables, as most systems
are laid in hazardous areas, such as across channels with high bottom currents and the
possibility of ships anchoring, or in areas where bottom activities are carried out ( e.g. oil
production, trawling ).
The system specification can fully define the power transmission ( AC or DC ), voltage,
maximum current, allowable transmission losses, ocean cable configuration, etc., or give the
broad requirement such as AC or DC transmission, maximum power, allowable transmission
losses. The majority of systems have the ocean cables specially designed to meet the
requirements as cable design is sensitive to transmission losses and bottom conditions.
DC power is normally transmitted using two single conductor ocean cables with redundancy
provided by a third ocean cable. Very large systems may use several pairs of ocean cables with
one pair for redundancy. Maximum voltage is up to 250 kV with cable route length up to
about 30 n. miles.
AC power is transmitted as three phase, delta, using either a single ocean cable with three
conductors or three ocean cables with single conductors, depending on the voltage and current.
Redundancy is normally by an additional ocean cable. Maximum voltage for three conductors
in one ocean cable is up to 40 kV with the cable route length up to about 10 n. miles, and for
single conductor ocean cables up to 140 kV with cable route length up to about 15 n. miles.
If the option of the arrangement of the power transmission is left to the cable design
engineers, the decision on the ocean cable arrangement and design is based on the type of
transmission, AC or DC, and the power to be transmitted. Maximum voltage is limited by the
insulation characteristics and the maximum thickness able to be applied, while the conductor
diameter is determined by resistive losses, both for heat generation and end to end power loss.
Armor size and strength is determined by the nature of the seafloor and hazards, and the
laying and repair cable tensions. Cable weight and diameter must be considered in relation to
the installation equipment capabilities and this in turn affects the insulation and conductor
diameters, and the armor. A balance between all these parameters must found to optimize the
ocean cable design, and system performance.
Page 3
Development in power transmission ocean cable systems is for increased voltage, longer route
lengths and laying in deeper water. For DC systems, this entails voltages up to 600 kV, cable
route lengths of 150 n. miles and depths down to about 1 n. mile ( e.g. Oahu - Hawaii power
cable which includes crossing the Alenuihaha Channel between Maui and Hawaii ).
Another consideration is that this type of system is generally not suitable for laying by the
normal cable ship, and unless an existing system capable of laying the ocean cable already
exists, part of the design will be to develop a system for laying the system from a suitable
vessel. This vessel must be selected once the final specification of the ocean cable(s) is
finalized as vessel must be of adequate size to support the laying system and carry at least
one section of the ocean cable.
2.3 Communications Systems.
Ocean cable systems for communications can be broken down into two types:
a) Short haul, unrepeatered.
b) Medium to long haul, repeatered.
In the past communications systems used coaxial ocean cables with analogue signal
transmission. Most coaxial systems were repeatered due to the high signal attenuation with
cable length. These systems have been replaced by fiber optic systems.
Because of the need to operate at the zero dispersion wavelength, a single optical fiber can
only be used for one way transmission, with two fibers being required for a two way circuit.
Present systems use wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) on each fiber and the signal
path through the repeaters is entirely optical. A standard transmission speed for each
wavelength is STM-16, 2.5 Gb/s (Gigabits/second) giving for four or eight wavelengths, 10 or
20 Gb/s per fiber pair. STM-64 increases the transmission speed to 10 Gb/s. The number of
wavelengths is also increasing, 128 wavelengths give 1.28 Tb/s (Terabits/second) per fiber
pair which for a four pair cable gives a transmission speed of 5.12 Tb/s. This is known as
Dense WDM.
Standard telephone channel bit rate is typically 64 Kbits/sec. Video and data channel bit
rates are determined by their bandwidth requirements.
Unrepeatered systems are limited to about 200 n. miles while repeatered systems can be up to
about 6500 n. miles in length. Many systems have one or more branches on the main trunk
connecting to additional shore stations between those at the ends of the main trunk cable.
The layout of the basic system joining two shore stations is shown in figure 2.3(a). On longer
systems, the use of equalizers becomes necessary to correct misalignments and the section
between the equalizers is known as an ocean block, the same as for coaxial systems.
The siting of the shore stations and the cable route is determined by factors including risk,
feasibility and cost. In very long systems it may be necessary to include an additional shore
station at some intermediate point such as an island, if the overall length would exceed cable
powering capabilities. If not necessary, this arrangement should be avoided due to the higher
risk to the additional shore end sections of the cable route and increased cost.
Page 4
Shore
station
A
Ocean block
equalizer
Ocean block
Repeater
Shore
station
B
Fig. 2.3(a) Arrangement of a typical communications system

with two shore stations.
Branches in the cable system can be accomplished in one of two ways. If a suitable landing site
is available in the area of the proposed junction, such as an island, then the ocean cables can
be landed and the above station forming the junction include the necessary switching and and
channel allocating equipment to route the communications traffic. This is particularly
suitable if several communications systems can pass through the site, or if maximum
flexibility in allocation of channels between the various sections of the cable system is
desired.
Page 5
The second method is to make the junction underwater with the channel allocations being set
from one or more shore stations through a device known as an add-drop multiplexer which
switches the channels in the branching unit ( or Tee junction ). The normal method is to make
the ocean cable between the two end shore stations the main cable and power it like a single
cable system. The branch is joined to this cable with a branching unit. This branch is powered
from its shore station independently of the main cable and the branching unit at the junction
has a separate earth for the branch. A typical configuration with a branching unit is shown in
figure 2.3(b).
Branching
S unit S
A C C A
L L
D T T D
T T
M B Equalizer B M
E E
PFE PFE
Shore station A Shore station B

Repeater
CTB - Cable termination box

SLTE - Submarine line terminating
equipment
PFE - Power feed equipment
P CTB ADM - Add-drop multiplexer
F
SLTE
E
ADM
Shore station C
Fig. 2.3(b) Typical layout of trunk cable with one branch unit.
2.4 Data Systems.
Data systems are normally used to connect installations on islands or offshore platforms to
mainland stations. Most of these systems are short haul and are unrepeatered. The major
design requirements are in achieving the required data transmission rates and ensuring
adequate protection for the ocean cables, as most systems are laid in hazardous areas, such as
across channels with high bottom currents and the possibility of ships anchoring, or in areas
where bottom activities are carried out ( e.g. oil production ).
Small coaxial or multiconductor ocean cables can be used, particularly if data rates are low,
but the tendency is to use standard fiber optic ocean cables. The main difference between the
data systems and communications systems is that the terminal equipment is specifically
tailored to the data transmission requirements. If the length requires repeaters, then
normally communications type repeaters and shore power systems would be used to reduce
costs.
Page 6
2.5 Surveillance Systems.
Surveillance systems can be broken down into several types based on purpose. The following
are typical of the types:
a) Harbor defense. Normally active or passive acoustic and/or magnetic sensors both in and
around the entrance to the harbor, with short to very short detection ranges. This type of
system is not normally intended to track targets, just to detect their passage. A simple harbor
defense surveillance system with sensors along the ocean cable, is shown in figure 2.5(a).
Shore
station
Sensors
Ocean
cable
Fig. 2.5(a) Simple harbor defense surveillance system.
b) Shallow water or littoral. Normally passive acoustic sensors arranged in arrays, with short
detection ranges. Used in areas such as the continental shelves. This type of system can
provide detection and depending on factors such as the bottom topography and water column
properties can provide target tracking. It can also be placed out from a harbor entrance to act
as a harbor defense system . Figure 2.5(b) show a system deployed on the continental shelf.
Page 7
Array
Ocean
Shore cable
station
Continental
shelf
Fig. 2.5(b) Littoral surveillance system.
c) Barrier. Normally passive acoustic sensors, arranged in arrays, laid across a channel or
strait to form a barrier, covering both shallow and deep water, with short detection ranges.
This type of system is intended to detect the passage of targets through the straight or
channel, and depending on the arrangement of arrays may provide tracking in the vicinity of
the arrays. Figure 2.5(c) shows a barrier system comprised of a large number of small arrays,
while figure 2.5(d) shows a barrier system comprised of a small number of large arrays.
Page 8
Short
array
Shore
station
Ocean
cable
Fig. 2.5(c) Barrier surveillance system comprised of a

large number of short arrays.
Ocean
cable
Shore
station
Array
Fig. 2.5(d) Barrier surveillance system comprised of a

small number of large arrays.
Page 9
d) Deep water. Normally passive acoustic sensors, arranged in arrays, with medium to long
detection ranges. Used in areas such as the ocean basins. This type of array is intended to
both detect and track targets. Figure 2.5(e) shows a typical deep water system.
Interconnect
cable
Multiplexer/
repeater
Hydrophones
Cluster
Deep sea
cable
Sea ground
To terminal
building
Repeater Shore line
Cable/cable
junction
Heavy armor
cable
Medium armor
cable
Light armor
cable
Fig. 2.5(e) Typical deep water surveillance array

( fixed distributed system ).
Page 10
Detection ranges can be typically defined as the immediate vicinity of the sensor for very
short detection ranges, up to several tens of n. miles for short detection ranges, of order of one
hundred n. miles for medium detection ranges and up to several hundred n. miles for long
detection ranges. Detection ranges will depend on the array gain, analysis equipment, source
level and signature of the targets, the propagation path and the losses ( attenuation ) along it
and ambient noise. Quiet targets, poor propagation and/or high ambient noise can be expected
to result in much shorter detection ranges.
Systems for each type are normally of a standard design which is adapted to suit the sites
chosen for the installation of the sensors ( arrays ). Ocean cables connecting the sensors (
arrays ) to the shore station follow normal practice for armoring, and may be of a special
design or standard communications ocean cables.
2.6 Tracking Ranges.
2.6.1 Overview.
Tracking ranges consist of an array, or arrays, of hydrophones mounted on or near the

seafloor, used for tracking ships, submarines, weapons and targets during equipment
development and exercises. The area covered by tracking ranges may be up to 1000 square n.
miles.
The hydrophone arrays are connected to a shore station by ocean cables. The shore station
contains analysis, recording and display equipment to show the movement of the vehicles
being tracked. In addition, surface tracking equipment ( e.g. radar, theodolites ) and
navigation systems may also be included.
Tracking ranges are generally of two basic types, long baseline arrays and short baseline
arrays.
To provide environmental data for corrections in tracking calculations, many ranges also
include environmental sensors on vertical taut-moored arrays. Underwater communications is
provided between the shore station and vehicles by bottom mounted underwater telephone
transducers ( UQC ). Both environmental sensors and underwater telephone transducers are
connected to the shore station by ocean cables.
Principal factors affecting the accuracy of a tracking range are:
(a) Geometry: The accuracy of the position solution obtained from multiple hydrophones is
dependent upon the separation and orientation of the hydrophones. In general, larger
hydrophone separation provides more accurate determination of the position of the vehicle(s)
being tracked.
(b) Hydrophone location: The uncertainty of hydrophone location with respect to other
hydrophones directly affects the accuracy of the determination of the position of the vehicle
being tracked. The uncertainty of the hydrophone location with respect to known benchmarks
affects the accuracy of determining absolute positions.
(c ) Acoustic velocity: Slant range from the vehicle being tracked to a hydrophone is computed
by using the transit time of an acoustic signal emitted by the vehicle. Uncertainties or
variations in signal propagation velocity, and ray path, will be directly reflected as errors in
the slant range determination ( and for short baseline arrays, azimuth and elevation ). These
errors are then perpetuated in the position solution.
Page 11
(d) Electronic timing errors: Timing errors arise from inaccuracies in synchronous pinger
clocks and shore timers, pulse timing errors, and time-delay uncertainties in signal
transmission and processing circuitry.
(e) Other factors: In addition to systematic errors, the position determination will include
random errors or noise, introduced by timing jitter, quantization and other common sources of
electronic noise.
2.6.2 Long Baseline Arrays.
2.6.2.1 General.
The long baseline array used for tracking ranges consists of a number of bottom mounted
single hydrophone units distributed over the range. The vehicle, or vehicles, being tracked
have acoustic pingers and the position of the vehicle(s) is determined from the travel times of
the acoustic signals from the pingers to the hydrophones.
One method is to have each hydrophone unit individually cabled and this method is typical of
smaller ranges. A small range may only have four hydrophone units. Figure 2.6.2.1(a) shows
the arrangement of the SCARF/Sandia ranges as an example of this type of range. The SCARF
range has four hydrophone units, denoted by H1, H2, H3 and H4, arranged in a diamond
pattern. This range includes an underwater communication unit, UQC, and a noise measuring
string, NMS. The Sandia range uses six hydrophones, denoted by the triangular symbols,
arranged in a double triangular pattern. The underwater cable termination chamber is a dry
chamber in which the lighter armored ocean cables to the hydrophone units are terminated,
and connected to the shore made using a heavily armored ocean cable with twisted pair
conductors. The SCARF range is more typical of the layout used and can be readily expanded
to cover a larger area.
The mechanical design of the individually cabled hydrophone units is simple with a base and
short tower on which the hydrophone is mounted. Installation technique has the most bearing
on the design. If the installation requires the hydrophone unit to be laid first, using a single
ship, then a pivoted arm is included in the design with the ocean cable acting as the lowering
line. Figure 2.6.2.1(b) shows this type of design used on the SCARF range.
An alternative is to lay the hydrophone unit using two ships. In this case a separate lowering
line and release are required and the hydrophone unit requires a lifting eye at the top, as
shown in figure 2.6.2.1(c). One ship lays the ocean cable while the other handles the lowering
line. The design can also be used for a single ship where the hydrophone is laid last, using a
lowering line, though high accuracy in positioning the unit may not possible.
Electronics design depends on the hydrophone sensitivity ( output ) and the attenuation of the
ocean cable over the frequency range used for the pingers. In the simplest form, the
hydrophone is directly connected to the ocean cable conductors, normally a twisted pair, and
an amplifier with shaped gain to compensate for the transmission loss variation with
frequency in the ocean cable is used at the shore station. For systems where the cable
attenuation is too great to allow this simple arrangement, an amplifier/line driver is included
in the hydrophone unit and a DC power supply at the shore station.
Normally the conductors used in the ocean cable consist of a pair or a single coaxial. Optical
fiber ocean cables are starting to be used, with optical fibers for signal and two conductors for
power.
Page 12
Santa Cruz Island Camera

Shore station
Camera station
station
Underwater
cable
termination
chamber
100
200
300
400
500
33o 55
UQC
NMS
H4
600
H3
H1
H2
700
119o 40 900 800
Fig. 2.6.2.1(a) Layout of SCARF and Sandia ranges.
In some systems where the frequency range is too large for a single hydrophone to be efficient,
dual hydrophones are used and their output summed for transmission to the shore station (
e.g., SCARF uses one hydrophone for 2.5 Hz to 8 kHz and a second for 8 kHz to 50 kHz, as
shown in figure 2.6.2.1(b) ).
Page 13
Ocean cable
Strength
member
termination
Hydrophone
Electronics Pivoted arm

housing deployment
Tower position
Pigtail
Base
Pivoted arm
Sacrificial laid
anode position
Fig. 2.6.2.1(b) Long-baseline array hydrophone unit

( SCARF type dual hydrophone ).
Page 14
Lifting eye
Hydrophone
Tower
Pigtail Strength
member
Base termination
Sacrificial
anode
Ocean
cable
Fig. 2.6.2.1(c) Long-baseline array hydrophone unit

( AUTEC type single hydrophone ).
Page 15
Another method is to place the hydrophone units along one or more trunk cables. The larger
ranges of this type may cover an area of up to 1000 square n. miles. Most permanent ranges
use two or more cables.
One example of this type of range is the BSURE range, the arrangement is shown in figure
2.6.2.1(d). Each of the two trunk cables has eight hydrophone units along it, plus a repeater. A
single, separately cabled transducer unit is provided for underwater communications, the
UCE.
7.5
TATU n.m.
2.75 n.m.
(16 total)
UCE
Repeater
(2 total)
Kauai
Fig. 2.6.2.1(d) Original BSURE system.
The hydrophone units ( Terminal And Telemetry Units ), shown in figure 2.6.2.1(e), are
multiplexed onto the coaxial ocean cable. The sled is required to keep the unit in the correct
orientation during laying and on the bottom. The use of hydrophone units multiplexed onto an
ocean cable is more complex but allows for long cable runs and requires less length of ocean
cable than individually cabled units. Mechanical design of the hydrophone units is complex,
similar to that for repeaters on communication systems with the added complexity of a
hydrophone.
Electronically each hydrophone unit contains a hydrophone amplifier, bandpass filter,

frequency shifter, signal insertion network, power supply and power separation filters. In
some systems repeaters may be necessary. Because of bandwidth limitations imposed by the
transmission characteristics of the ocean cable, the frequency window for pingers may be
more limited than for individually cabled hydrophone units, hence the need for bandpass
filters to prevent channels overlapping. The sea end of each ocean cable, normally at the last
hydrophone unit, requires an earth electrode to provide the return path for the DC power.
Shore station equipment includes a DC power supply similar to communication systems, power
separation filters equalizer networks and demultiplexers for channel recovery for input to
analysis equipment.
Page 16
Hydrophone
Floats
Hydrophone tether
E/M cable
Electronics
pressure housing
Ocean cable Articulated cable
(SD List 1) coupling
Sled
Fig. 2.6.2.1(e) Arrangement of a TATU.
The ocean cable used normally has a coaxial conductor and a strength member with minimal
rotation under load to prevent rotation of the hydrophone units during laying ( e.g. center
strength member coaxial cable such as SD List 1, or caged armor coaxial ocean cable if rotation
is not critical ). The shore end section of the ocean cable which does not affect laying of the
units is armored in the conventional manner as required. Optical fiber ocean cables can be
expected to replace the SD List 1 type cables in newer systems.
A second example of this type of range is the SOAR II range, the arrangement is shown in
figure 2.6.2.1(f). Each of the eight trunk cables has eight hydrophones along it, and several
repeaters. The form of the hydrophone and repeater units is shown if figure 2.6.2.1(g). These
later systems generally have the hydrophones on the bottom, not suspended. This makes the
handling of the array during deployment or repair much easier.
The advantage of long baseline arrays are the generally simple hydrophone units and
installation, but this is offset by the large amount of ocean cable if each unit is individually
cables, or by complexity of multiplexing if several units are on the same ocean cable, and
limitations on the siting of the hydrophone units over the range if the later arrangement is
used.
Page 17
100000
90000
80000
North (m)
70000
60000
330000
340000
350000
360000
370000
380000
390000
East (m)
Fig. 2.6.2.1(f) Ocean cable paths and hydrophone positions, SOAR II.
Pressure housing Ocean cable

(and hydrophone) coupling
Ocean cable Gimbal
Fig. 2.6.2.1(g) General arrangement of hydrophone unit/repeater.
2.6.2.2 Tracking Method.
The vehicle to be tracked is fitted with an acoustic pinger which emits a periodic signal that
is received by the hydrophones and transmitted to the shore station where the analysis
equipment computes the position of the vehicle. To obtain a solution, a minimum of three
hydrophones must be able to receive the signals and they must not be inline.
Page 18
Two principal methods of tracking can be used; spherical tracking using a synchronized clock
in the vehicle to control the pinger and a "master" clock in the shore station as the reference.
This yields a range from each hydrophone that receives the signal, and these ranges are then
used to determine the vehicle position; and hyperbolic tracking which does not require the
pinger to be synchronized. This yields time differences between each hydrophone that
receives the signal and these are used to determine the vehicle position.
Synchronization for surface vehicles can be done using a radio link from the master clock.
Corrections can be made in the calculations for vehicle position for non-uniformity of the
sound velocity in the water to improve the accuracy for either method of tracking. Data for
these corrections can come from sound profiles taken just prior to using the range or from
environmental sensors.
If more than one vehicle is to be tracked, then different frequencies can be used for the
acoustic pingers in each vehicle and transmit times can be staggered.
2.6.3 Short Baseline Arrays.
2.6.3.1 General.
The short baseline arrays used for tracking ranges consist of a number of hydrophones
normally mounted on a single structure, arranged so that azimuth, elevation and range can be
determined from acoustic pingers in the vehicle, or vehicles, being tracked. A small range may
have a single short baseline array while larger ranges may have several short baseline arrays
with sufficient overlap to provide complete coverage over the range area, as shown in figure
2.6.2.3.l(a) for the St. Croix range, with short baseline arrays being numbered 1 to 11 and
underwater communication units UQC-a to UQC-d.
Two types of short baseline array design have been primarily used, the first a buoyant design
with a typical unit shown in figure 2.6.3.1(b) and the second, a non buoyant design with a
typical unit shown in figure 2.6.3.1(c).
The buoyant design allows recovery of the array and ocean cable for repair by separation of
the buoyant array from its anchor by an explosive link. The non-buoyant design sits on the
seafloor and if recovery is necessary, a ROV must be used to attach a lifting line to the unit.
The non-buoyant array structure cost is approximately 2/3 of that for a buoyant array if the
same length baselines between hydrophones are used. The buoyant array must also be leveled
in air and then leveled under water to set the tilt sensors. When operating, tilt data must be
continuously monitored for entry into position calculations. The non-buoyant array only
requires leveling in air to set tilt sensors prior to installation. When operating the tilt is
measured and entered as a constant into the calculations. The non-buoyant array however
requires a suitable section of flat bottom for installation whereas the buoyant array is less
sensitive.
Construction of the array structure is normally mild steel ( e.g. AISC C-1020 ). Tubing wall
thickness should be 1/4 inch - 6 mm or more. Corrosion protection ideally should include
galvanizing but this may not be practical due to the size and length of the sections.
Alternatively, sections should be acid pickled, rinsed and dried, then a zinc rich paint
applied. Final coatings of anti-fouling bottom paint are then applied over the galvanizing or
zinc rich paints. In addition passive anode protection is used, with sacrificial zinc anodes
typically at several points on each tower or arm and several on the base unit. The use of a
vinyl paint aids the passive protection by providing insulation against current flow.
Page 19
51
65o 00 59 58 57 56 55 54 53
46
11
9
45
8
10 Shore station
4
44
7 UQC -c FORACS -a
UQC -b
UQC -d UQC -a
3
43 FORACS -d
1 Frederinsted
6
2
46
42
FORACS -c
5 FORACS -b
17o 41
0 1 n. mile
Fig. 2.6.3.1(a) Location of arrays and cables - July 1970 - St. Croix.
Due to their size, arrays should be designed to be disassembled for transportation and
storage.
Electronic design normally uses multiplexing of the hydrophone outputs onto the ocean cable.
For each hydrophone there is an amplifier, band pass filter, and frequency shifter. Power is
provided by a power separation filter and power supply. The shore station equipment consists
of a DC power supply, power separation filter, equalizer networks and demultiplexers for
channel recovery for input to analysis equipment. In some cases, repeaters will be required
for longer cable runs.
The ocean cable is normally of coaxial construction, with no special requirements for armor
beyond normal practice. Optical fiber ocean cables are starting to be used, with optical fibers
for signal and two conductors for power.
The advantage of short baseline arrays is the smaller number of units required for a range,
but this is offset by the complexity of the array units and their installation.
Page 20
Rz
Rx Lift
eye
6 ft-1.8 m dia. sphere
5000 lb-2272 Kg
Rc buoyancy R y Receiver
transducers &
preamplifiers,
four on 30 ft-
Tilt 9.1 m centers
transducers Strain relief cable at 90o
Universal 12 ft-3.66 m section
joint connector pipe
Explosive Ocean
separation link cable
Universal
joint
Anchor 7000 lb
-3180 Kg
Fig. 2.6.3.1(b) Low frequency buoyant short baseline array

( Dabob Bay range ).
The most commonly used design for a short baseline array has four, or five, hydrophones
mounted on a bottom mounted rigid frame. Other designs, including multiple leg taut
subsurface moorings are also used. The following description is for the bottom mounted rigid
frame design.
Page 21
Rz
Receiver
transducers &
30 ft-
preamplifiers
9.1 m
five on 30 ft -
9.1 m centers
at 90o
50 ft- Rc 30 ft- Ry
15.2 m 9.1 m
approx.
Lift 30 ft-
30 ft- eye 9.1 m
9.1 m
Rx! y
Rx
10 ft-
4 in steel
3m
pipe
Nylon net 10 ft-

6 in
3m
steel pipe
Ocean
cable 30 in
square
Fig. 2.6.3.1(c) Low frequency 3-D range multiplex array

( 12000 lb - 5454 Kg ) ( St. Croix ).
2.6.3.2 Tracking Method.
The vehicle to be tracked is fitted with an acoustic pinger that emits a periodic signal that is
received by the hydrophones on an array and transmitted to the shore station where the
analysis equipment computes the position of the vehicle.
The acoustic pinger is controlled by a synchronized clock in the vehicle with a "master" clock
in the shore station as reference. Synchronization for surface vehicles can be done using a
radio link from the master clock.
The hydrophone array defines a rectangular coordinate system to which the acoustic signal
measurements are referred. This coordinate system is shown in figure 2.6.3.2 (a), with one
hydrophone Rc at the origin and the three other hydrophones Rx ,Ry and Rz along the X,Y
and Z axes respectively. A fifth hydrophone is sometimes included in the X !Y plane as a
backup.
Page 22
Vehicle
Pinger
controlled by
synchronous
clock
r
Z axis
Rz
Y axis
Array d Rc d Rx
Ry
X axis
Fig. 2.6.3.2(a) Geometry used to calculate the position of a vehicle

relative to the array. Rc ,Rx ,Ry , and Rz represent
receiver hydrophones at four adjacent vertices
of cube, side d , mounted on framework, r is range
of vehicle from origin at Rc . Angles of vehicle are
also determined relative to array axes.
Normally the origin hydrophone Rc is used to determine the range to the vehicle, while in
conjunction with hydrophones Rx ,Ry and Rz , the angles to the axes of the signal ray path are
determined ( measured at the mid point between hydrophones ) From these four parameters,
the position of vehicle can be calculated, including corrections for non uniformity of the
sound velocity in the water and array tilt and bearing.
If more than one vehicle is to be tracked, then different frequencies can be used for the
acoustic pingers in each vehicle and transmit times staggered.
Page 23
2.6.3.3 Underwater Communications.
Underwater communications between the shore station and vehicles fitted with AN/UQC type
equipment is carried out using a bottom mounted transducer unit situated in a suitable
position in the range to provide adequate coverage. In large ranges, more than one unit may be
required.
The unit contains a transducer, power amplifier for transmitting, amplifier and line driver for
receiving, power supplies and power separation filter, and switching circuits for transmit and
receive modes. The electronics is contained in a pressure housing. To prevent electrical
interference with other sensors, the units are normally separately cabled. Power output
should be sufficient to cover the required area in conditions up to at least sea state 3.
The ocean cable between the unit and the shore station can be multiconductor or coaxial, with
coaxial being more suitable for longer runs. Transmitting and receiving frequency translation
for the carrier is normally done at the shore station to simplify underwater electronics unit.
The shore station also requires in addition to the transmit/receive unit, a DC power supply,
power separation filter and equalizing network.
The structure for mounting the transducer unit can be of similar form to the single cabled
hydrophone units for long baseline arrays, as shown in figures 2.6.2.1(b) and 2.6.2.1(c), with
the pressure housing situated in the base.
2.7 Calibration Ranges.
2.7.1 Overview.
Calibration ranges consist of an array of sensors arranged in a pattern to measure a particular

characteristic of a vehicle, normally its acoustic or magnetic signature. The majority of
calibration ranges are bottom mounted with the vehicle being driven over the range during the
measurement. Taut moored vertical arrays are less common. Calibration ranges require a
tracking system to determine the vehicle's position as it is driven past the array. One
technique is to combine the calibration system with a tracking range, another is to include a
pinger in the calibration range as a reference point, while for surface ships tracking can be
done by visual aids, GPS, or radar. Some systems also include underwater communication of
the same type as used for tracking ranges.
Principal factors affecting the performance of a calibration range are:
(a) Ambient noise: The level of ambient noise determines the lower limit to which the
characteristic can be measured.
(b) Vehicle position. The uncertainty in determining the vehicle's position during a
calibration run over the range directly affects the accuracy of the measurements.
(c) Sensor location: The uncertainty of the location of the sensors with respect to the range
reference coordinates affects the accuracy of the measurement. This is not normally a problem
in bottom mounted ranges unless in deeper water.
(d) Sensor performance: The accuracy of calibration, long term stability and sensitivity of the
sensor units forming the range determine the level to which the characteristic of the vehicle
can be measured and the accuracy of the measurement.
Page 24
2.7.2 Bottom Mounted Arrays.
The normal configuration of a bottom mounted array for an acoustic or magnetic calibration
range consists of a line of sensors along the bottom, with the vehicle being calibrated driven
across this line at right angles to it and passing over the center point of the array. A typical
arrangement is shown in figure 2.7.2(a). The location of the sensors is normally symmetrical
about the center of the array and determined by the requirements given in the system
specification. Because the position of the sensors, both horizontal and vertical, is important to
the accuracy of the calibration and any "shadow" effects due to bottom contours must be
avoided, an area with a flat bottom is normally selected. This also reduces the possibility of
unwanted reflections from the bottom for acoustic measurements.
Shore station
30
60
Sensor units
Optimum track for

calibration runs
Ocean cables
Center of array
70
Fig. 2.7.2(a) Typical arrangement of bottom mounted calibration range.

Page 25
The arrangement of the ocean cables connecting the sensor units to the shore station can be
done in several ways. The simplest if the range is close to the shore is to use an ocean cable to
each sensor unit. For ranges further out from the shore but still within diving depth, a single
large ocean cable can run from the shore out to the range where it can terminate in a junction
with separate smaller ocean cables running to each units or it can run past each sensor unit
with a short length of smaller ocean cable connecting it to the sensor unit. Figure 2.7.2(b)
shows the three arrangements.
Ocean cables Sensor unit

shown separated
for clarity
Shore
station
Ocean cable to
each sensor unit
Individually cabled sensor units.
Sensor unit
Single
ocean cable
Shore
station
Separate cables
Junction to sensor units
Single main cable with junction.
Single Sensor unit

ocean cable
Shore
station
Breakout with short
cable to each sensor unit
Single main cable with breakouts.
Fig. 2.7.2(b) Alternative methods for ocean cables connecting

sensor units to shore.
Page 26
For deeper water below diving depth, the sensors may have to be along a single ocean cable,
accepting the inherent limitations on laying and sensor position, however this is generally
only suitable for acoustic measurements due to limitations on housing design to contain
sensors and electronics. Alternatively, the use of ROV's to position the sensor units on the
bottom can be employed, with the same cabling methods as for shallower water.
For underwater vehicles, some form of acoustic beacon or transponder system can normally be
incorporated into the array.
For acoustic ranges, the hydrophone units are normally of a single design. Mechanical design
can be typically similar to the hydrophone units for individually cabled long baseline arrays
for tracking ranges, as shown in figure 2.6.2.1(c), though a heavier base may be required to
prevent movement if the water motion due to wave action or ships passing overhead is
significant, or if there is substantial movement of the sediment along the bottom.
Electronics design is normally straightforward, with power being provided by one pair of
conductors and the signal transmitted to the shore station on another pairs that is, for
individually cabled systems a quad ocean cable can be used, and for single cabled systems a
common power pair ( or pairs ) and separate signal pairs for each sensor. Electronics in the
sensor units consists of a power supply and amplifier. In cases where the frequency range is
too large for a single hydrophone to be efficient, dual hydrophones can be used and their
output summed.
Shore station equipment consists of a DC power supply for the sensors, amplifiers for each
sensor ( may be shaped to compensate for cable transmission characteristics ) and analysis,
display and recording equipment.
For magnetic ranges the sensor units are also normally of a single design. Mechanical design
can use a deadweight anchor as the mounting for the sensors and telemetry units. To reduce
possible effects on the measurements, the deadweight anchor should be constructed of
unreinforced concrete or concrete reinforced using fiberglass or nonmagnetic stainless steel
rods. Agate must be of non magnetic type, such as limestone. Typical design is a truncated
cone with a hole in the center for mounting the sensors and telemetry units, which also
provides some protection from the environment. Figure 2.7.2(c) shows a typical layout. As
most systems are in very shallow water, the effect of the water motion due to wave action and
ships passing overhead, as well as the movement of sediment along the bottom must be
assessed when designing the anchor and mountings for the sensors.
Because of the possible effect on magnetic measurements, underwater pressure housings,,

mountings, etc. are normally made of nonmagnetic materials such as Polyethylene, or Celcon
plastic or fiberglass. Similarly underwater electrical connectors should also be of plastic
construction.
Electronics design varies with the types of sensor units used ( e.g. total field and directional
magnetometers, electric field probes ) particularly if they are commercial units. Several
power supplies may be required to meet differing voltage requirements of the sensors and
telemetry may be specially designed or incorporated in the sensors ( ie, in commercially
available units designed for remote location ). The most effective ocean cable construction is
twisted pairs or quads, due to the low radiation and pickup characteristics of this
construction,, with separate conductors for power and signal.
Because of the possibility of interference, considerable care must be taken in the design and
layout of sensors and electronics, including such measures as local shielding being used to
compensate for the use of plastic materials in pressure housings.
Page 27
Shore station equipment consists of DC power supply, or supplies, for the underwater sensors,
units for recovering the data from the telemetry, and analysis, display and recording
equipment.
Sensors ( Magnetometers,
electric field ), power
supplies and multiplexers
Deadweight anchor
( concrete ) Ocean
cable
Fig. 2.7.2(c) Typical arrangement of sensor unit for a

bottom mounted magnetic calibration
range.
Where the water movement due to the passage of the vessel over the range is sufficient to
possibly move the sensor units, an alternative in shallower water is to mount the sensors on
piles driven into the bottom. Care must be taken for magnetic ranges in the material used for
the piles. Figure 2.7.2(d) shows a typical arrangement.
Sensor
unit
Ocean
cable
Bottom Pile
Fig. 2.7.2(d) Sensor unit mounted on a pile

driven into the bottom.
Page 28
2.7.3 Taut Moored Arrays.
The taut moored array for an acoustic, magnetic, and/or electric field calibration range
consists of an array of sensors mounted along a taut subsurface mooring, with the vehicle to be
calibrated driven past the mooring at set distances and depths ( the latter for underwater
vehicles ). The location of the sensors, and the configuration of the mooring is determined by
the requirements given in the system specification.
These arrays are normally situated at or near the edge of a tracking range, such as shown in
figure 2.6.2.1(a) for the noise measuring string NMS ( an acoustic calibration array ). This
allows tracking of the vehicle as it makes a calibration run, both to provide control of the
vehicle and to determine its position accurately. The tracking range is also used to determine
movement of the array due to the effects of currents on the mooring, using a pinger mounted on
the mooring, to provide corrections for the distances of the sensors from the vehicle. A
pinger/beacon unit may also be included in the array to provide a navigation reference for
autonomous vehicles ( e.g. submarines ).
Taut moored calibration ranges normally use a single leg taut subsurface mooring for the
array with the sensors and telemetry units along the scope. The scope is normally an E/M
cable of torque balanced construction. To reduce the effects of currents on the mooring and to
prevent strumming, the electromechanical cable requires a soft, omnidirectional fairing, and
is essential for acoustic sensors. The E/M cables have normally of metal or synthetic strength
member. While synthetic strength members are lighter for the same strength, fish bite must
be considered in the selection of the E/M cable construction.
To allow determination of the position of the hydrophones due to the effect of currents on the
mooring, a pinger unit is generally placed near the top of the mooring, The position of this
pinger is determined using the tracking range, with control of the pinger transmission by
down cable signals from the shore station.
A typical arrangement of a taut subsurface mooring for an acoustic calibration range is shown
in figure 2.7.3(a). The ocean cable between the mooring and the shore station can be
multiconductor or coaxial, with coaxial being more suitable for longer runs. Armoring follows
normal practice.
Shore station equipment consists of DC power supply, power separation filter ( if coaxial
ocean cable ), pinger controllers equalizer networks and demultiplexers, and analysis,
display and recording equipment.
Taut moorings for magnetic calibration ranges differ from those for acoustic ranges in two
major respects. The first is the need to exclude magnetic material from the taut mooring and
the second is the need to be able to readily recover and redeploy the mooring to allow for
maintenance of the sensors which may be up to several times in each year.
Selection of nonmagnetic materials typically requires the use of syntactic foam/fiberglass

construction for the subsurface buoy, the use of fiberglass for sensor pressure housings and a
synthetic strength member in the electromechanical cables such as Kevlar. The latter requires
that the electromechanical cable be covered with a tough jacket such as urethane to reduce the
risk of fishbone to a minimum. To reduce the effects of currents on the mooring and to prevent
strumming, the electromechanical cable requires a soft, omnidirectional fairing.
Page 29
Surface
120 ft-36 m
Subsurface buoy
100 ft-30 m Hydrophone
190 ft-58 m Hydrophone

Pinger
210 ft-64 m
Hydrophone
1500 ft-457 m
Ocean cable
to shore
Fig. 2.7.3(a) Taut sub-surface mooring for acoustic calibration

range ( SCARF range ).
Sensors are normally mounted in a group consisting of typically a cesium magnetometer, a

vertical magnetic field sensor and an electric field sensor. A typical array will contain six or
more sensor groups. Allowable sensor excursion radius during a 10 to 20 minute data taking
period is not more than 3 feet - 1 meter. Typical arrangement of sensor pressure housings is
shown in figure 2.7.3(b). Normal practice is to use separate conductors to each sensor with the
multiplexer/ power supply unit being situated at the bottom of the mooring. The other units in
the array are the tracking pinger/beacon unit for determining array position and to provide
navigational reference. The multiplexer/power supply unit contains the power supply for the
sensors and pinger/ beacon(s) in the array and the multiplexer, a power separation filter ( if
coaxial ocean cable ). the frequency multiplexer for combining and transmitting sensor
outputs to the shore station, and control circuits for the pinger/beacon(s) operation.
The ocean cable between the mooring and the shore station can be multiconductor, coaxial, or
optical fiber, with coaxial and optical fiber being more suitable for longer runs. Armoring
follows normal practice.
The shore station equipment consists of the D-C power supply, power separation filter ( if
coaxial ocean ), cable equalizer networks and demultiplexers, pinger/beacon controller, and
analysis, display and recording equipment.
Page 30
Pigtail to
E/M cable
Pigtail to S.S.plate
Underwater
Underwater E/M cable
End cap connector
connector
S.S.rod
End cap Sensor
Electronics head
package
Support Fiberglass Fiberglass Support

rods (3) pressure pressure rods (3)
housing housing
(8 dia x 7) (8 dia x 7) Foam fill
Fluxgate thermal
sensor insulation
End cap
Electronics
Electrode (2) End cap package
for
electric field
mounted on
E/M cable
Vertical axis magnetometer and Cesium magnetometer sensor

electric field sensor housing housing
Fig. 2.7.3(b) Typical sensor housings for taut moored magnetic calibration ranges.
The mounting of the housings on the electromechanical cable can be done by strapping the
housing to the side of the cable, or if the strength member is in three ( or more sections, it can
be opened and pass around the housing. Figure 2.7.3(c) shows these two arrangements. The
breakout of the conductors from the cable at the sensors should be such that the minimum
amount of jointing is required to ensure reliability with connection to the sensor pressure
housing by underwater connector to facilitate maintenance.
Page 31
Conductors
bypass
housing
Conductor along
breakout outside
Strength
Mounting
member
(typ 3 or
4 sections)
Housing Housing
Guide for
strength
Strapping members
on E/M and
cable conductors
E/M cable E/M cable
Fig. 2.7.3.(c) Methods of mounting housings on

electro-mechanical cables with
synthetic strength members.
Configuration of arrays for magnetic calibration ranges can be a single leg taut subsurface
mooring, as shown in figure 2.7.3(d) and table 2.7.3(a), or a linear chair or goal post
subsurface mooring with two arrays, as shown in figure 2.7.3(e) and table 2.7.3(b). The use of
the linear chair configuration for two arrays instead of two separate single leg moorings
ensures the correct spacing between arrays, allows the use of a single ocean cable to connect
the arrays to the shore station, and makes laying and recovery simpler.
Page 32
Surface
250 ft-76 m
B1
T
S
1380-1450 ft-
a
420-442 m
T
B2, J
1300-1370 ft-
396-418 m d
C
AR g
A
Fig. 2.7.3(d) Single leg,taut sub-surface moored

magnetic calibration range.
( Preliminary design - St. Criox )
Table 2.7.3(a).
Components of Single Leg, Taut Subsurface Moored Magnetic

Calibration Range.
Item Symbol Data

______________________________________________________________
Buoys B1 3000 lbs - 1363 Kg buoyancy
B2 1000 lbs - 454 Kg buoyancy
Anchor A 9000 lbs - 4090 Kg ( water )
Cables a Sensor cable, 1 inch - 25 mm dia. E/M cable

Breaking strength = 2000 lbf - 909 Kgf
d 1-1/4 inch - 31.8 mm coaxial E/M cable
g Double contrahelically armored coaxial cable
Other S Sensors ( magnetometers, electric field )

T Tracking transducers ( Pingers )
C Connectors
J Junction box, multiplexer
AR Acoustic release
______________________________________________________________
Page 33
Surface
250 ft- 76 m B1 B1
T
S
1380-1450 ft- a
b
420-442 m
T, AR
B2 B2, J
1300-1370 ft- C c
396-418 m e
B3 d
f2 f1 A A g
AR C
3221-3250 ft 3221-3250 ft
982-991 m 480 ft 982-991 m
146 m
Fig. 2.7.3(e) Linear chair ( Goalpost ) taut moored magnetic calibration range
( Preliminary design St. Croix ).
Table 2.7.3(b)
Components of Linear Chair Taut Moored Magnetic

Calibration Range.
Item Symbol Data

______________________________________________________________
Buoys B1 3000 lbs - 1363 Kg buoyancy
Anchors A 1500 lbs - 682 Kg ( water ), concrete
Cables a and b Sensor cable, 1 inch - 25 mm dia. E/M cable

c 1-1/4 inch - 31.8 mm dia E/M cable
d 1-1/4 inch - 31.8 mm dia. coaxial E/M cable
e 1 inch - 25 mm dia. Kevlar cable
f1 1 inch - 25 mm dia. wire rope
3500 ft - 1067 m
f2 1 inch - 25 mm dia. polypropylene rope
3500 ft - 1067 m
g Double contrahelically armored coaxial cable
Other S Sensors ( magnetometers, electric field )

T Tracking transducers ( Pingers )
C Connectors
J Junction box, multiplexer
AR Acoustic release
______________________________________________________________
Page 34
The need for recovery to allow maintenance can be achieved using a recovery line attached to
the anchor, and laid out along the seafloor, An acoustic release and flotation can be used to
bring the end of the recovery line to the surface, or the recovery line can be grappled for, The
latter requires a cable ship to be available for use in the maintenance. Figure 2.7.3(f) shows
the linear chair configuration in installed and maintenance modes,
Anchor
lifted
Recovery during
line recovery
Installed mode
Arrays on
surface
Temporary
taut
mooring
Maintenance mode
Fig. 2.7.3(f) Linear chair range configurations for installed

( Operational ). and maintenance modes.
2.7.4 In-Situ Calibration of Range.
Because a calibration range is used to measure a characteristic, or characteristics, of a vehicle

compared to reference value(s), it is necessary to be able to check the operation of the range
after it is installed to ensure that it is still providing true values for the characteristic
measurement(s) being made. Several methods can be used, selection having to be made during
the initial stages of the system design.
Page 35
The first is to inject a test signal of known form into each sensor unit, normally between the
actual sensor ( e.g. hydrophone ) and the electronics. These test signals are controlled by
down cable signals from the shore station. This method checks the electronics and cable
transmission but not, in most cases, the sensor. Also, if the circuitry that develops the test
signal becomes faulty, it will show a sensor unit as being out of calibration, though in fact it
may not be.
The second method is to include transducers in the array to produce a test signal or signals,
which can be picked up by the sensors. Typical transducers would be a pinger for acoustic
sensors or a magnetic dipole for magnetic sensors. This has the advantage of testing the
complete sensor unit and if the test transducer is not operating properly, it is normally
apparent on several or all of the sensors in the array. The operation of the test transducers is
controlled by down cable signals from the shore station.
It should be noted that both of these methods increase the complexity of the underwater
section of the system, which must be considered when examining system reliability.
The third method is to use an external calibrated test transducer which is positioned at one or
more points relative to the array, or towed past ( or over ) the array. If the relative position of
the test transducer and the sensors in the array are able to be determined with sufficient
accuracy so that measurements taken will be equal to, or better than, the allowed deviation set
out in the system requirements, this method has the advantage of keeping the underwater
section of the system as simple as possible, and providing information on the possible effects
of the environment on the accuracy of the sensors in the array.
2.8 Environmental Systems.
When continuous environmental sensing is required such as on a tracking range, or for real
time research, the normal method is to use a single leg taut subsurface mooring with the
required sensors mounted along the scope, and connected to the shore station by an ocean
cable.
When used on a tracking range, the data is used for corrections applied to tracking
calculations. The mooring is situated on the boundary of the range such that it will not
interfere with normal operations of underwater vehicles, but still be able to provide the
necessary data.
When used for real time research, care must be taken in siting the system to ensure that it
will not interfere with navigation and that its position is available to navigators.
The typical design for an environmental sensor mooring, using electrical signal transmission,
is as follows:
(a) Buoyancy. A single subsurface buoy at the top of the scope is used to support and tension
the mooring. The depth of this buoy is set by wave action in the design storm conditions and
restrictions on the size and construction of the buoy itself.
The normal configuration for the buoy is spherical or elliptical, made from steel or syntactic
foam with a fiberglass shell. In the case of steel construction, it is normally subdivided into
three buoyancy section, two of which are together able to provide sufficient buoyancy to
support the scope, To reduce fouling, effective anti-fouling coatings are required to be applied
to the buoy and for steel buoys, passive protection against corrosion should be included.
Care must be taken, particularly in syntactic foam/fiberglass shell buoys, with the attachment
point for the scope to ensure that fatigue will not be a problem in the lifetime of the system.
Page 36
(b) Scope: The scope of the mooring is of a suitable double, contrahelically-wound, steel.
armored electromechanical cable of torque balanced design. Conductors may be coaxial, pairs,
quads, etc., as is required, noting the limitations on the ocean cable described below. The
upper part of the scope between the top sensor and the buoy can be of a suitable wire rope
with as torque free construction as possible ( e.g. 3x19 ),
The use of synthetic strength members in the electromechanical cable or at the top of the
scope should be avoided due to the susceptibility to damage from fish bite and the elongation
characteristics under load.
(c) Sensors: The sensors used are normally limited to temperature and pressure. Temperature
sensors typically are of the rapid response, platinum wire resistance controlled telemetry
oscillator design with the frequency corresponding to the temperature. Pressure sensors
typically are of the strain gauge construction in conjunction with a resistance controlled
telemetry oscillator similar to the temperature sensors. Each sensor has a separate frequency
channel ( e.g. IRIG channels ).
If acoustic sensors are to be used then, depending on the frequency range of interest, the
telemetry must be carefully considered. Base frequency shifting can be effective, particularly
if the bandwidth for sensor telemetry is limited. Frequency modulation is another possibility.
Telemetry units must be designed to minimize the possibility of generating interference

frequencies in other sensor channels if a malfunction occurs. Each sensor unit obtains its
power from the cable.
The sensor electronics are contained in either a small pressure housing, or if suitable
pressure insensitive components are available, they may be potted in epoxy resin. The
termination of the electromechanical cable on either side of a sensor can be done using
commercially available fittings ( e.g. preformed cable grips ), with a protective cage in the
load transfer structure to protect the sensor and its electronics. Commercially available
bulkhead connectors can be used for electrical connection to the cable, or for long life
systems, a molded polyethylene conductor seal can be used.
The position of the sensors along the scope is determined from measurements taken in the
survey, and is such that important variations in the water column properties will be able to be
measured with reasonable accuracy ( e.g. seasonal and diurnal variations in the thickness and
properties of the surface layer ).
(d) Anchor: The deadweight anchor can be made of reinforced concrete and scrap iron for
larger anchors, or cast steel for smaller anchors. This anchor is attached to the scope by a fish
plate which can also serve as protection for the splice between the electromechanical cable
and the ocean cable. The attachment point for the fish plate on the anchor is also used for the
lowering line.
(e) Ocean cable: The ocean cable between the mooring and the shore station follows normal
practice for armor types. Generally the type of ocean cable is determined by what is being
used for ocean cables to other sensors on a range, or by what is available in stock held at cable
factories, etc., and this will control the design of the electronics. The ocean cable must be able
to supply power to the sensors and transmit the carriers back to the shore station. For long
cable runs, or if the attenuation in the available ocean cable is high, a repeater may be
required.
(f) Recovery: Because of the difficulty of recovering the array for maintenance, it is desirable
to lay a recovery line attached to the anchor, away from the direction of the ocean cable and of
sufficient length that it can be grappled and brought to the surface without disturbing the
Page 37
anchor.
(g) Shore station: The shore station equipment includes a DC power supply, power separation
filter, equalizer network and demultiplexing equipment to recover the data channels. The use
of the data depends on the analysis equipment design ( e.g. manual or automatic input ).
(h) Strumming: Strumming can have several effects on the mooring, fatigue, interference with
the sensors, and acoustic noise. If acoustic measurements are included, then strumming
reduction becomes essential. A common method is to use a hairy fairing along the scope.
A typical mooring, used in the AUTEC range, is shown in figure 2.8(a).
The alternative to electrical signal transmission is optical signal transmission. While the
sensors will remain of the same type, the signal output will be digital and will require careful
design to ensure that if one ( or more ) sensor unit fails, it does not prevent the remainder
from functioning. Design requirements for the sensor units will be more stringent due to the
characteristics of optical fibers, e.g. stress and water vapor sensitivity.
Subsurface buoy 8 ft-2.4 m dia.

50ft-15 m
62ft-19 m T, P
138ft-42 m T, T T - Temperature
236ft-722 m T, P
P - Pressure Shore station
400ft-122 m T, T
564 ft-172 m T T - Redundant
646 ft-197 m T, T
temperature
5389 ft - 1643 m
728 ft-222 m T
810 ft-247 m T, P, T
1138 ft-347 m T
2123ft-647 m T, T
2615ft-797 m T
Coaxial ocean cable
3271ft-997m T, T
4009ft-1222m T
31 ft-9.5 m above bottom

5358ft-1634m T, T
Clump anchor
22000 lb - 10000 Kg
Fig. 2.8(a) Environmental sensor single leg, taut, sub-surface mooring

( AUTEC environmental monitoring array, Salvador Point ).
Page 38
2.9 Research Arrays.
A relatively recent development are research arrays. At their simplest they can consist of a
single sensor unit at the end of an ocean cable. When situated well away from the shore,
repeaters are included. Some of these systems have used old coaxial ocean cables intended for
communications systems. Typical sensors can include seismic, acoustic, or magnetic sensors.
It is likely that future systems of this type will used either caged armor coaxial or optical
fiber ocean cables.
More complex systems are being developed. One of the first of these is the Neptune Regional
Observatory System situated off the Oregon, Washington and British Columbia coasts on the
Juan de Fuca plate to measure properties such as seismic activity, water column properties,
and sediment transport. The system is intended to have a 25 year life. The system is based on
optical fiber communications systems technology, with the ability to add or remove sensor
units as required at the nodes. Figure 2.9(a) shows the location and layout of the system.
Fig. 2.9(a) Neptune Regional Observatory System

location and layout (2004).
Page 39
3. Design Considerations.
3.1 Introduction.
This chapter covers the main aspects that would be considered in the design of an ocean cable
system. The methodology presented is for the complete design process. In most
communications systems much of the component design has already been done and the
resulting design process is often compressed to reduce the overall time from finalizing the
specification of the system, to bringing it into operation.
The design process forms the major part of the cable engineering section of the project cycle
(See Volume 6, Section 2 of the Handbook). Design is both driven by the project cycle and
drives the project cycle as completion of parts of the design are necessary before other
sections can proceed. This is particularly so for one off designs and prototypes.
The design process not only covers the various components of the system, but must include the
installation, commissioning and maintenance.
3.2 Prerequisites.
For the design to start there must be a framework on which it can be based. This can take the
form of a comprehensive specification, such as for a communications system, a broad
requirement, or an objective, such as for a prototype. During the design process it must be
recognized that some aspects of the specification, requirements, or objectives may need to
change to meet cost limitations, installation capabilities and technology limits.
In some cases it may be necessary to form the design team for the project, drawing on both in-
house and external people, as needed, with the requisite skills needed for design of the
system.
3.3 Preliminary Design.
The preliminary design phase can be relative simple, or involved. One of the major decisions
in the preliminary design phase is to determine the feasibility of the proposed system, that
is, can it be built, can it be built along the intended cable track or at the specified site, what
is the level of risk, and is the proposed cost realistic.
From the desk survey ( Volume 6, Section 6 of the Handbook ), the initial cable track(s) for
communications, data and power systems can be selected. For ranges, surveillance systems,
etc., the initial cable track(s) and array sites can be selected. In some cases alternate shore
sites may need to be selected as well, if there are questions on the suitability of the proposed
sites. Once this is done then the detailed survey can be specified and commenced. It is noted
that in some communications systems this process is compressed so that all aspects of the
preliminary design process occur simultaneously to reduce the time scale, as well as some of
the manufacturing of components.
3.4 Overview of Design Considerations.
3.4.1 Power Systems.
Based on the literature, power systems are typically one off designs to meet the specification.
The design process includes the ocean cable design, both conductor(s) and armor, and the
installation system. A major input to the design is the detailed survey, which provides the
Page 40
cable track, armor type and the need for other protection, such as burial.
3.4.2 Communications and Data Systems.
Communications and data systems are normally based on standard components so the design
process is mainly selecting those components needed to build the required system. The major
input to the design is the detailed survey, which provides the cable track(s), armor type and
the need for other protection, such as burial.
The design of the ocean cable, repeaters, equalizers, branches, etc. is done during the
development phase of a new system. The design process will draw heavily on previous systems,
even when there is a major change in technology, such as coaxial to optical fiber.
3.4.3 Ranges, Surveillance and Other Systems.
These tend to fall into two classes, those based on standard components, and those which are
one off designs.
The design process for those based on standard designs is similar to communications systems.
For one off designs, the design process can encompass all aspects of the system.
The major input to the design is the detailed survey, which provides the cable track(s) and
site(s) data and the performance prediction of the sensors/system. Inadequate performance
may require resiting of the system to a more favorable area.
3.4.4 Installation.
While the configuration of the system and the installation method(s) have been developed and
finalized during the main design process, it necessary to present the installation process in a
form that is suited to the team or teams that will carry out the installation, even though
members of the design team involved in the design of the installation will normally be part of
these team(s).
3.4.5 Commissioning.
After the installation is complete, the system has been put into service and its operating
characteristics have been determined, it is necessary to review the specifications, the design
process, the survey, manufacturing and installation, to determine if all objectives were met,
and if not, why. Also all parts of the project should be examined to see if improvements can be
made future systems of this type.
3.4.6 Maintenance.
Once a system is in service, the major focus becomes maintenance of the system over its life.
Part of the design process is to determine if the normal methods used for the maintenance of
the underwater sections of the system are suitable, or whether it is necessary to develop
specialized maintenance methods and equipment.
3.5 Design.
3.5.1 General
The design process for an ocean cable system, as for any design process, will be an iterative
one. The following sections outline the major areas that will need to be considered in the
Page 41
design process. Depending on the system other specialized areas also may need to be
considered.
a) Electronics, optronics and sensors.
b) Ocean cables.
c) Electro-mechanical cables ( if used ).
d) Underwater Housing Design and Cable Seals.
e) Testing.
f) Installation and Maintenance.
3.5.2 Electronics, Optronics and Sensors.
While some systems do not have underwater electronics, optronics or sensors, such as
unrepeatered communications systems, most systems do, and all systems have some form of
shore station equipment.
The decision between electrical and optical signal transmission is primarily determined by
the data rate and the availability of suitable ocean cables. Where electrical signal
transmission is practical, the selection between electrical and optical signal transmission
may be affected by the more stringent requirements of optical transmission and associated
costs, support equipment and training.
Where a system has sensors, either along the ocean cable, or at the end of the ocean cable in a
mounting or mooring, the telemetry from the sensors will also drive the design process. In
general sensors will need to be robust and have a proven very high reliability if they cannot
be replaced easily ( e.g. shallow water ranges ).
It is possible to have a system with only sensors along the ocean cable, where the sensor
output is sufficient to drive the signal down the ocean cable to the shore station. These are
limited to short lengths from the shore station, but where possible, can result in a very simple
system of very high reliability.
Appendix AE gives information on electronics and optronics used in ocean cable systems, and
reliability, screening of components and assembly. The information is mainly on
communications systems, but much of it is applicable to other systems.
3.5.3 Ocean Cables.
3.5.3.1 Overview.
Ocean cables will form all of the submarine cables used in a system unless there are moorings
where the scope of these moorings will be of electro-mechanical cable, and in some cases,
there will be sections of cable lying on the bottom of electro-mechanical cable where the
installation of the parts of a system which require working that could cause damage to an
ocean cable. In most systems the ocean cable forms the major portion of the underwater
components and it is one of, if not the most costly component in a system. The minimum
lifetime of ocean cables when properly designed and used is typically 25 years, with many
systems reaching 30+ years. Almost all failures in ocean cables are due to either sudden
damage from anchors, earthquakes, etc., or long term damage from wear of fatigue caused by
water induced motion. Care in selecting the armor, cable route, slack, cable burial and similar
Page 42
factors can reduce failures in most cases.
Ocean cables must also be designed to allow splicing, both of conductor(s) and strength
members, during manufacture, installation and repair. This places restrictions on the design
as the splices must have a very high reliability and a lifetime the same as the ocean cables,
and splicing must be able to be done aboard a ship in a seaway.
3.5.3.2 Ocean Cable Selection.
The selection of the type, or types, of ocean cable to be used in a system is probably the most
important single decision made, as it affects almost every aspect of system design, cost,
installation, operational capabilities and repair. It is is tied to the type of signal
transmission to be used, electrical or optical.
Several possible situations can confront the design engineers when the decision on the type(s)
of ocean cable to be used, is made:
a) The type of ocean cable, and related components, is laid down in the system specification,
negating the need for selection. This is typical of major communications systems and
surveillance systems. ( In this case the system design consists of adapting the ocean cable and
its related components to the configuration required to produce an effective, low risk system.
) Costs are largely predetermined. The decisions about the ocean cable are basically limited to
the selection of the type of armor required for the ocean cable along the various sections of the
cable route.
b) A range of ocean cable types, and in many cases related components, is provided in the
system specification from which the selection is to be made. This is typical when the customer
operates several systems and and requires a degree of commonality in the ocean cables to
reduce ocean cable holding and repair costs. In this case the design engineers must assess this
range of ocean cables types, and related components, against the requirements of the system
and select the type, or types, of ocean cable that is most suitable. The final selection must be
made to produce a effective, low risk system at reasonable cost that can meet the system
specifications.
c) No type of ocean cable is specified and the cost of having a specific ocean cable, or cables,
made is too high. This is typical of small systems with short cable route lengths. In this case
the design engineers must determine what types of ocean cable are available from cable
manufacturers, etc., in adequate lengths, including an allowance for repair cable. Selection
must be based on evaluating the available ocean cable characteristics ( power and signal
transmission, mechanical ) against the requirements of the system, along with risk and cost.
Special cables and shore cables can generally be made up by over-armoring the deep sea
cable(s), if not available from stock. Modification of standard components for the selected
ocean cable(s) must be examined as a method of reducing design time, risk and cost.
d) No type(s) of ocean cable is specified and the nature and/or length of ocean cable(s) is such
that the cost of having the cable(s) made is realistic. This is typical of larger specialized
systems. In this case the decision must be made whether to undertake the design of an ocean
cable, or cables, to exactly meet the requirements, or to adopt a standard ocean cable designs
or designs ( or a simple modification of a standard design ). The first is normally highly
attractive, as long as it uses proven ocean cable technology to minimize risk, and in many
cases will be necessary to meet the requirements ( e.g. power cables ). However it will
generally entail increased costs for the ocean cable(s) and will require the development of the
associated components. The second option must be given due consideration as it will normally
have the lowest risk and costs even if it means using an ocean cables or cables, with somewhat
more capabilities than are required. It may also allow the use of existing associated
Page 43
components.
Special cables and shore cables can generally be made by over-armoring deep sea cable to
reduce costs ( if a deep sea cable is to be used, or exists ).
In the case where a selection between different ocean cable types can be made, the primary
factor to be considered is the conductor or conductors. This consideration must include signal
and power transmission characteristics, restrictions imposed on working the cable such as
minimum bending diameter, high pressure seal design and availability, and special
requirements for splicing. The armor/strength member is normally determined by standard
practice for the type of conductor(s) selected, unless there are special requirements for
installing bottom mounted units, such as minimum cable rotation under load, where a special
armor/strength member must be used or a more suitable type of ocean cable selected. The
latter may require the use of a different type of conductor(s).
The selection of the type, or types, of ocean cable to be used in a system must be made as early
as possible and before the cable route and site survey. The determination of the types of armor
to be used along the sections of the cable route is made after the completion of the cable route
and site survey and finalization of the layout of the underwater components.
Information on ocean cable types is given in Appendix AB.
3.5.3.3 Cable Couplings.
Section AA.5 of Appendix AA describes different types of couplings used to terminate ocean
cables to allow the transmission of the mechanical loads, tension and torque, between the
cable and housings along it and for the connection between the conductors in the ocean cable (
electrical and optical ) and the pigtail to the pressure seal. It is not possible to give hard
design requirements or rules for the design of couplings. Each coupling must be designed
specifically for the ocean cable it is to terminate, and if the cable has different armor types,
then a coupling must be designed for each armor type. It is however, possible to make a set of
couplings for a cable which match all or most of the armor types, with the same basic core
design to save on design, manufacturing and assembly costs. Because couplings can be
subjected to high loads during cable working, all designs should be tested before release for
use in a system. If the housings can pass over sheaves, etc., then the tests carried out should
include running a housing with couplings under tension through sheaves as well as the normal
tension test with restrained ends.
Some ocean cables have a range of cable couplings designed specifically for the ocean cable
and its housings. If these can be used, it simplifies the design and manufacturing, though
modifications may be required if a different housing is used from the standard one.
3.5.3.4 Armor Selection.
The selection of the types of armor to be used on an ocean cable along the sections of the cable
route is done in several stages. The types of armor normally used are given in Section AB.3 of
Appendix AB.
The first stage is to select from the standard range of armor types for the ocean cable ( e.g.
shore, intermediate and deep sea ) the most suitable for each section of the cable route, based
on the water depths and bottom characteristics along the section.
The second stage is to use the significant properties of the sea floor found during the cable
route and site survey, and any experience with existing ocean cables laid near the proposed
cable route, and the accumulated general experience with ocean cables, to determine if the
Page 44
standard armor types will be adequate for the sections of whether heavier armor should be
used along a section ( e.g. heavy shore ), or if an armor type should be used to a greater than
normal depth due to more severe bottom conditions than normally expected. Also if cable
burial is to be done, these sections that will be buried must be of suitable armor type ( such
as A armor ).
Cost versus risk must also be assessed if a heavier armor is to be used as it will require
additional cable to be held and will make the repair operation more difficult. It may be more
practical to use the standard armor type and accept the need for more frequent repairs and/or
the need to relay a section, or sections, in the future. In smaller systems, the use of a deep sea
cable which is overarmored for the shore sections will require this approach.
The final stage is to check that the ocean cable is strong enough to withstand laying and, more
importantly, repair operations. This is particularly the case where heavier armored sections
of cable extend down the continental slope and the deep sea cable may not be able to support
the weight of the heavier sections during repair. In this case if the heavier armor is essential,
a transition cable between the heavier armor and the deep sea armor will be required. The
necessary calculations for laying and repair operations are in Volume 2 of the handbook.
In general, for major systems such as communications or surveillance systems, the design
engineers will have a full range of armor types available, and if a special type is needed,
manufacture is normally practical. For smaller systems compromises must be made giving due
consideration to the ability to work heavier ocean cables, availability, cost and risk.
3.5.4 Electro-Mechanical Cable Selection.
Where a system includes electro-mechanical cable(s), once the characteristics of the cable are
determined, e.g. the conductors ( electrical and/or optical ) and the required strength, the
designer is faced with typically two choices. The first is to use a standard electro-mechanical
cable that meets the required characteristics, or if this is not practical then to design, or have
designed, an electro-mechanical cable specifically to meet the characteristics. The first
option is the most cost efficient as there will normally be cable terminations/seals available
off the shelf. The second option will be more costly but allows an optimum performance, and it
may be necessary to develop cable terminations/seals. Generally electro-mechanical cables
are manufactured in relative short lengths and often to meet specific requirements, so the cost
differential should be relatively low between standard and special cables.
More information on the characteristics of electro-mechanical cables is given in Appendix AC.
In determining the characteristics of the electro-mechanical cable the first stage will
typically be to define the data transmission and powering requirements. From these
requirements the number and type of conductors, including optical if they are to used, can be
determined. If the electro-mechanical cable directly connects to an ocean cable, then the
conductor arrangement in the ocean cable will dictate those in the electro-mechanical cable.
The next stage is to determine the requirements for the strength member. This includes the
load carried by the cable, e.g. mooring calculations; the strength member material, e.g. steel or
yarn; its construction, e.g. contrahelically wound wires around the core, a central strength
member, or woven yarn; the need for anti-strumming; and the possibility of fish bite.
Once these two are finalized, a preliminary design of the cable can be done. If a standard
electro-mechanical cable is to be used then this provides the basis from which a choice can be
made. It is likely that compromises will have to made to allow a standard cable to be used.
Alternatively it may result in the need to have a special cable designed and manufactured to
meet the requirements.
Page 45
For a special cable it may be necessary to repeat the procedure for conductors and strength
member to obtain a cable that both meets the requirements and can be manufactured. It will
also be necessary to determine whether standard terminations/seals can be used or that it will
be necessary to design and manufacture them to match the cable.
The selection of the type, or types, of electro-mechanical cable to be used in the system is
normally made in conjunction with the selection of the ocean cables, though the size of the
strength member(s) required must normally wait until the cable route and site survey is
complete to allow assessment of wave and current forces on the mooring(s).
3.5.5 Underwater Housing Design and Cable Seals.
Most systems have some form of underwater housing. Housings can form the junction between
two types of armor on the ocean cable, provide protection for a sensor, or house the electronics
or optronics of a repeater or branch. They may be inline with the ocean cable or mounted on a
frame. When they are inline there will be a cable coupling for each ocean cable that attaches to
the housing.
Cable seals allow the conductors to pass in and out of the housings. Their type is determined
by the ocean cable conductor type. If sensors are connected to the housing then the cable seals
for them will be determined by the type of conductors that form their leads. The cable seals
will normally pass through the ends of the housings.
Information on housings and cable seals is given in Appendix AA.
3.5.6 Testing.
Testing forms part of the development and design process. Testing can be mechanical, such as
pressure testing, or electrical/optronic. For sensors it generally will also include acoustic,
magnetic, electric field, etc., depending on the sensor type to verify its performance. Testing
is used to verify the design and assess its ability to meet the specifications and withstand the
deployment and maintenance operations.
Information on mechanical testing is given in Appendix AD, and for electronics and optronics
in Appendix AE.
3.5.7 Installation and Maintenance.
The methods for installing and maintaining the system can be a major factor in the design.
The installation of power systems can require the design of shipboard and shore site
equipment used to load the ship and deploy the ocean cable, if an existing system is not
available, or not suitable.
For communications and data systems, the installation and maintenance are normally done
using established standard methods and the design of the components is based around these
methods.
Surveillance systems, unless they are a new type of system, have the installation and
maintenance normally done using established standard methods and the design of the
components is based around these methods.
Ranges tend to be designed to suit the requirement and the installation and repair methods
form part of the design process. It may be necessary to look at several different designs, such
as line arrays, long baseline individually cables sensors, or short baseline arrays, to deter-
Page 46
mine the best option for the site of the range. For shallow ranges, installation may be feasible
using divers to position sensors and using barges, or similar, to carry and lay the ocean
cable(s). Repair or replacement of the sensors may also be possible using divers. Section 3.2 of
Volume 8 of the Handbook gives a guide to shallow water array installation.
For deeper water ranges, the availability of installation vessels and their equipment may
control the type af array that can be installed. Section 3.3 of Volume 8 of the Handbook gives a
range of options for array installation that can be assessed against available vessels and
equipment. In some cases it will be necessary to design special equipment to handle parts of
the system.
Special arrays, such as taut moored arrays, will generally need special handling. Section 3.4
of Volume 8 of the Handbook gives a guide to the installation various types of taut, sub-
surface, moored arrays.
Once the installation and maintenance methods have been finalized, then the documentation
covering them can be written. In some cases it will be necessary to lay and recover prototypes
to verify the design, and the installation and maintenance methods. Documentation will need
to be developed for the prototype that will feed into the final documentation.
Safety is paramount in the installation and maintenance of a system and if this cannot be
achieved, then a major rethink will be necessary, if necessary to the point of examining the
feasibility of the system under the constraints that have been applied. For major systems,
such as communications systems, the installation and maintenance methods have been well
tested and safety requirements are understood.
Annexes
Page A1
A. Ocean Grounds.
A.1 Function and Form.
The ocean ground is the grounding point for all equipment in the shore station. This single
ground point ensures that earth loop hum is minimized and that electrical or magnetic storms
cannot endanger electronic equipment in the station. If some equipment cannot be connected to
this ground then it must be isolated using isolating transformers or similar devices. The earth
potential in an electric storm from a nearby lightning strike is sufficient to destroy active
devices such as transistors or integrated circuits if two earth points are used and they form a
link between them. ( 10 feet - 3 meters separation of earths has caused the destruction of
transistors rated at 6 V maximum working, in a link that joined the two systems on the separate
earths ).
For the ocean cable, the ocean ground provides the earth for shielding, and for systems using
sea return path for power, it provides the current carrying ground.
For an ocean ground on the shore, it is normally made up of several buried silicon-iron rods,
and must be located where a uniformly low resistance of about one ohm maximum can be
maintained the year around. The ground must be close enough to the station that series
resistance of the connecting cable is correspondingly low. Adequate separation from other
underground metallic structures, including the ocean cable itself, must be provided such that
the other structures are not adversely affected by the cable system ground current. If the shore
station is sufficiently close to the sea, a satisfactory ground can usually be obtained in a salt
water environment adjacent to the landing beach; otherwise, earth resistivity measurements
must be made to find a suitable location of the ground and determine the number of silicon-
iron rods required.
For the ocean ground in the sea, a copper plate is normally used instead of the silicon-iron
rods. The connecting cable between the station and the ocean ground should be a heavily
armored ocean cable with low resistance conductors, such as a large quad or power cable.
The method for measuring ocean ground resistivity for siting the ocean ground on the shore is
given in Annex A of Volume 6 of the Handbook.
A.2 Calculation of Surface Potential for a Three Layer Earth Resistivity

Model.
The following equations determine the surface potential for a standard three layer earth model,
for a given change in the magnetic field at the surface. Form this, the maximum adverse earth
potentials and hence power supplies over voltage trip points can be estimated.
The propagation constant of the nth layer is given by:
1
$ i " 0 ' 2
! n =& )
% #n (
Page A2
where
#n = The resistivity of the n th layer, ohm meters or ohm n. miles.

" = The radian frequency.
0 = Permeability of free space 4 * +10 ,7 H/m or 23.285+ 10, 4 H/n. mile.
,
Q a correction factor to account for the reflection which occurs at the boundary between
layers 3 and 2, is given by:
= ! 2 + ! 3 tanh ! 2 h2
Q
! 3 + ! 2 tanh ! 2 h2
A further modification corrects for reflection from the boundary between layers 2 and 1, is
given by:
! 1 Q+ ! 2 tanh ! 1 h 1
Q=
! 2 + ! 1 Q tanh ! 1 h 1
With resistivity #1, of the top layer and the final correction factor Q, the resulting surface
impedance is:
i" 0
Q= ( i #1 " 0 ) 2 Q
1
Z1 =
!1
The surface potential, in terms of millivolts per kilometer, as a function of surface impedance
and driving magnetic field expressed in gammas is:
= (i5 #1 f )
1 2
E mv km Q H gammas
The factor 5 is due to the change from MKS units to CGS units.
For millivolts per n. mile
E m V / n. mile =1.852 ( 9260 i #1 f )

1
2
Q Hgammas
where one gamma is 10 , 5 G .
and
f = Frequency in Hz.
#1 = Resistivity of the top layer
= 100 ohm meters - 0.05397 ohm n. miles dry land ( average ), see table 12.8.4.2(a) for
more detailed values.
= 0.3 ohm meters - 0.00016 ohm n. miles sea water.
h1 = Depth of top layer
= 0.66 n. miles ( typical of dry land )
= Water depth for path across sea.
#2 = Resistivity of second layer.
= 5000 ohm meters - 2.69833 ohm n. miles.
Page A3
h2 = Depth of second layer.

= 161.9 n. miles
#3 = Resistivity of third layer.
= 10 ohm meters - 0.0054 ohm n. miles.
To solve for the ocean ground to ocean ground path for ocean cable systems, the path along the
great circle must be used, with simple numerical integration for the varying conditions of the
top layer, that is land or depth of water, and the variation on the driving magnetic field. If
magnetic field data is not available for the path, then a value of 700 gammas can be used as a
worst case, this value being reached in August, 1972 during an extreme magnetic storm.
Table A.2(a)
Resistivity of Materials.
Resistivity
Group Type ohms n. mile - ohms meter
__________________________________________________________________
General Dry land 0.05397 - 100
Sea water 0.00016 - 0.3
Igneous Granite 539 to 5390 - 107 to 109

Rock Lava flow basic 53.9 to 539 - 106 to 107
Lava, fresh 1.6 to 53.9 - 3x105 to 3x106
Quartz vein, massive >53.9 - >104
Sedimentary Limestone 0.0539 - 104

Rock Limestone Cambrian 0.0539 to 0.539 - 104 to 105
Sandstone 0. 539 - 104
Metamorphic Marble 2158 - 4x108

Rock Schist, mica 539 - 107
Shale, Nonesuch 0.0539 - 104
Shale, bed 0.539 - 105
Unconsolidated Clay, blue 0.107 - 2x104

Materials Clayey earth 0.0539 to 0.216 - 104 to 4x104
Gravel ` 0.539 - 105
Sands dry 0.539 to 5.39 - 105 to 106
Sands wet fresh water 0.539 to 5.39 - 105 to 106
__________________________________________________________________
Page A4
B. Hydrodynamic Forces on Ocean Cables.
B.1 Introduction.
All underwater components of an ocean cable system, unless buried, are subject to
hydrodynamic forces from currents, and in shallow water, waves. The magnitude of these forces
must be assessed to allow effective design that will prevent adverse effects due to these forces
on the system and its operation.
The magnitude and direction of the currents and waves that act on the underwater components
of the system is determined from the survey.
B.2 Overview.
Ocean cables and, where used, split pipe protection are acted on by hydrodynamic forces due to
currents and in shallow water, waves. The most significant of these forces, in the short term,
are those at right angles to the cable routes and they may be large enough to move the cable,
and split pipe protection, across the bottom, resulting in cable failure by excessive tension or
abrasion.
Calculation of these forces allows determination of suitable armor in waters too deep for split
pipe protection to be applied, or indicate the need for burial if armor cannot be increased to
that needed to immobilize the ocean cable on the bottom. For split pipe protection, calculations
indicate the need for attaching the split pipes to the bottom or trenching if the weight of the
split pipes is inadequate to prevent motion across the bottom.
Forces along the ocean cable, or split pipe protection, are relatively small compared to those at
right angles, but in the long term, particularly near the shore, there is a tendency for the ocean
cable, and the split pipes if used, to be dragged down slopes such as near the shore. This is
dependent on the steepness of the slope and sediment movement down the slope due to water
motion.
B.3 Steady Current.
The worst case is for an ocean cable sitting on a flat sea floor, completely uncovered.
The normal drag force on the cable is given by:
D= 12 # w V 2 CDC d per unit length (B.3-1)
where
#w = Density of sea water ( table B.2.2(a) ).

V = Current velocity normal to the cable.
d = Diameter of the ocean cable ( or equivalent diameter of split pipe ).
CDC = Drag coefficient ( normal ).
The drag coefficient is dependent on Reynold's number, given by:

Page A5
Vd
Re = (B.3-2)
-
where
- = Kinematic viscosity ( table B.3(b) ).
The drag coefficient is now determined from figure B.3(a). If bare cable, the value for the
smooth pipe can be used. If split pipe, then consideration must be given to the movement of the
flanges with time, if the sea floor is relatively hard the 45o value may be more pertinent, if
soft a value between that for 45o and 90o, and if anchored the value for a smooth cylinder to
provide a more conservative value than for flanges at zero angle and to allow for some movement
in unanchored sections.
10
9
Split pipe flange angle
.
8
Symbols
o
7 0
o
45
6 o
90
CDC , 45
o
5
o
3 90
o
2 45 Smooth circular pipe
1
o
0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
4
+10 5 6
+10 +10
Reynolds number
Fig B.3(a) CDC versus Reynolds number.

Page A6
Table B.3(a)
Values of Mass Density for Fresh and Salt Water.
Values as adopted by the ITTC meeting in London, 1963. Salinity of salt water 3.5 percent.
Density Density Density Density

of fresh Temp, of salt of fresh Temp, of salt
water, # , deg. water, # , water, # , deg. water, # ,
lb-sec2/ft4 F lb-sec2/ft4 lb-sec2/ft4 F lb-sec2/ft4

_________________________________________________________
1.9399 32 1.9947 1.9384 59 1.9905
1.9399 33 1.9946 1.9383 60 1.9903
1.9400 44 1.9946 1.9381 61 1.9901
1.9400 35 1.9945 1.9379 62 1.9898
1.9401 36 1.9944 1.9377 63 1.9895
1.9401 37 1.9943 1.9375 64 1.9893
1.9401 38 1.9942 1.9373 65 1.9890
1.9401 39 1.9941 1.9371 66 1.9888
1.9401 40 1.9940 1.9369 67 1.9885
1.9401 41 1.9939 1.9367 68 1.9882
1.9401 42 1.9937 1.9365 69 1.9879
1.9401 43 1.9936 1.9362 70 1.9876
1.9400 44 1.9934 1.9360 71 1.9873
1.9400 45 1.9933 1.9358 72 1.9870
1.9399 46 1.9931 1.9355 73 1.9867
1.9398 47 1.9930 1.9352 74 1.9864
1.9398 48 1.9928 1.9350 75 1.9861
1.9397 49 1.9926 1.9347 76 1.9858
1.9396 50 1.9924 1.9344 77 1.9854
1.9395 51 1.9923 1.9342 78 1.9851
1.9394 52 1.9921 1.9339 79 1.9848
1.9393 53 1.9919 1.9336 80 1.9844
1.9392 54 1.9917 1.9333 81 1.9841
1.9390 55 1.9914 1.9330 82 1.9837
1.9389 56 1.9912 1.9327 83 1.9834
1.9387 57 1.9910 1.9324 84 1.9830
1.9386 58 1.9908 1.9321 85 1.9827
1.9317 86 1.9823
_________________________________________________________
NOTE: For other salinities, interpolate linearly.

Page A7
Table B.3(b)
Values of Kinematic Viscosity for Fresh and Salt Water.
Values adopted by the ITTC meeting in London, 1963. Salinity of salt water 3.5 percent.
Kinematic Kinematic Kinematic Kinematic

viscosity of viscosity of viscosity of viscosity of
fresh water,Temp, salt water, fresh water, Temp, salt water,
- , ft2 x 105
deg. - , ft2 x 105 - , ft2 x 105 deg. - , ft2 x 105
sec F sec sec F sec
__________________________________________________________
1.9231 32 1.9681 1.2260 59 1.2791
1.8871 33 1.9323 1.2083 60 1.2615
1.8520 34 1.8974 1.1910 61 1.2443
1.8180 35 1.8637 1.1741 62 1.2275
1.7849 36 1.8309 1.1576 63 1.2111
1.7527 37 1.7991 1.1415 64 1.1951
1.7215 38 1.7682 1.1257 65 1.1794
1.6911 39 1.7382 1.1103 66 1.1640
1.6616 40 1.7091 1.0952 67 1.1489
1.6329 41 1.6807 1.0804 68 1.1342
1.6049 42 1.6532 1.0660 69 1.1198
1.5777 43 1.6263 1.0519 70 1.1057
1.5512 44 1.6002 1.0381 71 1.0918
1.5254 45 1.5748 1.0245 72 1.0783
1.5003 46 1.5501 1.0113 73 1.0650
1.4759 47 1.5259 0.9984 74 1.0520
1.4520 48 1.5024 0.9857 75 1.0392
1.4288 49 1.4796 0.9733 76 1.0267
1.4062 50 1.4572 0.9611 77 1.0145
1.3841 51 1.4354 0.9492 78 1.0025
1.3626 52 1.4142 0.9375 79 0.9907
1.3416 53 1.3935 0.9261 80 0.9791
1.3212 54 1.3732 0.9149 81 0.9678
1.3012 55 1.3535 0.9039 82 0.9567
1.2817 56 1.3343 0.8931 83 0.9457
1.2627 57 1.3154 0.8826 84 0.9350
1.2441 58 1.2970 0.8722 85 0.9245
0.8621 86 0.9142
__________________________________________________________
Note: For other salinities, interpolate linearly.

Page A8
The lift force on the ocean cable is given by:
L = 12 # w V 2 CL + d per unit length (B.3-3 )
where
CL + = Lift coefficient.
The lift coefficient is also dependent on Reynold's number and is determined from figure
B.3(b) in the same manner as for the drag coefficient.
It should be noted that if a small gap exists under the cable, a downwards lift force would be
exerted of similar magnitude, however this would aid cable stability and is thus not the worst
case.
10
9 Split pipe flange angle
8 . Symbols
o
0
7 o
45
o
6 90
o
CL + , 45
5
o
3 45
o
, 45
2
Smooth circular pipe
o
1 90
o
0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
4 5
+10 6
+10 +10
Reynolds number
Fig. B.3(b) CL + versus Reynolds number.

Page A9
The friction between the ocean cable and the sea floor is given by:
f = ( W C , L) (B.3-4)
where
= Coefficient of friction between the ocean cable and the sea floor.
WC = Weight of the cable per unit length in sea water.
The value for has been found to be approximately 0.4 for plastic covered ocean cables and up
to 0.7 for armored ocean cables on a softer bottom. For split pipes the value would be similar to
armored ocean cables if the flanges are not imbedded into the sea floor.
The resultant force on the ocean cable is given by:
F= f ,D (B.3-5)
and a safety factor can be defined as:
SF = f D
( WC , L ) (B.3-6)
=
D
ifSF > 1 is then the cable will not be moved across the sea floor, if SF < 0 movement will occur
and for 0 / SF / 1, then movement is possible
The velocity acting on an ocean cable due to a current is determined from a logarithmic
boundary layer profile, which has the form
V0 $ z '
V= ln & ) (B.3-7)
K % z0 (
where
V = Velocity at height z above the sea floor.

V0 = Free stream velocity.
K = Von Karman universal constant.
= 0 41
z = Height above sea floor ( e.g. the center of the ocean cable ).
z0 = Sea floor roughness ( micro topography )
The sea floor roughness or micro topography can be found from survey data, or if this is not
available, estimated from information in Volume 6, Section 5.7 of the Handbook.
B.4 Transverse Wave Action.
Transverse wave action on an ocean cable, or an ocean cable encased in split pipe protection,
can be considered as horizontal and vertical forces acting on the ocean cable or the split pipe.
Page A10
The horizontal force can be calculated using the Morison equation and Airy wave theory,
giving:
f H (0 ) = # V CI + U (0 ) + 12 # d CDC U (0 ) U (0 ) (B.4-1)
where
f H (0 ) = Instantaneous value of horizontal force at phase 0 / unit length.

# = Density of water ( table B.3(a) ).
V = Displaced volume of ocean cable or split pipe/unit length.
CI + = Inertia coefficient of ocean cable or split pipe.
(0 )
U = Instantaneous value of horizontal acceleration of water particle at center of ocean
cable or split pipe
d = Diameter of ocean cable or equivalent diameter of split pipe.
CDC = Drag coefficient.
U(0 ) = Instantaneous value of horizontal velocity of water particle at center of ocean cable
or split pipe.
The vertical force due to lift is given by:
fV (0 ) = 12 # CL + d U(0 ) U (0 ) (B.4-2)
where
fV (0 ) = Instantaneous value of vertical force at phase 0 / unit length.

CL + = Lift coefficient ( upwards ).
From Airy wave theory we get:
* H cosh 1 s
U= (B.4-3)
T sinh 1 h
where
U = Maximum horizontal velocity ( 0 =0 0 ,1800 ).

H = Wave height.
T = Wave period.
1 = 2* L
L = Wave length.
s = Distance of center of ocean cable or split pipe from sea floor ( d 2 ).
h = Water depth.
and
= 2 * 2 H cosh 1 s
2
U (B.4-4)
T sinh 1 h
Page A11
where
U = Maximum horizontal acceleration ( 0 = 90 0 ).
The relationship between parameters for the Airy wave are shown in figure B.4(a).
30
0 0 0 0
0.5

30 40 50 60 70 80 9 10 12 15 200

5
1
20
10
25

300
20 2
Period T Depths
sec. 15
T = L 5.12
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
Fig. B.4(a) Relationship of wave period, length and depth ( Airy wave theory ).
Now as
U(0 ) =U cos0
(B.4-5)
(0 ) = U sin 0
U
We can write
f H (0 ) = # V CI + U sin0 + 21 # d CDC U 2 cos 0 cos 0 (B.4-6)
with CI + determined at 0 = 90 0 .
and CDC determined at 0 =0 0 ,1800 .

Page A12
and
fV (0 ) = 12 # CL + dU 2 cos0 cos 0 (B.4-7)
with CL + determined at 0 =0 0 ,1800 .
For ocean cables CI + is given in figure B.4(b), CDC in figure B.3(a) and CL + in figure B.3(b),
with Reynold's number given by:
Ud
Re = (B.4-8)
-
where
- = Kinematic viscosity ( table B.3(b) ).
For split pipes CI + is given in figure B.4(c), CDC in figure B.4(d) and CL + in figure B.4(e),
with the period parameter given by:
UT
K= (B.4-9)
d
The angle of the flanges must be estimated. If the split pipe is restrained then a value for 0o
flange angle would be appropriate, if free on a hard bottom then a value for 45o, and for a soft
bottom a value between 45o and 90o.
Using these values, f H (0 ) is calculated for a range of 0 from 0o to 360o and f H min and f H max
is obtained. The largest absolute value FH is taken for stability calculations. Similarly the
lifting force is a function of 0. however the maximum value occurs at 0 = 0o ( cos0 = 1 ) and
this is taken as the maximum vertical force FV for stability calculations ( given 0 for FH may
be different ).
Now to determine the maximum force applied to the ocean cable or split pipe, we use the FH
and the FV to give the conservative value for the safety factor:
( WC , FV )
SF = (B.4-10)
FH
where
= Coefficient of friction of ocean cable or split pipe on sea floor.

WC = Weight of the ocean cable or split pipe and ocean cable in seawater / unit length.
The value for has been found to, be approximately 0.4 for plastic sheathed ocean cables with
higher values for armored ocean cables, with 0.7 for softer bottoms with some sinkage. For split
pipes, the coefficient of friction would be of the same order as for armored ocean cables if the
flanges are not imbedded in the bottom.
Page A13
For the equivalent diameter of split pipe, the total volume must be found either experimentally
or by calculation, noting that the inner bell is inside the adjoining outer bell when assembled
and hence does not contribute to the volume. The equivalent diameter is given by the diameter
of a cylinder of the same length as the split pipe ( i.e. between the centers of the bells ) with
the same volume. For US pattern split pipes, the 3.5 inch ID split pipe has an equivalent
diameter of 5.95 inches with a volume of 3113 cubic inches.
As for the current case, if SF > 1, then the cable will not be moved across the sea floor, if
SF < 0 movement will occur and for 0 / SF / 1, then movement is possible.
10

8
. Symbols
o
7 0
o
45
o
6 90
o
CI + , 45
5
o
90
4 o Smooth circular pipe
45
o
, 45
3
o
2 0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
4 5
+10 6
+10 +10
Reynolds number
Fig. B.4(b) CI + versus Reynolds number.

Page A14
10
9
Split pipe flange angle
8
. Symbols
7 o
0
o
45
6 o
90
CI + , 45
o
5
o
90
4 o
45
o
3 , 45
o
0
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Fig. B.4(c) CI + versus K.
10
8 . Symbols
o
0
7 o
45
o
6 90
o
CDC , 45
5
o
4 90
3 o
45
1 o
0
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Fig. B.4(d) CDC versus K.

Page A15
10
8 . Symbols
o
0
7 o
45
o
6 90
o
CL + , 45
5
o
3 90
o
45
2
o
, 45
1
o
0
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Fig. B.4(e) CL + versus K.

Page A16
C. Active Beach Profile.
C.1 Introduction.
The active beach profile is an area that extends out from the beach to a depth where the wave
action on a sandy bottom, or a bottom composed of a material of similar characteristics, causes
minimal effect on the bottom. This depth is required to determine the length along the ocean
cable out from the shoreline that will be effected by wave action on the bottom material, so that
the type of armor or the need for additional protection and burial can be determined. In some
cases, nearshore arrays can be in the zone effected. This depth is known as the yearly limit
depth or the closure depth, with the latter term more associated with multiyear time scales.
Because the data necessary for determining the active beach profile for any given beach is very
time consuming and expensive to obtain, calculations have been developed to estimate the limit
or closure depth.
C.2 Estimation of Limit or Closure Depth.
There are several methods for calculating the limit or closure depth for sandy type beaches,
which provide a reasonable estimate of this depth. The following methods provide ways of
calculating the closure depth depending on the data that is available.
The effective significant wave height He , can be determined from the annual mean significant
wave height H , and the standard deviation of significant wave height 3 H , as
He = H + 5.6 3 H
The effective significant wave height and period are based conditions only exceeded for 12
hours each year, i.e. 0.14 percent of the time.
The first method uses the effective significant wave height and wave steepness to calculate the
closure depth hc , where:
hc = 2.28He ( 1, 4.78H e L0 )
with the wave steepness L0 is given by:
L0 = He L e
where Le is the corresponding wavelength.
Table C.2(a) gives calculated results for the coasts of the U.S.A. The design wave conditions,
based on bathymetry studies, were found to be 2 for the Great Lakes, 5 for the Atlantic coast,
and 8 for the Pacific coast. If very limited data is available this table can be used to provide an
initial estimate of the closure depth.
Page A.17
Table C.2(a)
Calculated Closure Depths for 10 Design Wave Conditions.
Wave Significant Wave period Steepness Closure

condition wave height seconds depth
______________________________________________________________
1 6 ft - 1.8 m 6 0.0325 11.55 ft - 3.52 m
2 8 ft - 2.4 m 6 0.0434 14.45 ft - 4.41 m
3 8 ft - 2.4 m 8 0.0244 16.11 ft - 4.91 m
4 10 ft - 3.0 m 8 0.0305 19.47 ft - 5.94 m
5 10 ft - 3.0 m 10 0.0195 20.67 ft - 6.30 m
6 12 ft - 3.7 m 10 0.0234 24.29 ft - 7.41 m
7 16 ft - 4.9 m 10 0.0313 31.03 ft - 9.46 m
8 12 ft - 3.7 m 12 0.0163 25.23 ft - 7.69 m
9 16 ft - 4.9 m 12 0.0217 32.70 ft - 9.97 m
10 20 ft - 6.1 m 12 0.0271 39.69 ft - 12.1 m
______________________________________________________________
The second method uses effective wave period Te , to calculate the closure depth hc , where:
$ He 2 '
hc = 2.28He ,68.5 & 2)
% gTe (
Units are in feet and seconds.
Based on the above relationship for effective significant wave height and closure depth,
Hallermeier proposed the following relationship, that does not depend on effective wave period:
hc = 2H +113 H
Birkemeier, using high-quality field measurements, to evaluate Hallermeiers relationship,

developed the following simplified approximation:
hc =1.57 He
Page A.18
D. Bottom Penetration by Trawls, Anchors, etc.
D.1 Data.
Information on the penetration of the different types of bottoms by equipment, such as trawls
and anchors, is patchy and somewhat inconsistent including differing shear strengths for the
same bottom types between different sources.
The following table, table D.1(a), must be considered a guide to bottom penetration with burial
depths, where practical, being deeper than the penetration. It also shows that for some areas,
such as soft bottoms where large ships will anchor, it is not practical to bury the cable to a
safe depth and the only solution is to avoid these areas when determining the cable route.
Bottom shear strengths have been rationalized between different sources.
Table D.1(a)
Bottom Penetration.
Hard ground, Firm to soft soils Soft to very soft soils

Gear type clay > 10.2 psi - sand, clay, gravel mud, silt clay
72 kPa, 2.6 to 10.2 psi - 0.3 to 2.6 psi -
rock 20 to 70 kPa 2 to 20 kPa
Beam trawls, scallop < 1 ft 0.16 to 1 ft 0.5 to 1.3 ft
dredges < 0.3 m 0.05 to 0.3 m 0.15 to 0.4 m
Otter boards < 1 ft 0.16 to 1 ft < 1.7 ft
< 0.3 m 0.05 to 0.3 m < 0.5 m
Dredges N/A 0.5 ft 1.7 ft
0.15 m 0.5 m
Hydraulic dredges < 1 ft 1.5 ft N/A
< 0.3 m 0.45 m
Stow net fishing N/A 4.9 ft > 4.9 ft
anchors 1.5 m > 1.5 m
Ships anchors up to < 4.3 ft 5.3 ft 18 ft
10,000 t DWT < 1.3 m 1.6 m 5.5 m
( 50% of world fleet )
Ships anchors up to < 5.6 ft 7.2 ft 23 ft
100,000 t DWT < 1.7 m 2.2 m 6.9 m
( 95% 0f world fleet )
Appendices
Page AA.1
AA. Underwater Housings.
This chapter describers underwater housings, including the pressure housing, the cable seals,
and cable couplings.
AA.1 Introduction.
The majority of ocean cable systems have underwater housings of some form along the ocean
cable(s) to house electronics and/or optronics. In some cases it is possible to connect sensors,
such as hydrophones, directly to the ocean cable, particularly for near shore systems.
The following descriptions provide an outline of what has been used in ocean cable systems.
AA.2 General Arrangement.
Underwater housings come in variety of forms to suit the ocean cable system. Most underwater
housings are of the inline type, such as repeaters, equalizers and sensors. The main other type
of housing is the branching unit (Tee-junction) where one ocean cable is split into two ocean
cables, or where two become one. Sensor units and/or electronics may also be mounted to the
side of the ocean cable, if they are short in length.
One of the early designs was a flexible repeater designed by AT&T. The repeater, shown in
figure AA.2(a), was designed to be used with an armored coaxial ocean cable, type SB, and be
worked through the existing cable engines, that is multi-sheave and drums with fleeting
knives. The design dates from the 1930s and was used on systems laid in the 1950s.
The repeater unit is surrounded by two layers of steel rings, covered by a copper tube which
provides the water barrier. When passed through drum cable machinery, the rings separate on
the outer periphery, and the copper tube stretches. When the repeater leaves the drum under
tension, the rings separate and the copper stretches on the opposite side, leaving the repeater
in a slightly elongated state. On the ocean floor the pressure restores the repeater to its
original condition.
A system of seals is used at each end, to provide protection from the sea floor pressures and
water vapor. Polyisobutylene fluid is used to provide insulation and water vapor barrier, and
to fill voids that could become a potential hazard to long life. The use of the intermediate
compounds between the polyethylene insulation in the ocean cable and the rubber part of the
seal was due to the difficulties in making very reliable polyethylene/metal seal at that time.
The glass seal provided the water vapor barrier, as organic compounds such as rubber are
permeable to water vapor.
The copper tube covering the repeater is coated with asphalt varnish and gutta percha tape to
minimize corrosion. This is then coated with glass fabric tape, saturated with asphalt varnish
to provide a bedding for the armor wires. Armor wires are laid over the repeater and its tails
to make the repeater cable like in its tensile properties and to allow splicing to the ocean
cable. Over the region of the repeater proper where the diameter is double that of the ocean
cable, a second layer of armor wires is applied with the opposite lay to the first layer to avoid
subjecting the repeater to torque characteristically present in ocean cables under tension
during laying.
Systems using this type of repeater were still in use after 40 years.
Page AA.2
Return Elastic barrier Glass fabric Armor layers Armor bedding and
Cable tapes first second corrosion protection
(neoprene) armor bedding
core
Repeater unit section

(17 sections total)
Armor Polyisobutylene Copper core

layers fluid tube inner outer
Steel rings Copper container tube
Core sleeve seal
70 feet
7 feet 8 feet
Position of splice
to ocean cable
Intermediate compounds Armored repeater

between rubber and polyethylene Repeater tail Ocean
(cable) cable
Brass conductors
Rubber center outer Container Repeater circuit
connections
Polyethylene insulating
material of tail cable Brass bellows Polyisobutylene Armor layers Glass Kovar
fluid filling space
Rubber seal between glass and Glass seal
seals
Fig. AA.2(a) SB flexible repeater.
Another repeater in use at this time was developed by the British Post Office ( B.P.O. ). This is
of a rigid design, 9 feet - 2.74 m long and 10 inches - 254 mm diameter. The weight in air is
1150 lb - 523 Kg. The end of the repeater is shown in figure AA.2(b). The housing is
constructed of steel, with protection against corrosion by hot sprayed zinc and two coats of
vinyl paint. The pressure housing is sealed by two bulkheads carrying the cable glands. A
brass cover over each gland to complete the coaxial transmission path.
A cylindrical extension piece on each end, is screwed onto the main housing and contains the
armor clamps for attaching the the ocean cable. Domed end covers complete the housing.
The bulkheads rest on a seat to take the axial force due to pressure. The watertight and
diffusion proof seal between the bulkheads and the housing is formed by silver soldering
along the cylindrical interface. The process is done using induction heating to bring the silver
solder to the required temperature. Water jacket cooling is used to keep other parts of the
repeater from overheating. Plugs are provided in the bulkheads to allow air to escape during
assembly and solder process. These are finally use to flush the housing with nitrogen before
they are sealed.
Page AA.3
Fig. AA.2(b) Details of construction of B.P.O. housing.

A. Armor clamp. B. Gland. C. Bulkhead.
D. Part of internal unit.
With the introduction of armorless coaxial ocean cables, changes were made to repeater, and
equalizer, housing design. AT&T developed a rigid design constructed from copper-beryllium
alloy with connection to the ocean cable by gimballed couplings that would allow the repeater
to pass through drum type cable machinery and around sheaves. Two different coupling
designs are used, one for armorless ocean cable, and one for armored ocean cable. The design
evolved over the SD, SF and SG armorless ocean cables and the pressure housing has an overall
length of about 30 inches - 760 mm and a diameter of about 12.4 inches - 315 mm. The length
of the assembled repeater unit varies slightly, depending on the type of couplings used and
ocean cable, but is of order 8 feet - 2.4 meters and overall diameter of 12.5 inches - 318 mm.
Weight in air without couplings is about 512 lb - 233 Kg and in water 370 lb - 168 Kg ( SF
System ). The general layout of this type of repeater design as used on the SF and SG systems
is shown in figure AA.2(c). The end pressure end closures are sealed to the pressure housing
by welding.
The B.P.O. housing design was developed by STC with the pressure end closure being held in
place by mechanical means and sealing done using O-rings for the pressure seals and a lead
gasket for the water barrier seal. In order to accommodate the armorless ocean cables, a cable
coupling unit was developed using a grip made from armor wires, wound around the end of
the cable, to transfer the load from the center strength member into the repeater. The general
layout of this repeater is shown in figure AA.2(d). The length of the housing is 107 inches -
2.7 meters and the diameter is 10.5 inches - 267 mm. Weight in air is 1288 lb - 585 Kg and in
water 1100 lb - 500 Kg. Later versions of this housing had a flexible cable coupling of
limited movement, probably an Armadillo coupling.
Page AA.4
Cable Repeater Cable

Pressure
seal unit pigtail
end closure
Armorless ocean cable Armored ocean cable

coupling Cone End Pressure Radial Cone coupling
assembly spring housing spring assembly
Fig. AA.2(c) SF/SG rigid repeater.

Page AA.5
Cable Pressure Repeater

Armor wires pigtail end closure unit
anchor assembly
Armorless
ocean cable
Armor
wires
End
cap Cable Pressure
seal housing
Fig. AA.2(d) B.P.O./STC rigid repeater for Lightweight coaxial cables.
Other housing types included equalizers and branches (Tee-junctions). These are adaptations
of the repeater housings. The other manufacturers are in Japan, KDD-SCS, NEC and Fujitsu.
Their designs are similar in concept to the AT&T designs.
With the introduction of optical fiber ocean cables, the companies adopted their designs to
meet the new requirements. However, the part of AT&T that handled the ocean cable
components has now become part of Tyco, along with Simplex Wire and Cable. Alcatel of France
became the major player, taking over the STC ocean cable component section and then merging
with Lucent to become Alcatel-Lucent. The Japanese companies did not change.
Also with the advent of optical fiber ocean cables, the information on the design of the
components has significantly reduced. The following descriptions of communications systems
housing arrangements are based on sketches and photographs from trade literature and
articles.
The Tyco designs follow the general form of the AT&T designs, and the repeater unit and the
branch unit are shown in figure AA.2(e). The ocean cables are joined to the repeater unit by
gimballed couplings. The repeater unit is made from copper-beryllium alloy. The length along
the pressure housing between the cone assemblies is 27 inches - 690 mm with the diameter
over the cone assemblies of 13 inches - 330 mm. The repeater unit including cable couplings
is approximately 110 inches - 2.8 meters long.
The branch unit is a modified repeater unit with the cable couplings at the branching end
angles out 45o allowing the ocean cables to be in line with the branching unit, out to 90o.
Page AA.6
Cable Cable Pressure

pigtail seal housing Bellows
Gimbal Pressure Cone Ocean cable

end closure assembly coupling
Repeater unit
Branch unit
Fig. AA.2(e) Optical fiber ocean cable system repeater

and branch units - Tyco.
The Alcatel-Lucent designs follows the general form of the STC designs, though stainless steel
is now used for the construction. The ocean cable coupling is joined to the repeater by flexible
Armadillo couplings. The diameter of the pressure housing is approximately 9.5 inches - 240
mm with an overall length including cable couplings of approximately 118 inches - 3 meters.
The branch unit differs from other manufacturers units in that the two couplings are aligned
parallel to the axis of the unit. The arrangements for the Alcatel-Lucent designs is shown in
figure AA.2(f).
There seem to be several variations of this design.

Page AA.7

pigtail seal housing
Armadillo Pressure Ocean cable

coupling end closure coupling
Repeater unit
Branch unit
Fig. AA.2(f) Optical fiber ocean cable system repeater

and branch units - Alcatel-Lucent
The Fujitsu designs are probably derived from their coaxial ocean cable designs and are shown
in figure AA.2(g). The ocean cables are joined to the repeater unit by gimballed couplings. The
repeater unit is made from copper-beryllium alloy. The maximum diameter of the housing is
10.4 inches - 264 mm with a length of 55 inches - 1400 mm with an overall length including
cable couplings of approximately 138 inches - 3500 mm. The weight including couplings is
approximately 660 lb - 300 Kg.
The branch unit has the ocean ground situated on one of the ocean cable couplings. It is
approximately 150 inches - 3.8 meters long including couplings and weighs approximately
1056 lb - 480 Kg
Page AA.8

pigtail seal housing Bellows
Gimbal Pressure Ocean cable

end closure coupling
Repeater unit
Ocean
ground
Branch unit
Fig. AA.2(g) Optical fiber ocean cable system repeater

and branch units - Fujitsu.
The NEC branch unit, shown in figure AA.2(h), shows a different configuration for the ocean
ground, with the ground being situated down one of the ocean cables, some distance from the
branch unit. The ocean cables are joined to the branch unit by gimballed couplings. The
maximum diameter of the housing is approximately 18.9 inches - 480 mm, the total length of
the housing is approximately 49 inches - 1245 mm and the length over the housing and cable
couplings is approximately 181 inches - 4.6 meters.
Page AA.9
Ocean
ground

pigtail seal housing
Ocean
cable
Gimbal Pressure Bellows Ocean

end closure ground cable
Ocean cable
coupling
Fig. AA.2(h) Optical fiber ocean cable system branch

unit with separate ocean ground - NEC.
The BSURE terminal and telemetry unit, shown in figure AA.2(i), is a repeater like unit used
on a long baseline range. This is a relatively complex unit with a buoyed hydrophone and
requires to be mounted on a sled so that it will sit on the upright on the bottom to position the
hydrophone correctly. Its design makes it unsuitable for laying with normal cable machinery.
Tandem linear cable engines can be used so that the unit can bypass each unit in turn as it is
laid, while tension is maintained on the ocean cable.
The overall design is similar to that used for coaxial ocean cable repeaters with gimballed
cable couplings at each end. A major difference is the use of oil filled chambers. The buoyed
hydrophone introduces a point of failure that could reduce reliability and can introduce
problems with direct and bottom reflected signal interference.
Later units for long baseline ranges have the hydrophones in line with the ocean cable and can
be handled by normal cable engines.
Page AA.10
Hydrophone
Main pressure
housing
0 10 inches
Item No. Description Item No. Description Item No. Description

1 Hydrophone boot, outer 11 Load bearing insulator 20 Boot, end cap
2 Hydrophone boot, inner 12 Load bearing plate 21 End cap, tether
3 Hydrophone support element 13 SD cable strength termination 22 Oil filled
4 Hydrophone 14 Grooved contact termination chamber
5 Pigtails 15 Center conductor contact 23 Electrical feedthrough
6 Hydrophone base 16 Oil filled cable 24 Bulkhead
7 Seal, tether cable termination housing 25 TATU pressure housing
8 Cable, tether 17 Gimbal 26 Gimbal boot
9 Return tape termination 18 Seal, tether cable 27 Termination boot
10 Double Morrison seals 19 Seal, interconnect cable 28 SD List 1 ocean cable
Fig AA.2(i) BSURE terminal and telemetry unit ( TATU ).

Page AA.11
The unit shown in figure AA.2(j) is of the type used in long baseline ranges, and differs from
the previous units in that this unit is intended to be mounted vertically, as shown, on a frame
of the type shown in figures 2.6.2.1(b) and 2.6.2.1(c) with the strength member in the ocean
cable terminated on the frame.
The hydrophone is protected by an outer thick rubber boot which is filled with castor oil.
This is locked to the base of the unit by three ring clamps made of a corrosion resistant
copper-nickel alloy. The two inner rings have tapered faces to wedge the boot against the base
and the outer ring fits over these rings and rotates 60o to lock them in place. In inner rubber
boot covers the hydrophone and the outside of the pressure housing. At the bottom of the base
is the filling port for the caster oil.
Outer rubber
Hydrophone
boot
Inner rubber Electrical

boot feed-throughs
Electronics
Pressure
housing
Electrical
feed-throughs
Pressure
end closure
Caster
oil
Cable
gland
Mounting
Filling thread
port
Splice between
hydrophone leads
and coaxial cable
Fig AA.2(j) Typical hydrophone/electronics unit

for range.
Page AA.12
The electronics are protected from the pressure and sealed from the castor oil by a metal
pressure housing. The housing has hermetically sealed metal/glass electrical feed-throughs
top and bottom for connection to the hydrophone and the ocean cable, respectively. The two
polyethylene insulated leads exit the housing through a precompressed, multiple grommet
blind stuffing tube.
Units of this type have been in service for over 20 years and could be serviceable for 40 years.
Only problem found that could affect reliability is the need for care in assembling leads as
kinks could lead to failure.
The unit shown in figure AA.2(k) uses an oil filled chamber around the pressure housing
combined with a diaphragm seal between the sea and the oil filled chamber, and metal/glass or
metal/ceramic seals from the oil filled chamber into the pressure housing. A piston keeps the
pressure in the oil filled chamber equal to the outside pressure. Sensor(s) can be connected
by additional diaphragm and metal/glass or metal/ceramic seals. The disadvantage of this
housing is that for maximum reliability it must be mounted vertically, however where this is
practical it provides a simple, reliable housing. Frames such as used in short baseline arrays
are well suited for this type of housing.
Outer housing
Pressure
Up housing
Metal/glass or
metal/ceramic
conductor seals
Oil filled
chamber
Piston
Diaphragm seal(s) or
compression seal(s)
Conductors
Fig. AA.2(k) Use of oil filled chamber around to make

conductor entry into pressure housing.
Page AA.13
The unit shown in figure AA.2(l) is typical of short housings that can be mounted to the side
of the ocean cable and pass through drum cable machinery and sheaves without the need for an
articulated cable termination. They will pass through tracked cable engines but will require
care if used with tired cable machinery as there is a chance that the housing will be ejected
sideways. The housing is well suited for sensors and externally armored ocean cable.
Sensor/electronics Housing
Ocean Cable
Boot
cable termination Radius to suit drum
type cable engine
Fig. AA.2(l) Typical housing mounted to the side of the ocean cable
AA.3 Pressure Housings.
Pressure housings provide the protected environment required by the electronics and/or
optronics ( normally one atmosphere ). The most common design consists of a cylinder with
end caps. The end caps have provision for cable seals and the are attachments for the cable
couplings on the cylinder. The standard material for the pressure housing is metal, typically
steel or copper beryllium alloy, though aluminum, plastics and composites are used. However,
for long life systems, particularly for optical, the need to minimize the ingress of water vapor
requires a metal housing, as plastics and composites are permeable to water vapor. Seals
between the end caps and the cylinder are typically O-rings, but for the long life systems it is
necessary to have a metal to metal seal as rubber O-rings are permeable to water vapor. In
some designs the end caps are joined to the cylinder using welding.
Figure AA.3(a) shows the AT&T housing that was used with the later coaxial ocean cable
communication systems. This design has a domed end closure that is both held in place and
sealed using a weld along the join of the end closure and pressure housing. This also provides
the water vapor barrier. This requires careful design so that the forces at the weld are
essentially zero under both tensile loads due to laying and recovery and from pressure. The
housing is made of copper-beryllium alloy for strength and corrosion resistance. A rubber O-
ring may be required inside the welded joint to seal against contamination entering the inside
of the housing from the welding process.
Based on the information available, a modified version of this design is used by Tyco for its
optical fiber ocean cable communication systems.
Page AA.14
Cable strength
member termination
coupling ring Domed High pressure
(cone assembly) end closure conductor seal
Electron beam
welded seal
10.61 in
0.875 in -22 mm
28.26 in 269 mm
718 mm Pressure
housing
Fig. AA.3(a) AT&T pressure housing
Figure AA.3(b) shows the STC housing that was used with their later coaxial ocean cable
communication systems. The design has a flat end closure held in place by a ring of thrust
screws that also push the end closure into the lead gasket for the water vapor barrier. Sealing
against pressure was by a system of O-rings with petroleum jelly under pressure between
them to improve performance. The housing was made from high strength steel with coatings to
prevent corrosion.
Based on the information available, a modified version of this design is used by Alcatel-
Lucent for its optical fiber ocean cable telecommunication systems.
Page AA.15
Cable strength
member termination
Inter O-ring
coupling ring
pressurizing
( jointing chamber) High pressure
assembly
conductor seal
End closure
retaining ring
Thrust screws
Push rods
Intensifier assembly
Petroleum jelly
Main O-ring seals

Lead gasket
87.5 in
2223 mm End closure
10.5 in Pressure
267 mm housing
Fig. AA.3(b) STC pressure housing.
For non-communications systems, such as shown in figures AA.2.(i) and AA.2(j), the pressure
housings can take various forms to suit the application and manufacturing capabilities. To get
a water vapor seal, a rubber O-ring can be used for the secondary ( outer ) seal, with a metal
O-ring for the primary (inner) seal. The rubber O-ring is used as a piston seal and the metal
O-ring as a face seal. The end closure can be held in by screws or by a retaining ring that is
screwed down onto it. An arrangement using metal O-rings is shown in figure AA.3(c).
Where the pressure is immersed in an oil filled chamber, or is made of non-metallic

materials, the use of normal rubber O-rings is suitable.
Page AA.16
Retaining ring -
provides preload
Rubber
O-ring End
closure
Metal
O-ring
Pressure
housing
Fig. AA.3(c) Pressure housing with metal O-ring seal.
AA.4 Cable Seals.
Cable seals allow the conductors, electrical or optical, to enter a pressure housing or a sensor.
AA.4.1 Bridgeman Seal.
The Bridgeman seal is a gasket type seal that requires no bonding between the dielectric and
the seal body. It may be made up as a separate unit or may be incorporated into the end
closure of the pressure housing. It comes in a single conductor form for coaxial conductors,
and in a pair form for multi-conductor use. The seal was developed by the AT&T company. It
is normally supplied as the molded center section only, the user being required to make up
the rest of the seal. The seal is usable to at least 12000 psi - 82740 KPa and meets the
requirements for a 20 year life.
Figure AA.4.1(a) shows the type 3C seal for coaxial conductors and is suitable for carrier
frequencies up to 6 MHz. The return conductor is not shown, but is fitted over the outside of
the seal casing. The seal consists of a center molded section containing the conductor, the
casing ( which may be part of the end closure ) and the spring actuated pre-load unit. The
molded dielectric center section has plunger with extensions on each end for the attachment of
the pigtails. Inside the plunger, the conductor is formed into a disc to provide the mechanical
member to resist the thrust of the external pressure.
A ceramic ring below the disc prevents extrusion of the polyethylene. The lower surface of the
plunger acts as the gasket seal. To keep the plunger seated properly, a double Belleville
spring is used to push a piston down onto the plunger.
Page AA.17
High pressure side
Splice point for

external pigtail
Polyethylene dielectric
Cap
Circlip
Belleville spring
Casing
Attachment point for

Piston return conductor
Plunger Central
conductor
Ceramic ring
Tin-Antimony gasket
O ring seal
End closure
Splice point for

internal pigtail
Low pressure side
Fig. AA.4.1(a) Bridgeman seal type 3C, shown with

separate casing.
Figure AA.4.1(b) shows the later type 8 seal for coaxial conductors which is suitable for
carrier frequencies up to at least 30 MHz. This seal is derived from the type 3C seal, but to
reduce excessive capacitance at the higher frequencies the ceramic ring is enlarged to perform
the function of the disc on the conductor of the type 3C seal. The conductor is made in two
parts with the cap integrally formed on each that screw together. These are placed into the
ceramic ring and screwed together with a small fluoroplastic washer under each cap. The unit
is heated to melt the included solder slug into the threads and is then torqued hand tight.
Differential thermal contraction compresses the washer to form a hermetic seal. Both of these
seals are designed for pigtails of 0.500 inch diameter.
Page AA.18
High pressure side
Splice point for

external pigtail
Cap
Attachment point for Circlip

return conductor Belleville spring
Plunger Piston
Ceramic ring
End closure
Central
Polyethylene dielectric conductor
Splice point for

internal pigtail
Low pressure side
Fig. AA.4.1(b) Typical arrangement of Bridgeman seal type 8

shown integral with end closure.
There is version of this seal for a pair of conductors used for connecting pair or quad cables,
or sensors to a pressure housing.
AA.4.2 B.P.O. Seal.
The B.P.O. seal is essentially a gasket seal, however, the gasket face is 'bonded' to the outer
face of the metal stem. It may be made up as a separate unit or incorporated into the end
closure of the pressure housing. It comes in a single conductor form for coaxial conductors or
in a multiple conductor form. In the multiple conductor form, each conductor is separate and
the seal is essentially a number of single conductor seals grouped into the one seal unit. The
seal was developed by the British Post Office, but is available from a number of
manufacturers, not the B.P.O. Because of the need for 'bonding', the user normally supplies the
Page AA.19
end closure or stem assembly to the manufacturer, who molds on the seal and pigtails. The seal
is usable to at least 11200 psi - 77220 KPa and meets the requirements for a 20 year life.
Other forms of the seal exist for use at lower pressures with a wider range of cable types able
to be accommodated. Figure AA.4.2(a) shows the coaxial seal, multiple conductor seals are
directly derived from this design.
High pressure side

External
pigtail
Conductor
Molding
Bonded
surface Threads
Attachment point for (inside)
return conductor
Stem
End closure Support

Internal sock
pigtail
Low pressure side
Fig. AA.4.2(a) B.P.O. seal shown integral with

end closure.
This type of seal is suitable for use up to at least 30 MHz frequency carriers. The seal
consists of the metal stem with a cylindrical section containing three annular grooves of
approximately square section with a flange below for the connection of the return conductor (
not required for multiple conductor seals ). The inside of the stem is tapped with a standard
screw thread. The dielectric is molded over the cylindrical portion of the stem.
The seal has the mechanical strength to withstand the axial thrust produced by the
hydrostatic pressure, because during the molding of the dielectric over the stem, the
polyethylene on the inside is also molded into the screw thread, this providing the bearing
surface to take the thrust. The hydrostatic pressure also forces the polyethylene against the
outer surface of the stem and into the annular grooves where local stress concentrations make
the seal self sealing.
Page AA.20
To improve the initial sealing the polyethylene on the outside of the stem is 'bonded' to the
stem by the following method developed by the B.P.O. Prior to making up the seal the outside
of the stem including the grooves is firstly lead plated, then anodized to form lead peroxide, a
surface to which polyethylene will adhere to reasonably well. This is then coated with a
solution of polyethylene in xylene. After the solvent has evaporated the stem is heated to
produce a 'bond' between the deposited polyethylene and the lead peroxide. During the
subsequent molding process, the injected polyethylene merges with this 'bonded'
polyethylene.
In the molding of the seal, great care is required to ensure the exclusion of air, correct
temperatures and pressures and control of the cooling. Once complete, the seal is X-rayed to
check for voids, poor bonding, etc. As with all seals for long term use, normal practice is to
test each seal individually under maximum pressure for 3 months.
AA.4.3 Prevention of Electro-Chemical Corrosion of Return Conductors.
When the return conductor of a coaxial conductor is attached to a pressure housing or fitting
of a material of a different electro-chemical potential than the return conductor ( which is
normally copper in the pigtails ), it is necessary to provide an insulating medium to prevent
electro-chemical corrosion at the junction of the return conductor and the housing.
Central
conductor
Polyethylene
dielectric
Return conductor
Sheath
(copper braid)
Neoprene rubber
bell
Brass Polyisobutylene
coupler insulating fluid
Bell retaining
ring
End closure
Fig. AA.4.3(a) Insulation of return conductor

from sea.
Page AA.21
Figure AA.4.3(a) shows a system developed by the B.P.0., for their seals. The copper braided
return conductor on the pigtail is brazed to a brass coupler, which in turn is connected to the
flange on the seal stem. A neoprene rubber bell is fitted over this assembly and is secured to
the end closure by a threaded ring. The boot is filled with polyisobutylene insulating fluid
under vacuum, by a fill hole ( not shown ). At a later stage, the copper braid is also flushed
with this fluid and is then covered with self vulcanizing rubber tape which is brought up over
the outer end of the bell to provide a complete seal over the copper braid. The rubber tape is
covered by two layers of adhesive backed tape for protection.
AA.4.4 Optical Fiber Seals.
Optical fiber seals differ from electrical seals in that the water vapor barrier must be
maintained from the seal to the cable coupling. This means that the pigtail forms part of the
seal, as, unlike electrical seals it is not practical to have a joint between the pigtail and the
seal.
High pressure side

Cable
coupling/joint
Optical fibers
end
Coiled
pigtail
Cap
Circlip
Belville spring
Plunger
Piston
Ceramic ring
Polyethylene End closure

insulation Power connection
Metal tube
Optical
Optical fiber
fibers
seal
Low pressure side
Fig. AA.4.4(a) Basic arrangement of optical fiber seal

shown integral with end closure.
Page AA.22
The seal comprises a metal tube, which acts as both the power conductor and the water vapor
barrier to the optical fibers inside it. To prevent water hosing along the tube, it is filled with
a thixotropic jelly. A ceramic ring is bonded to the tube, using a metal to ceramic seal, to take
the thrust of the water pressure and provide the necessary high voltage insulation. A
polyethylene sheath is molded over the ceramic ring and tube to form the plunger and join
onto the insulation over the pigtail. The seal is a form of a Bridgeman seal. Figure AA.4.4(a)
shows the general form of the seal.
There is also a design that is similar to the B.P.O. seal for coaxial conductors, where the
central conductor is replaced by the tube.
AA.4.5 Diaphragm Seals.
Diaphragm seals are used where conductors pass from the sea into a fluid filled chamber at
full sea pressure. Hence the seal must provide a liquid tight seal at the operating pressure but
is not required to resist any significant pressure differential. Seals of this type are typically
used on sensors where the sensor is in an oil bath at sea pressure, or a pressure housing of the
type shown in figures AA.2(j) and AA.2(k).
Figure AA.4.5(a) shows a typical seal for a conductor pair. The conductor pair have a plunger,
molded to their insulation to provide a sealing surface and to locate them mechanically in the
seal. The gasket seal is provided by a rubber ring which is forced by a piston against the seat
of the seal and the plunger by the pressure. To aid initial sealing, the piston has a preload
applied by a set of springs. Seals of this type can be operated at all pressures and have a long
life, however, care is needed in selecting the materials to insure against corrosion. This is a
type of Morrison seal.
Sea
Retaining External
screws (6) pigtails
Preload
springs (6)
Plunger
Piston
Housing Rubber ring

Internal
pigtails
Fluid filled
chamber at sea
pressure
Fig. AA.4.5(a) Diaphragm seal for pair

of conductors.
Page AA.23
A modification of this type of seal, as shown in figure AA.2(j), uses a series of rubber and
metal rings around the plunger to effect the seal.
AA.4.6 Boot Seal.
The boot seal is a gasket type seal that requires no molding. It was developed for dry core,
multiconductor polyethylene insulated cables with an external jacket that were unsuitable for
reliable molding, and for rubber jacketed cables on sensors, but is suitable for any cable with
a smooth outer jacket. For wet core multi-conductor cables, a plunger can be molded onto the
conductors to provide a smooth surface for sealing, such as is done for the diaphragm seals. It
is designed to be made up as a separate unit and is made up on the end of the cable, and hence
there are no external pigtails. This type of seal is also used on the cores electro-mechanical
cables. There are suppliers of this seal, however once the dimensions of the seal are
determined, manufacture is relatively straightforward. The seal is usable to pressures in
excess of 3000 psi and has demonstrated a lifetime of more than 6 years on both polyethylene
and rubber jacketed conductors in both deep and shallow water. The limitation of the seal is
the construction of the jacketed conductors and the effect of pressure on this structure.
High pressure side

Central
conductor
Polyethylene
insulation
Rubber
tape
Circumferential
grooves
Rubber
boot
Retaining Stem
ring
Epoxy filled anti-

extrusion chamber Casing
Metal O-ring
O-ring
Retaining nut
End closure
Epoxy spider Internal pigtail
Low pressure side
Fig. AA.4.6(a) Boot seal made up on single conductor.

Page AA.24
Figure AA.4.6(a) shows the seal used on a single conductor cable, other construction jacketed
cables, i.e. quads, are of the same layout but the dimensions of the stem and boot are adjusted
to suit the outside diameter, and the spider is made to match the conductors. The boot
provides the water tight seal on the jacket of the cable and on the metal stem, aided by the
external pressure.
The axial thrust from the external pressure is taken by the epoxy filled anti-extrusion
chamber. The conductor(s) are exposed at the point where they are in this chamber, and it is
epoxy filled to transfer the thrust from the conductor insulation and the conductors into the
body of the seal, aided by the conical shape of the chamber. The spider keeps the conductors
apart and positioned during the filling with epoxy. The small wrap of rubber insulating tape
at the end of the boot serves two purposes, firstly to stop marine organisms from getting
between the boot and the jacket, and secondly, to aid sealing on the jacket if the conductor(s)
are bent outside the boot tending to open the sealing. The rubber then flows into any gap
under the external pressure ensuring the seal is maintained.
AA.5 Cable Couplings.
Cable couplings provide the mechanical attachment of the ocean cable typically to an
underwater housing or array support frame.
AA.5.1 Armorless Coaxial Ocean Cable - External Termination Coupling (STC).
AA.5.1.1 Form.
The external termination coupling is relatively simple to manufacture but is bulky and
depends on the effective load transfer across the coaxial insulation, between the central
conductor and load carrying member and a section of external armor. The main advantage of
this coupling is that there is no metal to metal contact between the parts of the coupling and
the conductors of the cable. The main disadvantage is that it requires a housing to bypass
drum type cable engines and sheaves. This coupling is also suitable for the smaller sizes of
armor wires on armored cables, the armor wires in the cable being used to transfer the load
directly into the coupling, instead of using the separate external armor as for a central
strength member cable.
The coupling is required to be able to withstand the breaking strength of the cable and
transfer the torque at breaking strength under twist constrained conditions.
The coupling consists of essentially two sections, the preformed armor wires and cone, and the
main body. For armored cable, the preformed armor wires are replaced by the actual armor
wires in the cable. The main body of the coupling transfers the load into the main housing. A
coupling without a gimbal in shown in figure AA.5.1.1(a).
The load in the center strength member is transferred across the coaxial conductor by friction
between the center strength member/conductor and the dielectric, the dielectric and the
return tape, and the return tape and the sheathing. The preformed armor tends to increase the
squeeze between these layers to improve friction forces. The preformed armor transfers the
load between the cable and the main housing by the cone and anchor plate and collet assembly.
The collet assembly both transfers the tensile load and torque into the main housing and
retains the armor wires around the cone, using the conical inside of the assembly to bear on
the armor wires over the outside of the cone and pressing the cone against supports on the
anchor plate.
Later versions of this termination coupling used an Armadillo coupling between it and the
housing to provide some articulation .
72 feet-22 meters Molded joint
between ocean
cable and small
diameter pigtail
Pigtail
Serving
Anchor plate
Preformed armor wires

End cap Jointing chamber
Collet ring Cone
Split collet
Fig. AA.5.1.1(a) External termination of armorless ocean cable.

Page AA.25
Page AA.26
AA.5.1.2 Assembly.
Assembly of the external termination coupling is straightforward. For an armored cable, the
method is the same as described below, but instead of the preformed armor wires being wound
onto the cable, the armor wires in the cable are formed to fit the cone.
The central conductor ( and strength member ) of the cable is first joined to the center
conductor of the pigtail by swaging and soldering a fitting between them. The dielectric is
then remade by molding. The return tope of the cable is brazed to the braid of the pigtail, and
if the pigtail is jacketed, the jacket between the cable and pigtail is remade by molding.
When this is complete, the cone is, placed over the end of the cable and held in place by a jig.
The preformed armor wires are inserted between the cone and the cable and then over the cone,
and partially wound around the cable to hold them in place. When all the armor wires are in
place, the end cap, collet assembly and anchor plate are made up onto the cable. The collet
assembly is carefully tightened over the armor wires and the cone, forcing them back onto the
anchor plate. The preformed armor wires are adjusted to ensure that they bear equally on all
the components. When the collet assembly is fully tightened, the armor wires are carefully
wrapped around the cable in groups ( in the same manner as for a preformed stopper, Volume 5
of the Handbook, Section 21.4 ) When complete, the preformed armor wires are wrapped in
servings. The rest of the coupling is then assembled ready for connection to the main housing.
It should be noted that the laying up of both preformed armor wires and armor wires in an
armored cable around the cone must be done carefully to ensure that each wire effectively
transfers its load in order that every armor wire carries an equal share of the load.
AA.5.2 Armorless Coaxial Ocean Cable - Central Termination Coupling

(AT&T).
AA.5.2.1 Form.
The central termination coupling is the more complex to manufacture, but has the more direct
path for the tensile load and torque transfer, and is more compact. Couplings of this type are
normally made of copper beryllium alloy which matches the copper return tapes on the cable.
If the main housing is not of this material, then insulation must be provided between the
coupling and the housing along the lines described in the swaged sleeve coupling. If the return
tapes are of aluminum, this coupling in not suitable as the design to prevent electro-chemical
interaction between the various metals required becomes very difficult and increases the cost
substantially.
The coupling is required to be able to withstand the breaking strength of the cable and
transfer the torque at breaking strength under twist constrained conditions.
The coupling consists of two main sections, the anchor assembly and the external cone housing
assembly. These are separated by the dielectric of the coaxial conductor. The external cone
housing assembly transfers the load into the main housing. The coupling includes a 45o
gimbal to allow the housing to pass through cable machinery and over sheaves, and is shown in
figure AA.5.2.1(a).
The center stranded strength member of the cable is terminated in epoxy in the termination
cone. Because of the need to maintain dimensions, swaging is not possible. The termination
cone is surrounded by a ceramic ring over which the dielectric is formed. The tensile load is
transferred through this section of the dielectric into the cone housing. Torque is transferred
by two half slots molded into the dielectric, which engage two keys in the cone housing cap.
Cone housing
cap
Retaining ring Gimbal Termination cone
housing Ceramic ring
Clamp ring
Polyethylene Anchor mold
assembly Boot
Collar
Pigtail cable
Fill tube
Compensator sleeve
Locking ring
Gimbal pin
Torque pin Tie wire
Locking pin Epoxy strand termination

Bellows
Cone housing
Gimbal ring
Fig. AA.5.2.1(a) Typical arrangement of armorless cable coupling ( SG ).

Page AA.27
Page AA.28
The tensile load and torque are transferred from the cone housing assembly through the
gimbal into the main housing.
The molded polyethylene dielectric between the anchor assembly and the cone housing must
be dimensioned to be thin enough to support the required tensile load and thick enough to
provide the high voltage capability required by the system power. Because of this, it is not
always possible to obtain the capacitance required in respect to the cable impedance and this
additional inductance must be added into the coupling, such as the compensator shown in
figure AA.5.2.l(a).
AA.5.2.2 Assembly.
Assembly of the central termination coupling is straightforward with many of the components
able to be made up and kept in store.
The anchor assembly is made up separately. Firstly the ceramic ring is cemented to the
termination cone assembly. This unit is then encapsulated in a polyethylene molding leaving
the fill tube and the extension tube projecting. This is shown in figure AA.5.2.2(a).
Fig. AA.5.2.2(a) Anchor molding assembly.
When the cable in ready for terminating, the sheath, outer conductor, and dielectric are cut to
the correct lengths. The copper over the strength member is cut back to reveal the wires which
are then carefully cleaned. The center strength member is inserted into the extension tube on
the anchor assembly until the wires flare out in the termination cone. Epoxy is then injected
into the cone through the fill tube and cured, to anchor the strength member.
The copper conductor is soldered to the extension tube and the junction in bridged by several
turns of tinned copper wire, soldered to each end to provide back-up to the soldered joint. In
later couplings, the copper center conductor in not soldered to the extension tube and the
electrical connection is made by three turns of three wires soldered to the extension tube and
Page AA.29
the center conductor. This allows for some movement without loss of continuity, and is shown
in figure AA.5.2.1(a).
The next stage is to joint the dielectric on the anchor assembly to that of the cable by molding.
The cone housing cap is then slid up the cable onto the anchor assembly and secured to
prevent rotation.
The outer conductor is restored by first brazing it to a preformed copper insert, which in turn
is welded to the cone housing. This is covered by a preformed jacket which is prevented from
rotating by pins in the end of the cone housing. A collar is then screwed up to hold the flange
on the preformed jacket onto the cone housing and to prevent it from retracting under load.
The preformed jacket is then connected to the cable jacket by molding.
At this stage the pigtail is joined to the anchor assembly by crimping and soldering the center
conductor to the fill tube and restoring the dielectric by molding. The cone housing cap,
pigtail cap and braid are then assembled onto the cone housing.
The coupling is completed by assembling the cone housing to the gimbal ring and housing
which connects the coupling to the main housing. The bending relief boot and bellows are then
installed to complete the coupling.
AA.5.3 Armorless Coaxial Ocean Cable - Swaged Sleeve Armor Coupling

(AT&T).
AA.5.3.1 Form.
The coupling for over-armored armorless coaxial ocean cables uses swaged sleeves, or
ferrules, on each armor wire which transfer the tensile load and torque into a slotted ring on
the coupling, which in turn transfers the tensile load and torque into the housing.
The coupling in normally required to be able to withstand the breaking strength of the cable
and transmit the torque at the breaking strength under twist constrained conditions. However,
for very strong shore end cables this becomes impractical and a compromise must be reached,
typically the maximum tensile load is of order 100000 lbf - 45000 Kgf for a coupling with
torque corresponding to this tensile load under twist constrained conditions.
For double armored shore end cables, only the inner armor is terminated at the coupling, the
outer armor being cut back so that it finishes a short distance away from the coupling. The
outer layer is not intended for strength but is a wear member.
The coupling consists of two main sections, the slotted ring with its keeper, and the section
which joins the slotted ring to the housing, which includes a 45o gimbal to allow the housing
to pass through cable machinery and over sheaves. In addition to these two main sections,
there are the wire support cone, and a boot over the end of the coupling and the cable to
provide bending relief and also provide a smooth transition between the cable and the housing.
There is also insulation between the steel of the slotted ring and the copper beryllium alloy of
the joining section (and housing ). The coupling is shown in figure AA.5.3.1(a).
In the design of the center of the coupling, where the conductors pass, there must be enough
clearance so that the central conductor carrying section of the cable can slide back and forth
to allow for motion of the cable as the tensile load changes. The armor wires at the coupling
tend to straighten under load causing the cable to move out from the coupling, if allowance is
not made then the conductors may fail.
Page AA.30
Gimbal ring
Gimbal pin
Clamp ring Round nut Insulator
Adaptor Locking assembly Bushing
ring pin Bolt Key
Collar
Insulator
Screw
Boot Washer Wire support cone
Cable
Armor
ring Crimped
Union
ring Armor ring ferrule
Pigtail cable Gimbal Bellows housing
attachment pin Armor
Gimbal
housing
housing
Fig. AA.5.3.1(a) Typical gimballed armor coupling ( SG ).

Page AA.31
AA.5.3.2 Assembly.
Assembly of the swaged sleeve coupling is straightforward. To provide accurate location of the
ferrules on each armor wire to ensure that the load is carried equally by each armor wire into
the slotted ring, it is necessary to provide a reference point. This is done by cutting the cable
off squarely with a circular saw, then using a jig to measure back along each armor wire to the
position a set distance above the ferrule. Each armor wire is cut off accurately at this point
and cleaned of tar, etc., so that it is back to the steel. The length back along the armor wires is
determined from the length of cable needed for the pigtail. The bending relief boot is now slid
down the cable.
Using a second jig, the ferrules are applied to each armor wire in turn, and swaged into place.
Work on the pigtail can now be done.
When ready for the final assembly, the wire support cone is slid onto the cable under the
armor wires ( or additional servings built up ), followed by the slotted ring. Each armor wire
is placed into its slot in the slotted ring and when all are in place, the slotted ring is slid
back up the cable so that all the ferrules are bearing on the ring, and then tensioned. The
retaining ring is now slid into place over the slotted ring and secured. The space in which the
ferrules are, is filled with an epoxy to keep the ferrules in place and to reduce possible
corrosion. The outer serving on the cable is remade over the exposed section of the armor
wires. The coupling is now completed by making up the slotted ring onto the joining section,
ready for pigtail splicing and connecting to the housing. The bending relief boot is slid into
place and secured.
AA.5.4 Optical Fiber Ocean Cable - Coupling (Alcatel-Lucent).
This coupling, shown in figure AA.5.4(a), uses an Armadillo flexible coupling. Depending on
the number of rings in the Armadillo coupling, it can provide up to 90o of articulation, and
allows the housing to transit drum type cable machinery and sheaves. To accommodate the
articulation, the pigtail is formed into a helix over part of its length. The Armadillo coupling
ia covered by a flexible sheath to stop foreign material entering.
The connection to the ocean cable is done in the termination housing. The joint between the
ocean cable core and the pigtail is typically done using a Universal Coupling (shown) or EB
housing. The termination housing is made up as a glass filament wound sleeve which provides
protection for the insulation on the cable and provides anchoring for the armor wires, which
provide load transfer between the cable and the articulated coupling, similar to the STC
coupling, Section AA.5.1. The armor wires are splayed inside a conical seating and are
constrained by filling the cavity with an epoxy resin.
Apart from the termination housing, all load bearing parts of the coupling are made from
stainless steel.
There seem to be several patterns of this coupling in use, probably due to improvements made
in the design. There is no information on the termination method for shore end armor.
Page AA.32
Armadillo flexible coupling

Universal
Epoxy
coupling Armor
filler
wires
Pigtail
Ferrules Boot
Mounting Termination
Ring End housing
ring
closure
Spherical Spherical
seat bolt seat nut
Fig. AA.5.4(a) Flexible optical fiber cable coupling (Alcatel-Lucent)

Page AA.33
AA.5.5 Optical Fiber Ocean Cable - Gimballed Couplings.
Gimballed couplings for deep sea ocean cable and armored shore end ocean cable are shown in
figures AA.5.5(a) and AA.5.5(b) respectively. Several companies use this form of coupling,
including Tyco, Fijitsu and NEC. The gimbal typically provides articulation up to 45o,
sufficient to allow the housing to transit drum type cable machinery and sheaves. To
accommodate the movement of the gimbal, the pigtail is formed into a helix inside the cone
fitting that connects the pressure housing to the coupling.
The coupling for the deep sea ocean cable is similar in concept to central termination coupling
in Section AA.5.2. The cable is joined to the pigtail by a Universal Coupling which also
transfers the load in the cable into the coupling. All load bearing parts of the coupling are
made from copper beryllium alloy.
The coupling for the shore end armored ocean cable is similar in concept to the swaged sleeve
armor coupling in Section AA.5.3. The pigtail is joined to the core of the cable by a universal
coupling, however in this case there is no load transfer. The armor wires have ferrules swaged
on their ends and are terminated in a slotted ring which transfers the load into the coupling.
To allow for the movement of the core of the cable as tension is applied, the universal coupling
must be able to slide back and forth to prevent unwanted loads being applied to it. Load
bearing parts of the coupling that are in contact with the armor wires are made of steel, with
the rest being made of coppery beryllium alloy. Insulation is provided between these two
materials to prevent electrolytic corrosion.
The figures of the couplings are based on very limited information and show the general form
of the couplings. There may be significant differences from these figures to the designs used
by the companies.
Page AA.34
Gimbal
housing
Gimbal
Adaptor
coupling
ring
Universal
coupling
Pigtail cable
Gimbal pin
Boot
Termination
housing
Gimbal
ring Bellows
Fig. AA.5.5(a) Gimballed optical fiber cable coupling - deep sea ocean cable.
Gimbal Gimbal Insulation
housing coupling
Insulation
Bushing
Adaptor Universal
ring coupling Washer Boot Armor
wire
Pigtail cable
Gimbal pin Cable core

Crimped Wire support
Armor
ferrule cone
Armor ring ring
Union housing
Gimbal
ring Bellows ring
Fig. AA.5.5(b) Gimballed optical fiber coupling - shore end ocean cable.
Page AA.35
Page AA.36
AA.5.6 Armored Ocean Cables - Armor Coupling.
The above couplings were designed for use on communications systems, and can be adapted for
other types of systems. For many systems, such as ranges, a simpler form of coupling is
adequate and cost effective.
There are three common methods that are used, two are only suitable for smaller armor wires
of the type used in deep sea cables, while the third can be adapted to all armor wire types. If
pigtails are to be joined to the conductors in the ocean cable, this should be done first.
a) The first method is the same as used in the external termination coupling, Section AA.5.1.
Firstly a collet is slid onto the cable, then a cone, or pudding ring, is placed over the cable at
the coupling is to be made. The cable and the cone are clamped in position to prevent
movement. Each armor wire in turn is bent around the cone. When they have all be done, the
collet is brought up and the armor wires that have been bent around the cone are threaded
through it. The anchor plate is then slid over the end of the cable and brought up and it and
the collet are bolted together. The armor wires are now worked so that they tightly fit around
the cone ( If they are individually covered with yarn, this must be removed first ). When this
is done the bolts joining the collet and the anchor plate can be tightened. It may take several
goes to get the armor wires to seat properly so that forces will be effectively transferred.
When this is done the armor wires are wound back along the cable for some distance and cut.
They are then covered with a serving. The anchor plate can be bolted to a housing, frame, etc.
This is an affective method, but does require time if it is to be made properly.
b) The second method is a simple coupling intended for making up on a cable ship for systems
that require configuring and assembling on site. The coupling consists of an inner double
cone, an outer housing, an outer cone and a nut. Figure AA.5.6(a) shows the arrangement of a
coupling. The armor wires are bent to fit the form of the inner cone with a staking tool. The
coupling is designed to withstand the breaking strength of the cable and to transmit the
torque at the breaking strength of the cable under twist constrained conditions.
The first stage is to place a hose clamp over the outer servings of the cable at a point a short
distance below where the coupling is to inserted. The outer servings are then removed down
the cable to this clamp to expose the armor wires. Additional hose clamps are placed along the
exposed armor wires to hold them in position, with one just below the point where the armor
wires are to be cut. The armor wires are then cut through using a portable band-saw, and the
clamps on the exposed armor wires are then removed along with the cutoff section of the
armor.
The outer housing is then slid down the cable, over the cut back armor wires until it sits on
the outer servings. Each exposed armor wire is then completely stripped of its covering to
expose the bare metal for a distance slightly greater than the length of the coupling. The
armor wires are then clamped into place just above the outer housing. Each armor wires is then
bent with the staking tool to conform to the shape of the inner cone. When the staking process
is complete, the armor bedding is removed down to the outer end of the coupling. If necessary,
the conductor core of the cable may be bound with a thin adhesive tape to hold its components
in place. The preparation of the pigtails in the core is done at this point.
The inner cone is then place over the core and driven down the cable until it is in its correct
position, covered by the ends of the armor wires. The armor wires are then clamped around the
upper end of the cone with a hose clamp. The outer housing is now driven up the cable over the
inner cone, forcing the clamp off the armor wires on the inner cone. The outer cone and nut are
placed into the the outer housing and the nut is tightened to force the outer cone, and the
inner cone into the outer housing and clamping the armor wires. After this is done, the nut is
undone and the outer cone removed to check that the armor wires have seated properly. If
Page AA.37
correct, the outer cone and the nut are replaced and the nut retightened. For a 66000 lbf -
30000 Kgf breaking strength cable, a typical torque applied to the nut is 300 to 400 foot
pounds - 42 to 55 Kgf meters.
Staked
armor wire
Mounting flange Inner
double cone
Insulating tape
(fabric)
Outer cone
Cable core Nut

(conductors) Armor Outer
bedding sheath
Outer
housing
Fig. AA.5.6(a) Deep sea armored cable field coupling.
The coupling is finished by taping over the armor wires exposed below the coupling. The
coupling is then ready for pigtail splicing and for connecting to the housing, frame, etc.
c) The third method uses swaged ferrules on each armor wire which transfer the tensile load
and torque into a slotted ring on the coupling, which in turn transfers the tensile load and
torque into the housing. The design can be adapted to suit any armor wire size and number.
The coupling in normally required to be able to withstand the breaking strength of the cable
and transmit the torque at the breaking strength under twist constrained conditions. However,
for very strong shore end cables this becomes impractical and a compromise must be reached,
typically the maximum tensile load is of order 100000 lbf - 45000 Kgf for a coupling with
torque corresponding to this tensile load under twist constrained conditions.
For double armored shore end cables, only the inner armor is terminated at the coupling, the
outer armor being cut back so that it finishes a short distance away from the coupling. The
outer layer is not intended for strength but is a wear member.
Page AA.38
The coupling consists of two main sections, the slotted ring with its keeper, and the section
which joins the slotted ring to the housing. In some cases, these may be combined into a
continuous fitting. In addition to these two main sections, there are the wire support cone, and
normally a boot over the end of the coupling and the cable to provide bending relief and also
provide a smooth transition between the cable and the housing.
In the design of the center of the coupling, where the conductors pass, care must be taken to
allow enough clearance so that the central conductor carrying section of the cable can slide
back and forth to allow for motion of the cable as the tensile load changes. The armor wires at
the coupling tend to straighten under load causing the cable to move out from the coupling, if
allowance is not made then the conductors may fail.
The slotted ring, shown in figure AA.5.6(b), has slots around it periphery to take the armor
wires, and is normally made of steel. The width of the slots is just sufficient to allow the
armor wires to slide in. The length of the slots is determined from strength requirements. The
diameter of the armor wire pitch circle in the slotted ring is typically about 1.7 times the
diameter of the pitch circle of the armor wires in the cable to allow room for the ferrules. The
bottom of the slots is rounded and angled to allow for the coning angle of the armor wires as
they come up from the cable into the slots. Typically, the angle is between 4o and 5o. The wire
support cone matches the diameter at the bottom of the slots and the coning angle.
Armor wire
slots (number
to suit cable) 4o- 5o
4o- 5o
Diameter to
suit core of
cable
Fig. AA.5.6(b) Layout of slotted armor termination ring.

Page AA.39
The making up of the swaged ferrules onto the armor wires follows the same method described
in Section AA.5.3, with a washer between the swaged ferrule and the slotted ring on each wire.
To ensure retention of the armor wires in the slots under no load, a keeper ring is screwed or
slid over the slotted ring. If the termination can be made up well before the system is laid,
then the space around the the swaged ferrules can be filled with epoxy keep the ferrules in
place and to reduce possible corrosion.
The joining section which connects the slotted ring to the housing, can be relatively simple
providing direct mechanical connection only. If the housing is not made of steel, then it will
be necessary to provide insulation between the steel of the slotted ring and the material of the
housing, while transmitting both tensile load and torque.
Page AA.40
AB. Ocean Cable Types.
This chapter describes the different types of ocean cables.
AB.1 Introduction.
Ocean cables come in a range of types to suit the various systems in which they are used. The
characteristics that define the ocean cable type are primary use, the conductors ( both
electrical and/or optical ), and the strength member. In classical ocean cable construction the
core of the cable contains the conductors and the strength member, in the form of armor wires,
is wound around the core. In the large coaxial and optical fiber ocean cables used for
communications, the strength member for the deep sea cable is part of the core of the cable
and shore end cables are made up by winding armor wires around this composite core.
AB.2 Conductor Types.
AB.2.1 General.
There are a standard range of conductor arrangements for ocean cables, which are described
below. It is possible to have a cable with many sizes and types of conductors, but
consideration must be given to the splicing requirements of the conductors, the ability to
make up the core of the cable into a solid circular form, and the termination of the cable at a
housing, or similar, both for the conductors and strength member.
The generic cross sections shown below are for deep sea ocean cables and are based on actual
ocean cables. It should be noted that the ocean cables made by the various manufacturers will
differ due to factors such as manufacturing techniques and materials used.
AB.2.2 Multiconductor.
Multiconductor ocean cables have been mainly used for ranges and surveillance systems,
though less so these days. The conductors are normally in pairs to provide a balanced
transmission circuit. The conductors are normally all of the same size and twisted together to
reduce the effect of any electromagnetic pickup on the signal. The core of the cables is of wet
construction, that is the conductors are surrounded by water when installed. This makes the
conductors relatively easy to splice and terminate. Sheathed cores are rarely used due to the
great difficulty in splicing and terminating the conductors. Power can be transmitted down a
pair with the signal being transmitted back up, if required. Standard sizes for conductors that
have been widely used are 0.041/0.130 - 1.04mm/3.3mm and 0.057/0.180 -
1.45mm/4.57mm ( conductor diameter/insulation diameter ). The disadvantage of
multiconductor ocean cables is the relatively high attenuation with increasing signal
frequency.
The strength member construction is external armor wires. The core is covered with a serving,
the armor wires are wound around this and a further two servings are wound over the armor
wires. This is then flushed with ashphaltic compounds to provide corrosion protection and
protect against biological attack. Originally servings were of jute, then jute and nylon was
used in the outer servings, and now polypropylene is used, which bonds to the ashphaltic
compounds like jute and provides better wear characteristics.
Page AA.41
The simplest multiconductor ocean cable is the twin core. This has been widely used for
connecting single sensor units to shore in ranges. The form of this ocean cable is shown in
figure AB.2.2(a).
Conductor
Insulation polyethylene
Fillers cellulose acetate
Binder tape
2 Polyolefin tapes
1 Serving of polypropylene
& 1 of twine
15 Armor wires 0.112 dia
cotton covered
2 Servings of polypropylene
Fig. AB.2.2(a) Twin conductor ocean cable.
The next commonly used multiconductor ocean cable is the single quad. This has found similar
uses to the twin core. The form of this ocean cable is shown in figure AB.2.2(b).
Conductor
Binder tape
2 Polyolefin tapes
& 1 of twine
cotton covered
Fig. AB.2.2(b) Single quad ocean cable.

Page AA.42
Quad ocean cables have been more commonly used with multiple quad construction, with
between 1 and 48 quads. Cables of this type have been used in research systems, and for
connecting an offshore, bottom mounted termination structure to the shore in some ranges.
Figure AB.2.2(c) shows a four quad ocean cable.
Conductor
Binder tape
Single quad
2 Polyolefin tapes
& 1 of twine
cotton covered
Fig. AB.2.2(c) Four quad ocean cable.
AB.2.3 Coaxial.
Coaxial ocean cables were developed for repeatered telephone communications systems. The
single coaxial conductor forms the core of the cable. The first coaxial cables had the central
copper conductor made of a central wire with three copper surround tapes. Around this was
the polyethylene insulation and on the outside the copper return tapes, a copper Teredo tape
and a cotton binder tape to complete the conductor. Later on, the central conductor was
replaced with a single copper conductor. The standard conductor size was 0.160/0.620 -
4.06mm/15.75mm ( conductor diameter/insulation diameter ) ( SB ocean cable ), with a
smaller version of 0.128/0.460 - 3.25mm/11.68mm construction also available.
The strength member construction is external armor wires. The core is covered with a jute
serving, the armor wires are wound around this and a further two jute servings are wound over
the armor wires. This is then flushed with ashphaltic compounds to provide corrosion
protection and protect against biological attack.
Page AA.43
This cable was primarily used for communications systems, but also found use in research
systems, ranges, and surveillance systems. The form of the ocean cable is shown in figure
AB.2.3(a).
Center wire
3 Surround tapes
Polyethylene
6 Return tapes
Teredo tape
Binding tape
Serving of polypropylene
& 1 of twine
24 Armor wires 0.086 dia.
cotton covered
Fig. AB.2.3(a) Coaxial ocean cable ( Type SB ).
A later development was the caged armor coaxial ocean cable. The core was of similar design to
the classical coaxial cable above. There is a copper central conductor. Around this is the
polyethylene insulation and on the outside, the copper return tapes and a copper shielding
tape. This is sheathed in a polyethylene belt. The armor wires are wound around and encased
in a high density polyethylene jacket. For shore end armor, the deep sea cable is overarmored
with servings and armor wires, in the classical manner. The standard sizes for these cables
are 0.128/0.460 - 3.25mm/11.68mm and 0.057/0.180 - 1.45mm/4.57mm ( conductor
diameter/insulation diameter ).
These ocean cables have found use in research systems and ranges. Figure AB.2.3(b) shows
this type of cable.
Page AA.44
Central conductor
copper
Insulation
polyethylene
Return tapes
copper
Shield tape
copper
Belt
polyethylene
12 Armor wires
0.061 dia
Outer jacket
HD polyethylene
Fig. AB.2.3(b) Caged armor ocean cable.
For communications systems the need for larger bandwidth to carry more circuits resulted in
a major design change. The deep sea strength member was moved to the center of the cable,
surrounded by the copper central conductor. Around this is the polyethylene insulation, with
the copper return tape ( outer conductor ) longitudinally applied with overlap. This is covered
by a high density polyethylene jacket. In some cable the outer conductor was aluminum. For
shore end armor, the deep sea cable is overarmored with servings and armor wires, in the
classical manner. This construction is known as Armorless or Lightweight. Standard sizes
for these cables includes 0.330/1.000 - 8.38mm/25.40mm ( SD ), 0.330/1.500 -
8.38mm/38.10mm ( SF ), 0.478/1.700 - 12.14mm/43.18mm ( SG ), xx/0.935 -
xxmm/23.75mm ( B.P.O. 0.935 Lightweight ), xx/0.990 - xxmm/25.15mm ( B.P.O. 0.99
Lightweight ), 0.368/1.47 - 9.35mm/37.34mm ( B.P.O. 1.47 Lightweight ). ( Dimensions
shown as xx were not available from literature. )
These ocean cables were primarily used for communications systems and represent the
ultimate in coaxial ocean cable design. They have now been replaced by optical fiber ocean
cables. Some were used in research systems, ranges and surveillance systems. Figure
AB.2.3(c) shows the form of these cables.
Jointing and termination of coaxial ocean cables is demanding, due the effects of a joint or
termination on signal attenuation, the high voltages used in many systems, and the size of the
insulation restoration. Inspection techniques, including X-ray, are required to provide the
quality assurance necessary.
Page AA.45
Strength member
41 wires
Inner conductor
copper tube
Polyethylene natural
Outer conductor
copper
Sheath polyethylene
(black)
Fig. AB.2.3(c) Armorless or Lightweight coaxial ocean cable.
AB.2.4 Optical Fiber.
Optical fiber ocean cables represent the state-of-the-art in ocean cable development. The
primary development has been for communications systems where the bandwidth requirements
has outstripped that possible from coaxial ocean cables.
They exist in two forms, one for repeatered systems and one for unrepeatered systems.
The structure of the cable, while similar to the armorless coaxial ocean cables, apart from
providing strength and transmission of power ( in repeatered systems ), must also provide an
environment for the optical fibers. The copper conductor provides the water vapor barrier,
while the strength member and the steel tube surrounding the fibers form a pressure vessel to
protect the fibers from stress due to pressure. The thixotropic jelly both supports the fibers
and provides water blocking in the case where the cable is damaged through to the core. The
fibers are, in sense, loose inside the steel tube so that when the cable is flexed and/or put
under tension, they are isolated from the effects of cable elongation and resulting tension on
the fiber. In early designs, the core had a central king wire, surrounded by an elastomer. The
fibers were imbedded in the elastomer, evenly spaced around the kingwire and wound in a
spiral to reduce tensile effects on the fiber This was surrounded by a nylon tube.
The reason for this elaborate protection is that optical fibers are susceptible to microcracking
due to the presence of hydroxyl ions ( water vapor ), and as well as being susceptible to cyclic
fatigue, they are also susceptible to static fatigue requiring the fibers not to be under tension
when laid.
For shore end armor, the deep sea cable is overarmored with servings and armor wires, in the
classical manner. In some deep sea areas, shark bite has been found to be problem. In these
areas, the deep sea cable has an aluminum or steel tape applied over it and a covering
polyethylene jacket to hold the tape and provide further protection
Page AA.46
The primary use is for communications systems but they are also used in research systems
and surveillance systems. Figure AB.2.4(a) shows this type of ocean cable.
Optical fibers
Thixotropic jelly
Steel or plastic tube
Strength member
24 wires
Conductor
copper tube
Polyethylene
Fig. AB.2.4(a) Optical fiber communications ocean cable.
A secondary of development of optical fiber ocean cables has been for the replacement of ocean
cables used in systems such as ranges. Because the ocean cable can be used in the deployment
of a sensor unit and hence will be worked more, an external armor is used to make a more
robust construction. Figure AB.2.4(b) shows a typical construction for this type of ocean cable
using classical armor strength member.
Optical fibers
Thixotropic jelly
Steel tube
Conductor copper
Polyethylene
1 serving of polypropylene
& 1 of twine
26 Armor wires
cotton covered
2 servings of polypropylene
Fig. AB.2.4(b) Optical fiber range ocean cable.

Page AA.47
Jointing and termination of optical fiber ocean cables is particularly demanding, due to the
need for the fiber splices to have minimal signal attenuation, to maintain the water vapor
barrier, the high voltages used in repeatered systems, and the size of the insulation
restoration. Inspection techniques, including X-ray, are required to provide the quality
assurance necessary. Standard jointing and coupling ( termination ) units have been developed
to allow splicing of the communications optical fiber ocean cables, including cables from
different manufacturers, and these are known as UJ and UC.
AB.2.5 Power.
Power cables differ from the above ocean cables in that they are normally designed for the
particular installation. Major design parameters include voltage, AC or DC current, cable
length and acceptable losses.
Designs tend to follow one of two patterns, single conductor cables which are used for both AC
and DC, and three conductor cables for AC only. For single conductor, typically four cables
are laid for AC, three active and one spare, and three cables for DC, two active and one spare.
For three conductor normally two cables are laid, one active and one spare. If possible, cables
are separated to try and reduce the chance of more than one cable being damaged.
Figure AB.2.5(a) shows a typical single conductor power cable, and figure AB.2.5(b) a
typical three conductor power cable.
Splicing of these cables is similar to large coaxial ocean cables.
Stranded copper
conductor
Polyethylene
Semi-conducting nylon
& bronze tapes
Jute servings
27 Hard copper, jacketed

armor wires
Fig. AB.2.5(a) Single conductor, polyethylene insulated, shielded

power cable.
Page AA.48
Stranded copper
conductor
Ethylene
propylene
Semi-conducting nylon
& bronze tapes
Jute-tapes-jute
28 Jacketed armor
wires
Serving of jute nylon

flushed with preservative
Fig. AB.2.5(b) Three conductor, ethylene propylene, shielded

power cable.
AB.3 Armor/Strength Member.
AB.3.1 Armor Types.
An ocean cable will have a range of armor types to suit the bottom conditions normally found
at the various water depths that may be encountered in a system. Not all systems will require
the full range of armor types. The function of the armor is firstly to provide the strength
member for carrying the loads imposed on the ocean cable during laying and repair
operations, and secondly, to provide protection for the conductors in the ocean cable.
Protection is mainly required in shallower water with many deep sea cables having internal
strength members instead of the standard external armoring as little protection is necessary
in deep waters.
Table AB.3.1(a) gives the range of armor wires that are used, and it can be seen that there is
overlap in wire sizes between letter designations. These armor wires can be used either as a
single layer or in two layers for more severe bottom conditions, with table AB.3.1(b) showing
combinations that have been used. With optical fiber ocean cables, a new range of armor wires
was introduced for external armor, and these are shown in table AB.3.1(c).
Larger armor wires are normally of mild steel while the smaller armor wires, such as in deep
sea cables, are of high tensile steel. Armor wires are normally laid with a left hand lay, and
where there is more than one layer, the lay lengths are different for each layer. The wires for
external armor, are galvanized to improve corrosion resistance, and where they are laid up on
jute or polypropylene servings and covered by more servings, then ashphaltic compounds are
Page AA.49
flushed into the structure to improve corrosion resistance and to provide protection against
marine organisms attacking the cable. In some cases in shallow water systems, armor wires can
be made of other materials, such as hard copper.
For central strength member cables, such as armorless or lightweight construction, the wires
are of high tensile steel.
Rock armor ( RA ) is very heavy armor wire wound with a short lay length to provide
protection against severe bottom conditions, trawling where the cable cannot be buried, and
provides a high crush protection. For special conditions, other sizes of armor wires may be
used.
If shielding is required for shore cables, the number of armor types is increased as the
shielding makes the core diameter of the ocean cable larger and hence causes the number of
armor wires in a layer of a given type, to increase.
Table AB.3.1(a)
Size Ranges for Armor Wires in Ocean Cables ( External Armor ).
Armor wire Armor wire Armor wire

designator diameter - inch diameter - mm
________________________________________________
RA 0.380 9.65
A 0.300/0.291 7.62/7.39
H 0.276 7.00
E 0.275/0.238 6.99/6.05
F 0.20 5.08
J 0.203 5.16
B 0.208/0.192/0.165 5.28/4.88/4.19
C 0.165 4.19
SA 0.165/0.197 4.19/5.00
LWA 0.134 3.40
H 0.112/0.086 2.84/2.18
D 0.086 2.18
________________________________________________
Page AA.50
Table AB.3.1(b)
Armor Combinations for Ocean Cables.
Armor type General description Bottom conditions

________________________________________________________
RA Heavy shore Extreme
AA (1) Heavy shore Severe
AF (1) " "
AB (1) " "
FF (1) " "
J (1) " "
A (1) Shore Average
E Light shore "
BB Heavy intermediate Severe
BJB " "
AD " "
BJD " "
BD " "
DA (SLSA) " "
F Intermediate Average
J " "
B " "
BJ " "
SA " "
SL " "
H Deep sea
D " "
Caged " "
Armorless " "
________________________________________________________
(1) Types used in conjunction with shielding.
Ideally the armor or strength member of an ocean cable should be matched to the water depth
and bottom conditions, however this entails the manufacture and holding repair stocks of a
large number of armor types for a given ocean cable and this is no longer cost effective. Hence
the trend in modern systems and ocean cables is to rationalize the range of armor types. This
substantially reduces manufacturing costs and the number of armor types needed for repair,
and also allows possible replenishment of repair stocks of shore or intermediate armor types
of center strength member or caged armor ocean cables, by over-armoring the deep sea cable,
which is relatively cheap.
Page AA.51
Table AB.3.1(c)
Armor Combinations for Optical Fiber Ocean Cables.
Armor type General description Bottom conditions

________________________________________________________
RAH Heavy shore Extreme
RA " "
DAH " Severe
SAH " "
DA " Average
SA Intermediate Average
LWA " "
LWP (SPA) Deep sea Special
LW Deep sea
________________________________________________________
Figure AB.3.1(a) shows the arrangement of a double armored shore end ocean cable.
Optical fibers
Thixotropic jelly
Steel or plastic tube
Strength member
24 wires
Conductor
copper tube
Polyethylene
1 serving of polypropylene
& 1 of twine
24 Armor wires
0.134 dia
& 1 of twine
27 Armor wires
0.165 dia
Fig. AB.3.1(a) Optical fiber double armored ocean cable.

Page AA.52
AC. Electro-Mechanical Cable Types.
AC.1 Introduction.
Electromechanical cables are used in ocean cable systems for the scope in moorings, and in
some cases, for a section of cable lying of the seafloor where the installation requires working
that could cause damage to an ocean cable. Generally the life of electro-mechanical cables is
substantially shorter than that for ocean cables, due to factors such as the tension from static
and dynamic loads causing fatigue and wear in the strength members, in external steel armor
the small size of the armor wires and construction being susceptible to corrosion, and in
synthetic strength member cables, susceptibility to fish bite. Careful design can reduce these
effects but nor entirely eliminate them.
Unlike ocean cables where splicing of the cable during manufacture, installation and repair
operations is common, the splicing of electro-mechanical cables is uncommon. The small
diameters of strength members and conductors, and the use of jacketing over the conductors,
makes splicing difficult and if an electro-mechanical cable is damaged, it is normally
replaced or if this is not possible, a repair is made using termination fittings.
AC.2 Conductors.
Unlike ocean cables where a given conductor type forms the basis of a family of ocean cables
with a range of strength members to suit bottom conditions, electromechanical cables tend to
individually designed for a particular application. Also an electro-mechanical cable may
contain only one type of conductor, or may have many types of conductors to suit the
application.
Electrical conductors used in electro-mechanical cables made from copper have proved
reliable if care is taken in the cable design and quality of the copper. Conductors of stranded
construction have proved highly resistant to the effects of static and dynamic loading. For a
single conductor, 7 or 19 strand is common and for coaxial conductors, the outer conductor is
normally braided. Insulation materials such as polyethylene, polypropylene and rubber have
proved effective, with the jacketing of coaxial conductors to protect the outer conductor being
prudent. The use of water blocking compounds between strands and in the braid reduces the
effects of corrosion if water is able to enter the cable due to damage or defects. Jackets over
the core for steel armored cables are normally of PVC or polyethylene.
Optical fibers are contained within a metal tube which protects the optical fibers from water
vapor and pressure. The tube is filled with a thixotropic jelly to prevent water hosing down
the tube in the case of damage. The tube is not generally used for power. The cable seals must
be specially designed to maintain the water vapor barrier. The static and dynamic fatigue
characteristics of optical fibers require great care in designing the electro-mechanical cable
for the load conditions. The inclusion of optical conductors in electro-mechanical cables
should be carefully considered as they will increase the cost of the cable and fittings
considerably, the associated electronics can use substantially more power compared to
electrical signal equivalents and they generally impose stringent requirements on
terminations and working the cable if the reliability of the system is to be ensured.
AC.3 Strength Member.
The strength members for electro-mechanical cables fall into three main categories; wire,
filament and yarns.
Page AA.53
Wire strength members normally consist of double contrahelically wound layers of steel
armor wires around a jacket on the outside of the conductors. In some cases the armor wires
are covered by an outer jacket. This construction has the advantages of being robust if worked
over bending diameters of adequate sizes, providing protection against fishbite and generally
being easy to terminate the strength member in standard fittings. It can also be made torque
balanced to reduce twisting of the cable under load. The cable is normally relatively heavy
and under high dynamic loads it may suffer fatigue and wear/corrosion of the armor wires. In
most systems, unless there is a reason not to use galvanized steel wires, this construction is
used and has proven the most reliable for long term moorings.
The breaking strength of standard design double contrahellically wound steel armored
electro-mechanical cables against diameter is shown in figure AC.3(a) and against weight in
water in figure AC.3.(b). Table AC.3(a) gives the properties and approximate relative costs of
metal wires, both ferrous and nonferrous, compared to carbon steel. The approximate cost may
vary considerably from that shown depending on the length of cable made and material costs at
the time of manufacture.
140
Corer cable
120
100
Breaking 80
strength
- KIPS. 60
40
20
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Diameter of cable - inches.
Fig. AC.3(a) Breaking strength of double armored steel

electro-mechanical cable versus diameter.
Page AA.54
140
120
100
80
Breaking
strength 60
-KIPS.
40
20
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Weight in water - lbs/1000 ft.
Fig. AC.3(b) Approximate weight in water of double armored steel

electro-mechanical cable versus breaking strength.
Table AC.3(a)
Properties of Metal Wires.
Strength Approximate Cost

Designation (Carbon steel = 1) Corrosion performance (Carbon steel = 1 )
___________________________________________________________________________
Carbon steel 1.0 ! 0.005 inch/year 1.0
Hot dip galvanized 0.80 0 for 2 years, 1.1
carbon steel ! 0.005 inch/year
thereafter
Hot dip aluminized 0.75 = 0 for 2 years, 1.2
thereafter
Electrogalvanized 1.0 = 0 for 6 months, 1.2
thereafter
Type 302 stainless 1.2 ! 6 inches/year crevice 4.0
steel attack
Type 304 stainless 1.2 ! 2 inches/year crevice 4.0
steel attack
Type 316 stainless 0.95 ! 0.5 inch/year crevice 6.0
steel attack
Titanium 1.3 No corrosion 20.0
Hastelloy "C" 0.8 No corrosion 40.0
Inconel 625 1.0 No corrosion 35.0
___________________________________________________________________________
Page AA.55
The alternative construction for a wire strength member is for the strength member to be in
the center of the cable, with the conductors surrounding it, and a jacket on the outside to
provide protection and hold the components together. The advantages of this construction is
the ease of access to the conductors and the corrosion protection and simple termination of the
strength member. This cable construction is still relatively heavy and is susceptible to
fatigue and wear of the strength wires, and to fish bite. However if buoyant plastic material is
used in sufficient quantities for jackets, it is possible to produce a very light cable ( in water
) if a larger diameter can be tolerated. This type of electro-mechanical cable is normally used
in specialized systems and in mid-water horizontal arrays.
Filament strength members consist of one or more bundles of filaments of a synthetic material
running longitudinally along the cable without twist or weaving. The two most commonly used
materials are aramid fibers ( Kevlar ) and polyester fibers ( Dacron ). Each bundle is normally
jacketed to hold the filaments in place and the cable is built up of conductors and filament
strength member bundle(s), covered by an external jacket to provide protection and to hold the
components together. The advantages of this construction are light weight, ease of access to
conductors and it in non-magnetic. The cable strength member(s) require care in terminating,
though with multiple strength member bundles, it is possible to pass these around a housing
without the need for termination other than at the upper and lower ends of the cable ( See
figure 2.7.3(c) for method of passing the strength members around a housings). The cable is
susceptible to fish bite and synthetic filaments suffer from both static and dynamic fatigue.
This limits the maximum stress able to be applied to the strength members, figures AC.3(c)
and AC.3(d) shows the lifetime and creep characteristics of Kevlar and Polyester "Uniline"
strength member bundles. Aramid fibers ( Kevlar ) are used where elongation must be limited
while polyester ( Dacron ) are more suitable for use where the elongation can be used to
absorb ( reduce ) dynamic loading on a mooring.
Residual breaking strength after 1 year
95%
3 90%
85% 70% 60%
55% 89%
2 45%
Elongation
%
98%
1 25%
Indicates failure
0
Minutes 0.1 1 10 30 100 300 1000 10000 100000
Hours 5 16.7 167
Days 6.9 21 69.4 6M 1Year
Time - logarithmic scale.
Fig. AC.3(c) Lifetime and creep under deadweight load

1/4 inch diameter Kevlar Uniline.
Page AA.56
14
95% 90%
80%
12
10 70%
Elongation 8
50%
%
6
Indicates failure
4
20%
2
0
Minutes 0.1 1.0 3 10 30 100 300 1000 1 Year
Hours 5 16.7 50 167
Days 6.9 21 70 210
Time - logarithmic scale
Fig. AC.3(d) Lifetime and creep under dead weight load

1/2 inch diameter Polyester Uniline.
Yarn strength members consist of filaments of a synthetic material twisted or knitted

together. This construction compared to a filament bundle does not require a jacket to keep the
filaments in place, but has a higher elongation under load. The cable is built up of yarn
strength member(s) and conductors covered by an external jacket to provide protection and to
hold the components together. The advantages are light weight, ease, of access to conductors
and it is non-magnetic. The cable strength member(s) require care in terminating, though not
as much as for the filament bundles since yarns tend to load share between filaments better.
The cable is susceptible to fish bite and the synthetic yarn suffers both static and dynamic
fatigue the same as for filament bundles. This similarly limits the maximum stress able to be
applied to the yarn. Table AC.3(b) shows the characteristics of two commonly used yarns
compared to steel wire. Aramid fibers in yarns have a tendency to cut through one another
under high loads, reducing the yarn strength. This can be reduced substantially if the
individual strands in the yarn have their filaments coated with a material such as urethane
during the forming of the strand.
Tn general synthetic strength members, filaments and yarns, should only be used where their
non-magnetic characteristics and/or the limitation on their lifetime as the scope in a mooring
are acceptable. They are unsuited for laying along the seafloor as their light weight tends to
allow them to be moved over the bottom even by very small currents or wave action causing
failure due to wearing through of the jacket exposing the conductors and strength members to
wear in a relatively short time.
Page AA.57
Table AC.3(b)
Comparison of Yarn, Filament and Wire Nominal Properties.
Kevlar 29* Dacron polyester* Steel wire

______________________________________________________________________
Tensile strength 400 168 300
3
(psi. x 10 )
Elastic modulus 9 2.0 29

(psi. x 106 )
Elongation at 4.0 15.0 1.l

rupture ( % )
Density 0.052 0.060 0.285

(lb. /cub. in. )
Melting point (0 F) 800 480 2250
External abrasion Wet 315 180 570

resistance Dry 225 1150 2380
(1/4 inch diameter rope (Single braid) (2-in-l ) (3-strand)
cycles to failure) braid)
Specific gravity 1.42 1.38 7.85
Weight in water 29.1 27.6 87

(% of weight in air)
______________________________________________________________________
* Twisted yarn.
AC.4 Terminations and Seals.
Electro-mechanical cables are normally terminated in one of three ways.
The first method terminates the strength member and the conductors separately. Cables of all
strengths can be terminated and is well suited for a sensor/electronics unit that is mounted in
a frame. For steel, or other metal, armored cables, a range of commercial terminations are
available, including types using preformed grips. For yarn and filament strength members
there are also commercial terminations. If no commercial termination is suitable, a
termination can be designed to suit the strength member. There is a range of commercial
connectors for the conductors that cover most combinations of conductors in a cable and can
handle a jacketed core. Alternatively a boot seal, of the type described in section AA.4.6 can
be designed to suit the core if its jacket is smooth. For cables with optical fiber conductors,
the most effective option is to use a connector specifically deigned for the cable.
The second method terminates both the strength member and the conductors in a single fitting.
It is suited to lower strength cables and where the sensor/electronics unit can be mounted
inline with the cable.
Page AA.58
The third method is suitable for cables where the strength member does not have to be
terminated at the sensor/electronics unit. If the strength member is in the center of the cable,
then the conductors be bought out for connecting to the sensor/electronic unit, which in turn
can be clamped to the center strength member. If conductors are not required to be connected
to the sensor/electronics unit, they can bypass it. If the strength member is in several
strands, then they can go around the sensor/electronics unit with only those conductors
required by the sensor/electronics unit being connected. Care must be taken to ensure that
the pigtails between the cable and the sensor/electronics unit are of sufficient length to
ensure that as the cable stretches under load, they will not come under tension.
AC.5 Strumming Reduction.
When used as the scope in moorings, a significant problem for electo-mechanical cable is
strumming. Strumming can cause early failure due to fatigue in the cable and in sensors and
electronics, and for acoustic sensors interfere with acoustic signals being measured. The most
common way to reduce strumming is to use a fairing over the cable ( and any other members
forming the scope ). The fairing types most used are a ribbon fairing which is applied over the
jacket around the cable, and a hairy fairing ( filaments ) or ribbons, which is applied during
the winding of the outer armor layer on a contrahelically armored cable. The jacket with the
ribbon fairing can be used on all types of electro-mechanical cable. An alternative method is
to use a jacket over the cable of an equilateral triangular cross section. This is helixed one
complete turn over a length less than the vertical coherence length required by the Von
Karman vortex sheet. If lift is not to be developed on the cable, the next helix is in the reverse
direction, and this is continued along the length of the cable. If the helix length is short then
several helixes can be in each direction before it is reversed. This construction is known as
the SAIC Quiet Cable.
Page AA.59
AD. Mechanical Testing.
This chapter describes the requirements for mechanical testing in ocean cable systems and
the methods used.
AD.1 General.
Mechanical testing in ocean cable systems is carried out in both the research, development
and design phase and production phase. In research, development and design, it is used to
validate the design of components which are subject to mechanical forces, such as tension and
pressure. In production it is used for quality control and is typically limited to those
components which could, for example fail or leak under pressure.
AD.2 Pressure Testing.
AD.2.1 General.
Pressure testing is normally limited to components as a full system is too large to test as a
single unit, and often has substantial variation of pressure along its length.
The most comprehensive testing is required during the research, development and design
phase, providing data on component behavior under pressure and validation of design and
construction methods. During production, pressure testing is primarily used for quality
control.
The range of pressures required can vary from those near the surface to those at the greatest
depths, that is, from a few psi - KPa to 10000 to 12000 psi - 68950 to 82740 KPa. Most testing
is now done in specially designed vessels with only short duration testing being done in the
ocean. Widespread trawling makes long term testing in the ocean, particularly in shallow
water, no longer viable.
The need to test over the full pressure range is essential as the failure mechanisms differ
from low pressures to high pressures. Many components, for example, will seal under high
pressure as the pressure forces them together, however, at low pressure the water may wick in
under capillary pressure. Testing in pressure vessels also has an advantage over testing in the
ocean. The ocean has effectively infinite energy and a failure may result in total destruction
of a component or components, leaving little to be examined to determine the cause of the
failure. In a vessel, because the energy is limited, the failure will begin to occur but since
normally the pressure will fall as this occurs, the failure will stop or slow down, and when the
component or components are removed from the vessel it is normally possible to analyze the
failure.
AD.2.2 Pressure Testing of Ocean Cables.
The testing of lengths of ocean cable for use in a system is carried out normally in the
research, development and design phase, though it is sometimes done after a system has been
installed for some time if there has been a significant change in characteristics.
The purpose of this testing is to determine experimentally the relationship between

transmission characteristics and pressure, temperature and tensile load, and the effect of
aging. This provides a check on the theoretically derived values as well.
Page AA.60
Three types of testing are normally done; The first is to determine the change in
characteristics with temperature and pressure only. The second is to simulate the laying of
the cable in which pressure and tensile load ( and to a lesser extent temperature ) are varied
with time as would occur in laying. The third is the determination of the effects of aging, in
which pressure and temperature are maintained within very tight limits for long periods (
many years ) in a dedicated facility.
Water bath Cable

Water bath
(fresh water) pressure
temperature
vessel
control unit
(salt water)
Long term
testing
Cable
connection
chambers
Pressure
control
console
Electrical
testing
Cable console
connection
chamber Water bath
Cable Water bath
(fresh water)
pressure temperature
vessel control unit
Tensile (salt water)
testing Cable
connection
chamber &
hydraulic
tensioning
ram
Tension
control
console
Pressure
control
console
Electrical
testing
console
Fig. AD.2.2(a) Pressure testing systems for ocean cables.

Page AA.61
Because of the limits on the lengths of cable that can be tested, it is necessary to measure the
parameters to a high degree of accuracy. Aging measurements require the most care as the
scaling factor for a 20 year life is of the order of 600000. Typical accuracies required are
0.01o C at 3o C for temperature, lO psi at 5000 psi - 69 KPa at 34475 KPa for pressure.
For analogue signal transmission, the attenuation on an absolute basis to 0.00002 dB, with
the overall accuracy of measurements must be able to provide the ability to detect a change of
0.02 percent at one megahertz. To obtain the accuracy for attenuation, the cable test length is
compared with a standard attenuator.
The pressure testing facilities for ocean cable are shown in simplified form in figure
AD.2.2(a). The typical length of cable tested is 600 feet - 183 m. The pressure vessel consists
of a pipe with chambers each and for cable termination. The pipe is straight for testing
requiring tensile loads to be applied, and of a U form for other testing, such as aging. The pipe
is filled with sea water as the working medium and has seals at each end for the cable. The
surrounding fresh water bath provides control of the temperature. For tensile testing, the pipe
has a fixed anchor point at one end and at the other, an anchor point attached to a ram
mechanism to apply the tensile load.
Pressurization of the sea water in the pipe is by single stage air driven piston pumps
controlled by precision air regulators. Valves are provided for pressure vessel isolation and
depressurization. The temperature of the water bath is controlled using forced circulation and
heat exchangers. The temperature measuring probe is fitted in the pressure vessel. The ram in
the tensile testing system is normally driven by hydraulic pressure and is designed so that as
it moves, the pressure in the vessel is not effected. A load cell at one anchor point is used to
measure the tension.
Comprehensive data logging equipment is required to ensure an accurate recording of the

testing is maintained. To ensure the required accuracy, all sensors and test equipment must
be traceable to primary standards.
This method can also be used to test cable jointing to determine its integrity and the effects of
pressure and tension on signal attenuation.
AD.2.3 Cable Sea Trials.
Sea trials of an ocean cable are normally done in the last stages of the design. For a deep sea
system, sections of cable would be laid at depths of 1/2, 1-1/2 and 3 n. miles.
Using a cable ship, the procedure is to establish stable laying conditions first by paying, out
wire rope and scrap cable. This is followed by the test sample of the ocean cable, a repeater
housing containing a remote controlled switch, and finally a test lead coming up to the ship, as
shown in figure AD.2.3(a).
The method used for electrical cables is an echo technique with a long single frequency pulse
being reflected from an open circuit termination. The sea end of the test sample is open
circuited. In the repeater housing between the test sample and the test lead, switching is
provided to either connect the sample to the test lead or open circuit the test lead. By
alternatively measuring the test lead and the test lead plus sample over the range of
frequencies required, the attenuation of the sample of the ocean cable is determined.
For optical conductors, a similar system can be used, except the optical conductors are joined
to form a complete circuit with the difference in transmission loss being measured for the test
lead and the test lead plus sample to get the attenuation of the sample.
Page AA.62
This method can also be used to test cable jointing as it will subject the joints to both laying
and recovery forces.
Test
lead
5 n. miles
Water depth long
h n. miles
Ground Scrap Sample Relay
tackle cable Sample cable switch
h n. miles 5h n. miles open 5 n. miles (repeater
long long circuited long housing)
Fig. AD.2.3(a) Typical cable arrangement for sea trial
AD.2.4 Pressure Testing of Conductor Seals.
The pressure testing of conductor seals is carried put both in the research, development and
design phase, and in the production phase. The testing is done to check the integrity of the
conductor seal under prolonged pressure, both in seal development and for quality control.
A typical pressure testing vessel for testing a conductor seal with water as the pressure
medium, is shown in figure AD.2.4(a). The water is pressurized by a single stage air driven
pump controlled by a precision air pressure regulator. Valves are provided for pressure
vessel isolation and depressurizing. The pressure vessel is specially designed for the seal
being tested, fitting it closely and providing for the pigtail. For production testing, racks of
such units are made up to allow the testing of many seals simultaneously.
Testing for deep ocean conductor seals is typically done at pressures of 10000 to 12000 psi -
68950 to 82740 KPa for periods of 3 months in fresh water. Seals for use in shallower water
only, are tested at proportionately lower pressures. In testing for low pressure effects, the
pressure is typically between 15 to 60 psi - 103 to 414 KPa, also for periods of 3 months.
The test is able to check the conductor seals for extrusion, structural strength and capillary
wicking effects that would jeopardize its integrity. It cannot test for long term leakage of
water vapor in the limited test period.
Page AA.63
Pressure
gauge Sealed high Pressure test Conductor Low pressure
pressure pigtail vessel seal pigtail
To control
valves and
Retaining
pump
ring
Seal carrier
Fig. AD.2.4(a) Pressure testing vessel for conductor seal testing.
AD.2.5 Pressure Testing of Pressure Housings.
The pressure testing of pressure housing, such as repeaters and equalizers, is carried out
both in the research, development and design phase, and in the production phase.
During housing development, the testing is used to check the integrity of the housing and its
structural strength, and can be used for housings which are sealed by welding. In the
production phase the pressure testing is used for quality control, but cannot be used for
housings sealed by welding.
The housings are normally tested with conductor seals installed ( and sensors if used on
housing ) but not components which couple the housing to the cable, and without electronics.
The pressure vessel used for testing, with water as the pressure medium, is of the type
commonly used in ocean engineering, though for a major system a special vessel to suit the
housings may be built. Figure AD.2.5(a) shows a typical vessel. The water is pressurized by
one or more single stage air driven pumps, controlled by precision air pressure regulators. A
valve manifold is used to connect the pump(s) to the vessel and for depressurization. For
higher pressures, the vessel and its piping are normally provided with a means of isolating it
from personnel when it is pressurized.
Two types of testing are done. For testing structural strength, the housing is subjected to the
design pressure. If possible, the pressure is then increased until the first stage of collapse
occurs to verify the design. For testing the integrity of the housing, the pressure is normally
the maximum pressure that will occur in the installed system or a specified test pressure. In
housing development, the pressure is maintained for a considerable period, of order 3 months,
to check for extrusion of seals and similar effects. In production testing, the period is
shorter, typically 12 to 24 hours. If the housings will also be used in shallow water, during
Page AA.64
development pressure testing is also done at a pressure typical of the shallowest depth that
the housing would be laid at, for an extended period. In production testing, the test also
checks for structural flaws.
To ascertain whether a housing has sealed properly, it is necessary to open the housing and
check for water entry. This must be done carefully to prevent water trapped in the seals from
running inside as the components are removed. The disadvantage of this is that the integrity of
the sealing is destroyed in the inspection.
This testing with water as the pressure medium is also limited in that extremely small leakage
rates that would have an effect over a long time cannot be reliably detected over normal testing
periods. If alternative testing methods are not available, the housing design must take into
consideration this limitation.
Retaining
ring
Purge Instrumentation
valve for test gear
End (e.g. strain gauges)
closure
Electrical Compressed
Depressurizing
feed- air control
valve
throughs
Acoustic Compressed
Pressure To drain air supply
pick-up
housing
Pressure From header

test tank
vessel
Single acting
air driven
piston pumps
Fig. AD.2.5(a) Arrangement of pressure vessel for testing pressure housings.
AD.2.6 Leakage Testing.
One of the disadvantages of pressure testing components with water as the pressure medium
is, as pointed out above, that the integrity of the sealing must be destroyed to check the
integrity of the sealing. A solution to this is to design a complex seal that is effectively self
checking. In addition it is also unsuitable for housings that are sealed by welding.
Page AA.65
A technique that allows the checking of assembled components, such as repeaters and
equalizers, without the need for opening to check for major leaks and will provide a
measurement of leakage rates of extremely small amounts, is to pressure test in a gas mixture
containing helium and measure the inflow rate of the helium into the component.
For housings the same kind of pressure vessel as used for testing with water can be used,
however due to the energy contained in the compressed gas, the standards for the design and
construction and the usage of the vessel must be of the highest order with personal excluded
from the vessel area when it is pressurized.
The arrangement of a typical facility is shown in figure AD.2.6(a). To pressurize the gas
working fluid, three stage piston pumps are used with velocity and glass wool filters to keep
the gas free of oil vapors from any pump lubrication and other contaminants. In
depressurizing, a special control valve is required to maintain a very low rate so that helium
that has permeated the surface of the polyethylene insulation, rubber O-rings, etc., can come
out slowly enough to prevent exfoliation effects.
From low
pressure
N2 supply
Mass spectrograph
Retaining ring
Purge valve Roughing
End closure vacuum Electronic
Test point pump unit
fitting
Diffusion vacuum pump Detector cell
Depressurizing Filters
Pressure
housing valve
To receiver Pump control
vessels Compressed
Pressure air supply
test
vessel
From N2 /He
receiver
Three stage vessels
piston pump
Fig. AD.2.6(a) Arrangement of pressure vessel system for leakage testing of

pressure housings.
The leakage measuring system consists of a vacuum pump to evacuate the housing prior to
testing and a mass spectrograph to measure the helium flow rate into the housing.
Page AA.66
To prevent testing the pressure vessel, the test point on the housing must be isolated, such as
shown in figure AD.2.6(b), so that any leakage from the pressure vessel vents to air, not the
measuring system.
To mass To
spectrograph atmosphere
End closure
pressure test
vessel
Test point Connecting

chamber unit
Test point
isolation
Test point chamber
(separate
unit type) End closure
pressure
housing
Fig. AD.2.6(b) Isolation of test point in pressure test vessel.
For a 20 year life, the maximum permissible leakage rate of helium is 1 x 10- 7 standard
cc/second at 12000 psi - 82740 KPa ( corresponding to a depth of approximately 4.3 n. miles
). Under the same conditions, individual seals and other components are allowed a maximum
rate of 5 x 10- 8 standard cc/second.
For economy, it is normal practice to use a gas mixture of 99% Nitrogen and 1% Helium. The
other factor that is required for successful testing, is that components inside the housings
such as electronics, must be able to withstand a hard vacuum for prolonged periods and must
be "dried out" prior to the test using vacuum to remove any residual gases and vapors they
may emit.
Page AA.67
The test point on the housing can be designed in two ways to allow it to be sealed and tested
after the leakage testing is complete.
The first method is to make the test point in the form of a tube, as shown in figure AD.2.6(c).
This tube is sealed by pinch welding and tested by application of a radio isotope solution
under pressure. After a holding period at the required pressures the solution is removed and
the tubulation washed and tested to see if any of the isotope has penetrated the weld. For
safety, this procedure is normally automated as much as possible. An alternate method is to
use acoustic emission done in conjunction with the welding process to determine if pinch weld
cracking occurs that could lead to a faulty seal.
Position of
Cap
pinch weld
Tube Electron beam

weld (tested at
same time as
O-ring pinch weld)
Mating
surface
for
connecting
unit Pressure
housing
end closure
Fig. AD.2.6(c) Tube form test point ( integral design ).
The second, and simpler methods is to use metal to metal primary seals to provide a gas tight
joints as shown in figure AD.2.6(d). The space between the two plugs is filled with helium and
on completion of the sealing of the test point, it is tested for leakage using a bell to cover the
test point and hold the vacuum.
These test points are also used for filling the housing with an inert gas, normally nitrogen,
after the leakage testing is done, and before final sealing.
With modifications, the system can be used for the leakage testing of seals and other
components, as shown in figure AD.2.6(e).
It should be noted that the use of gas as a pressure medium is not suitable for structural
testing of housings due to the energy contained in the compressed gas and its effect on a
failure as this energy is given up.
Page AA.68
Cap Outer plug

retaining screw
Mating surface for

connector unit Outer plug
Helium injected NBS cone seal
into this space plus O-ring
for testing
Pressure housing
end closure
Inner plug
retaining screw
Inner plug
NBS cone seal
plus O-ring
Fig. AD.2.6(d) Plug form test point ( integral design ).
Pressure Conductor Seal Vacuum

gauge seal carrier chamber
Sealed high Vent
Pressure test
pressure
vessel
pigtail
To control To mass
valves and spectrograph
pump
Sealed low
Retaining rings pressure pigtail
Fig. AD.2.6(e) Leakage testing of a conductor seal.

Page AA.69
AD.3 Tension, Working, Handling and Operational Testing.
AD.3.1 General.
During the development and design phase it is necessary to ensure that the ocean cable and its
fittings can withstand the forces that occur during laying and recovery.
AD.3.2 Tensile Tests.
The tensile test subjects the ocean cable, joint and coupling to tensions and torques the occur
during laying and recovery. The first test is with both end of the ocean cable restrained to
prevent rotation ( fixed end ). The tensions applied are normally equivalent to those
determined from theory for maximum operating conditions. Conductor ( optical and electrical
) attenuation is monitored as tension is applied, as is the induced torque. Post testing
attenuation is measured to check for residual strain, particularly on optical fibers. On
completion, all components are inspected for mechanical degradation.
The second test is with one end of the ocean cable free to rotate ( free end ), to simulate a
semi-infinite cable length. The actual restraint on ocean cable rotation will lie between these
two values, depending on factors such as cable length to bottom, cable type, etc.
Additional testing should also be done to failure to determine failure mechanism, and to
ensure that failure does not occur unacceptably close to the loads predicted from the theory.
AD.3.3 Fatigue Tests.
Fatigue tests are to ensure that the ocean cable, joint and coupling can withstand the cyclic
loading while in suspension during a repair operation. The test duration is typically the time
requires to complete four joints, three for normal repair and one for a safety factor. For
armored ocean cables, the tension used in the test is approximately 50% of the ocean cables
theoretical maximum operating tension, while for armorless type ocean cables the tension
used is theoretical maximum operating tension. To this is added the fluctuation in tension
that would be induced by 13 ft - 4 m ocean wave actions. Conductor attenuation is monitored
throughout the test and post testing to check for residual strain, particularly on optical
fibers. On completion, all components are inspected for mechanical degradation.
Another fatigue test is where the ocean cable is passed around a sheave, as in the following
sheave tests, and is subjected to the same static and fluctuating loads as above, to simulate the
effect of the bow or stern sheave on the ocean cable during repair operations.
This test is mainly used for optical fiber ocean cables where the problem of static and
dynamic fatigue is significant.
AD.3.4 Sheave Tests.
Sheave testing is used to ensure that the ocean cable, joint, coupling and housing can be
deployed and recovered over standard cable ship sheaves, chutes and pass around drum type
cable engines. The test tensions applied are normally equivalent to those determined from
theory for maximum operating conditions. Conductor ( optical and electrical ) attenuation is
monitored as tension is applied. Post testing attenuation is measured to check for residual
strain, particularly on optical fibers. On completion, all components are inspected for
mechanical degradation.
Figure AD.3.4(a) shows part of a test rig with the repeater about to enter the sheave.
Page AA.70
Fig. AD.3.4(a) High tension testing of ocean cable, repeater

and couplings around a sheave.
AD.3.5 Crush Resistance.
The ocean cable must be able to withstand the crushing forces applied to it when stored in a
cable tank, either on the shore or onboard the cable ship. Typically a force representing the
load on a coil of ocean cable at the bottom of a full cable tank is applied to a short sample
length. Conductor attenuation is monitored throughout the test and post testing to check for
residual strain, particularly on optical fibers. On completion, the ocean cable is inspected for
degradation of the armor layer(s) and insulation, depending on the cable type.
AD.3.6 Impact Resistance Tests.
The joint and coupling must be able to withstand shock loads and vibration that occur in
normal loading, deployment and recovery. Typical shock loads are 500 cycles of 40 gs, in all
three directions. Vibration frequencies vary from 10 to 150 Hz, along each of the three
directions, for up to 8 hours. Conductor attenuation is monitored throughout the test. Post
testing examination includes inspecting for fiber bend violations, electrical conductor
cracking, loose parts, and insulation to conductor separation.
AD.3.7 Flexure Resistance Tests.
These tests subject the ocean cable to small radius bending that may occur during loading
from the cable factory to the cable ship. They are conducted over the design temperature range
for the ocean cable. Conductor attenuation is monitored throughout the test.
AD.3.8 Cable Stopper Tests.
The range of cable stoppers that could be used on the ocean cable to hold it while it is being
worked must be certified to be able to hold the required load. The stopper is applied to the
ocean cable sample and subjected to the maximum theoretical operating tension for the cable
to check that it can hold the ocean cable. Conductor attenuation is monitored throughout the
test.
Page AA.71
A second test is for emergency stoppers, such as chain stoppers, which are used to provide
safety in an emergency. In this case the stopper, if applied, will damage the ocean cable. The
test is to ensure that this kind of stopper will hold the cable in order to provide the desired
safety.
AD.3.9 Installation Equipment Tests.
This tests the ability of the ocean cable, joint, coupling and housing to be deployed and
recovered using standard cable handling machinery. This can be achieved by dockside or sea
trials. The joint, coupling and housing must be passed through a range of cable machinery,
such as drum cable engines with tire and track holdback and draw off engines, tire linear
cable engines, track linear cable engines, and plows. The range of cable machinery is
necessary due to the number of different types of cable machinery, both on cable ships and
available for use on ships of opportunity.
Dockside tests can be done using a pair of cable engines ( e.g. port and starboard drum cable
engines ) with a sheave rigged so that the ocean cable can be worked from one cable engine to
the other. One cable engine provides the back tension in the cable, while the other is used for
the test.
AD.4 Other Tests.
AD.4.1 General.
There are other tests that are not strictly mechanical but form part of the reliability testing
of ocean cables and their joints and couplings.
AD.4.2 Water Ingress Test.
The ocean cable must be able to impede water ingress if a cable fault occurs at any depth, up
to the maximum deployment depth. The ocean cable is subjected to an axial hydrostatic
pressure for an extended period across an open end. The distance of water ingress is
determined from dissection and inspection.
The result of this test is used in repair operations to determine how far to cut back from a
fault before a splice is made.
AD.4.3 Corrosion Tests.
The materials that make up the ocean cable, joints, couplings, housings and sensors, if used,
must be able to resist the corrosive effects of the sea water and be protected against galvanic
corrosion. The test is done by submerging the ocean cable, joints, couplings, housing and
sensors in a salt water bath at an elevated temperature to simulate the design life of the
system, for communications systems this being 25 years.
For large structures, such as towers for short baseline arrays, testing is not generally
practical, but for smaller structures it may be useful if they are required to have a long
operational life.
AD.4.4 High Voltage Test.
Where the system uses high voltages to power the system, such as repeatered communications
systems, the high voltage test is used to ensure that the insulation used in the ocean cable,
joint and coupling are suitable for the maximum working system voltage, over the system
design life. This is an accelerated test using empirical data to determine the test voltage and
Page AA.72
duration. Testing is carried out in a high voltage testing chamber.
AD.4.5 Insulation Resistance Test.
The insulation on the ocean cable must exhibit integrity over long cable lengths. The test
consists of coiling a long length of ocean cable, in terms of nautical miles, in a pan and
submerging it in water. The maximum working system voltage is applied for a short period of
time to test the insulation.
AD.5 Note
Testing requirements for ocean cable systems is presented in the international standard IUT-
T publications. These tests are mainly for systems using optical fiber ocean cables but some
parts may be applicable to other types of ocean cables.
Page AA.73
AE. Electronics and Optronics.
This chapter contains a broad overview of electronic and optronic design for ocean cable
systems, including reliability, testing, assembly, and outlines of basic system units.
AE.1 General.
It is impossible to present an electronics/optronics design reference for ocean cable systems,

due to the very large range of applications, from communications to simple sensor systems. It
is also outside the scope of this handbook. However, there are general requirements that apply
to all systems, and these are presented below. The level to which these requirements are used
in the electronic/optronics design and manufacture of a system is dependent on parameters
such as reliability, system life and complexity.
In addition, an outline of typical designs for repeaters, equalizers, and shore power systems
used in communications type systems is given to provide some guidance in the design of the
electronics/optronics.
AE.2 Mechanical Requirements.
Even though care is taken in normal cable working, it is essential that underwater components,
such as repeaters and sensors, be designed to survive the shock forces that can occur. Typical
shock requirements for underwater components are:
a) A 60 g shock peak for 60 ms duration between the half amplitude points along each of the
three principal axes.
b) A vibration limit of 0.5 inches - 12.7 mm sinusoidal peak to peak displacement from 5 to
11 Hz.
c) A sinusoidal vibration at 3 g maximum from 11 to 500 Hz.
The electronics/optronics and sensors in underwater components should be designed for the
following temperature ranges:
a) Operating temperature range of 32o F to 86o F ( 0o C to 30o C ).
b) Storage temperature from 0o F to 135o F ( -18o C to 57o C )
To ensure that these mechanical requirements are not exceeded during shipping of
components, the inclusion of shock and temperature monitors is prudent. Shipping containers
should also be marked to indicate the handling and stowage requirements in the normal
manner.
AE.3 Mechanical Design.
Mechanical design forms a very important part of any electronics/optronics system. At its
simplest, the mechanical design consists of designing a frame to support the
electronics/optronics in its housing, or a sensor in its housing. It must also be of adequate
Page AA.74
strength and form that it, and the electronics/optronics/sensor, will withstand the shock
forces if they should occur. In systems where the electronics/optronics develop significant
heat, the frame must also provide a mechanism to transfer the heat from the component, or
components, into the housing which will be cooled by the sea.
Depending on the design, there may be a single frame, or several frames which fit together.
Figure AE.3(a) shows the arrangement for an optical repeater.
Amplifier pair chassis
Locking plate
Heat
transfer plate
Supervisory
Erbium amplifiers
Power supply
Pump unit
control circuit
Fig AE.3(a) Mechanical arrangement of four amplifier

pair repeater ( Tyco ).
Another requirement of the mechanical design is that in many systems, the power is provided
down the ocean cable with a seawater return, so that the electronics/optronics unit in the
housing may be several thousand volts above, or below, the housing, which is at local ground
voltage. This is typical of repeaters in communications systems. Hence the mechanical design
must incorporate insulation between the electronics/optronics unit and the housing, as well as
transferring the heat from the electronics/optronics unit into the housing.
If substantial heat flow is required to cool the electronics/optronics for effective operation, a
system of spring loaded heat sinks that press against the inside of the pressure housing can
be used.
The most common materials for making frames for supporting printed circuit boards and other
components are aluminum alloys. These alloys are light, easy to cast and machine and have
relatively good thermal conductivity and strength. Brass is also commonly used, not as much
as aluminum alloys, but in areas where its hardness or better heat conductivity are needed.
The majority of other materials used are plastics, primarily for insulation ar where metal
cannot be used. Because of the organic nature of plastics, testing must be done to determine
long term stability and water absorption, and the effect of temperature.
Page AA.75
Some of the plastics used in repeaters and similar units are in historical order:
a) Diallyl phthalate.
b) Epoxy resins ( mica filled to have same coefficient of thermal expansion as aluminum ).
c) Acetal copolymer plastic ( Celcon ).
d) Glass filled polybutylene terephthalate ( PBT ).
Figure AE.3(b) shows a typical repeater electronics unit with its epoxy insulated main
cylinder and plastic end caps, providing the necessary high voltage insulation between the
unit and the metal housing.
Fig. AE.3(b) Cutaway of repeater electronics unit, inner assembly,

showing frame, components, and insulation around
unit ( SG System ).
Other considerations include the water absorption and outgassing properties of the materials
used, the method of drying electronics/optronics units to prevent the danger of water
condensation at the temperatures encountered on the deep ocean floor, and the method of
pressure testing of the complete housing with its electronics/optronics unit, if done. If
vacuum drying is used and if the pressure testing uses leak detection then all components
must be able to withstand a hard vacuum. For circuit boards, the thickness for structural
rigidity needs to be considered, as well as path widths and separations, dielectric constants,
insulation resistance, peel strength, plating thickness and breakdown voltages to ensure high
reliability.
AE.4 Reliability.
AE.4.1 Introduction.
Strictly speaking, the need for very high reliability effects all the underwater components.
However, the main area of concern is the active components, the electronics/optronics and
sensors where failure is most likely to occur.
Page AA.76
AE.4.2 Reliability Calculations.
AE.4.2.1 Basis.
The high cost of both repair and down time of ocean cable systems makes the need for system
reliability of the underwater components a major requirement in the design.
Mechanical reliability can normally be tested with a high degree of confidence ( e.g. pressure
and leak testing ) and thus is the lesser of the reliability requirements.
Electronics/optronics, particularly active components, are not easy to test, since accelerated
testing methods can decrease the operational life of components. Hence, an estimate of the
reliability of the electronics/optronics must be calculated from tests on samples of
components. From this the number of repairs in a given system life due to
electronics/optronics failure, can be calculated. Conversely, if a system life and number of
failures in that life can be specified, then an estimate of the required component reliability
can be obtained.
Sensor reliability depends in the nature of the sensor. If mechanical movement occurs, then
this may lead to failure by fatigue, which can normally be tested by accelerated testing. The
main requirement for sensor reliability is quality control during production.
AE.4.2.2 Shape of the Mortality Function.
The normal concept of the mortality function is the "bath tub" shape. In ocean cable systems,
component burn-in or equivalent removes faulty components which form the bottom end of the
bath tub curve.
Based on considerable telecommunications and military experience, normal practice is to

assume a constant hazard reliability model for every component. In ocean cable systems, the
normal failure mechanism is wearout.
For system reliability design, the shape of the mortality function can be ignored and the
design is based on the mortality at the end of the system life. This is useful as it provides the
estimate of the number of repairs expected in this life, that is due to electronic/optronic
component failure, not mechanical damage.
Component reliability is described in FITS , failures in 109 device hours.
AE.4.2.3 Single Component Type Reliability.
The probability of no failures in a type of component is given by:
Pf (0 ) =e " #
where
# = The expected number of component failures in the required period TL .
For the normally acceptable failure rate of 50 percent probability ( e " # =0.5 ) gives # =0.69 .
Hence the mean time between failures ( MTBF ), of all the components of the type in the system
Page AA.77
is given by:
MTBF = TL #
If in the system there are NR units ( e.g. repeaters ) each with nc components of the type,
then for the required period ( TL ) we get:
# = ( N R $ n c $ TL ) MTBF
To determine FITS , # is taken as 0.69 ( Pf (0 ) =0.5 ) and hence:
#
FITS= $ 10 9
N R $ nc $TL
where TL is in hours.
The above calculation is for no redundancy.
AE.4.2.4 Multiple Component System Reliability.
For a simple system with no redundancy, the necessary condition for no system failure, is no
component failure.
Hence system reliability PF ( 0 ) is given by:
nt
PF (0 ) = % Pf ( 0 ) i
i= 1
where
nt = Number of different types of components in the system.
Now from
" #i
Pf (0 ) i =e
we get for the system failures in the required period TL :

nt
# T =& # i
i=1
where
#i = Expected number of failures of component i in the required period TL .

= FITSi $ NR $ n c i $ TL
Page AA.78
The reliability can be improved by redundancy, either active or standby.
In active redundancy, two components, or sub-systems ( e.g. amplifiers ) are used in parallel,
so both must fail to cause a system failure. Hence for a two fold redundancy the modified
unreliability q' is given by:
q' =q 2
where
q = Single component/ sub-system unreliability.
For ocean cable systems components, failure rates are very small and hence since # <<1, we
can approximate:
#' = #2
and using this in the total system failure equations for the component/ sub-systems that have
active redundancy.
Standby redundancy is used when wearout can occur before system life and hence active
redundancy does not enhance system reliability. In standby redundancy, the extra
components/ sub-systems are held in reserve, ready to assume the load if the primary
components/ sub-systems fail.
In order to calculate the effect of this, the failure density function Fi , for the component/
sub-system must be calculated.
d #i d P f (0 ) i
Fi = ="
dt dt
and for one extra component/ sub-system we have:
2
F'i = Fi
and hence the modified #i can be found.
The alternative approach is to set a number of system failures acceptable in the system life
and work backwards to compute failure rates. However, because of the variation between active
and passive components, this is effectively impossible to carry out for all components that
form the system. By simplifying the system to major units, such as repeaters, it can be used to
get FITS for them, and then used to estimate the required FITS for active components,
assuming passive components have effectively infinite life.
AE.4.2.5 Achieved Component Reliability.
The levels of component reliability achieved for communications ocean cable systems
underwater electronics are:
a) Passive components 0.05 FITS .

Page AA.79
b) Diodes 0.5 FITS .
c) Transistors 1.0 FITS
AE.4.2.6 Component Screening.
Component screening is used to eliminate faulty components to ensure that only those
expected to meet the required FITS levels are used in the construction of the underwater units
of the system. Also the screening process for active components is used to provide aging to
ensure stable performance in service.
If the components are manufactured in-house, then screening can commence with the materials
used and the manufacturing process. The following is a brief description of the screening of
various components that has been successfully used.
a) Transistors: Screening begins with environmental stresses such as channel aging, overstress
power aging, and high temperature stress, and ends with long term aging.
Channel aging is done on a 100 percent basis and serves to eliminate inferior transistors that,
despite all precautions taken in the manufacture, may still have some surface charge
accumulation. This is accomplished by holding each transistor at an elevated temperature with
its junction at reverse bias for a period of one week.
Accelerated power aging is a shakedown test. Each transistor is power overstressed at a level
three times its operating level for a period of one week. This test enables detection of
transistors with marginal quality and incipient failure modes.
The high temperature stress technique is a sampling test based on the observation that
semiconductor device life is related to the magnitude of the stressing temperatures. A sample
of every lot of transistors to be used in the system, is stressed at three different time
intervals and three junction temperatures. Distributions of failure based on the reliability
goals ( ' hFE < 2.5% in 20 years ) are then made for each time and temperature combination.
From this data, the commonly known Arrhenius Failure Distribution ( see figure AE.4.2.6(a) )
is made which provides a convenient method of determining the failure rate for any time-
temperature combination.
Note that in the example shown in figure AE.4.2.6(a), that the intersection of the 20 year
objective with a 65o C use condition is coincident with a value of sigma of the transistor
failure distribution, which is extremely small. This establishes the confidence level or
percentage of failure to be expected.
The final part of the screening is aging. The transistors are placed on six-month long-term age
at maximum operating conditions. During this times transistors are tested at regular
intervals, the results of which are observed for trends. This data is statistically extrapolated
over the system lifetime ( for long-term systems, 20 years ) with the objective of assuring the
required life in the unit.
b) Diodes: Screening diodes consists of channel age tests, accelerated age, and operational
aging at use conditions. The channel age test could consist of holding the diode at reverse bias
for 16 hours at 150o C and 80 percent of the breakdown voltage, depending on the diode
design. The accelerated age test consists of holding the diode at high temperature for 144
hours. Diodes that behave differently from the main population are discarded, and the
Page AA.80
remaining diodes are aged for six months at maximum use conditions. Those diodes that
exhibit the most stable characteristics are then selected for use.
P1 =1.5 watts-failure criterion ' hFE >2.5 %

300
250
200
median
150
T1 in Co
2000 hours
150 hours
20 hours
"1(
100 "2(
75
maximum use condition
"5(
20 years
50
25
10 0 101 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
Fig. AE.4.2.6(a) Example of a pattern of accelerated

aging for transistors
c) Resistors: Each resistor is visually examined, a sample of the population is voltage-surge

tested, then all resistors are baked for 24 hours at 105o C, followed by five temperature
cycles from -40o C to +85o C. After that, each resistor sustains a short-time overload of 6.25
times rated power for 5 minutes. This is followed by 1500 hours at rated power to screen out
any resistors with anomalous behavior, and a final resistance check and noise measurements.
d) Capacitors: High Voltage: Trial paper capacitors are tested for 25 days at 66o C and at more
than twice the rated voltage. Capacitance and insulation resistance shifts are checked as well
as catastrophic failure.
Ten percent of all manufactured product is sacrificed for a similar test and all product is
screened for 6 months at sea bottom temperatures ( 4o C ) and higher than rated voltage,
During these tests, all significant electrical parameters must remain within tight limits.
For long-life systems, capacitance tolerance is 3 percent, with a total shift during life of 0.5
percent. Capacitors are initially stabilized by temperature cycling between -18o C and +66o
C, and capacitance shifts are again held to tight limits. Insulation resistance and effective
series resistance at a selected frequency are both held to absolute values; the change in those
parameters during processing and aging is also held to tight limits.
Page AA.81
e) Capacitors: Ceramic: With the application of voltage, ceramic dielectric undergoes an

electrochemical degradation which eventually results in breakdown. The accelerated life
testing of capacitors of this type used in undersea repeaters, under a variety of conditions led
to the conclusion that undersea bottom conditions their average life would be 100000 years,
but that it is necessary to screen out atypical capacitors that might fail much earlier.
All capacitors must undergo a rigorous testing program and a sample of each lot is subjected
to destructive electrical and mechanical tests to determine the capability of the lot.
To screen out any which may have an intermittent internal connection, each capacitor is
cycled over the entire operating and storage temperature range ( -20o C to +60o C ) twice while
it is continuously monitored for capacitance. The capacitors are life-tested at voltages
ranging, according to dielectric thickness, from 150 to 450 V D.C. Electrical parameters are
monitored and compared before test, after two months of test, and after four months of test.
Both fixed and statistical limits are placed on the values and changes in value, to screen out
any units which could be peculiar.
f) Capacitors: Tantalum: All capacitors are measured for capacitance value, series resistance,
and leakage current on receipt. Then, at periods during nine months of screening, they are
measured for the same parameters four more times. Screening consists of temperature cycles,
pulsing, surge testing, and life testing for three 60 day periods at elevated temperature and
voltage.
After these tests, any capacitor displaying a 0.5 percent change in capacitance is rejected.
The absolute difference in successive readings of series resistance and leakage current are
limited to fixed maximum values. In addition, the results are looked at statistically, so that
any units showing absolute differences outside 3.5 ( for either parameter are rejected.
g) Transformers and Inductors: To ensure that the inductive components would not be
degraded after a long period of use, only materials which have been thoroughly tested can be
considered, and which are determined to be suitable candidates for the proposed applications.
All raw materials and piece parts must be subjected to inspection, cleaning, and testing
procedures before they can be used, As a means. of verifying and justifying the choice of
material as well as methods of construction, all inductive components are subjected to
artificial aging and stabilization.
This is accomplished by temperature cycling each component over the range from -18o C to
+66o C. The temperature cycles serve two purposes: they accelerate aging changes and they
establish a trend line. Components are considered acceptable only if, after a series of
temperature cycles, parameter changes are within permissible limits and the changes after
each series of cycles are becoming smaller so that the extrapolated end-of-life changes would
also be within the accepted limit.
h) Integrated and Thick Film Circuits: Integrated and thick film circuits represent a difficult
screening problem as they contain transistors, capacitors and resistors and the connecting
conductors all in one device. Typical screening tests would be expected include the following
or equivalent tests.
Accelerated power aging of each integrated/thick film circuit, done by power overstressed at a
selected level above its operating level for a period of one week. This test enables detection of
Page AA.82
transistors with marginal quality and incipient failure modes.
The high temperature stress technique by taking a sample of every lot of integrated/thick film
circuits to be used in the system, and stressing them at three different time intervals and
three temperatures. Distributions of failure based on the reliability goals ( ' hFE < 2.5% in
20 years ) are then made for each time and temperature combination. This testing establishes
the confidence level or percentage of failure to be expected.
The final part of the screening is aging. The integrated/thick film circuits are placed on s i x -
month long-term age at maximum operating conditions. During this times they are tested at
regular intervals, the results of which are observed for trends. This data is statistically
extrapolated over the system lifetime ( for long-term systems, 20 years ) with the objective of
assuring the required life in the unit.
i) Lasers: The first stage of screening for lasers is microscopic optical examination to check
for missing, broken, or unattached wires, misaligned, facet contamination or misbonding on
the chip, or handling damage.
This is followed by initial characterization ( cosmetic and light-current curve inspection ).

then passive aging at elevated temperature ( 176o F to 338o F - 80o C to 170o C ) without bias,
with and without humidity. Active aging on units passing begins with overstress ( high
temperature 302o F - 150o C, high current ), and the long-term rate-monitoring aging at
elevated temperatures ( 140o F - 60o C ).
Overstress testing is designed to compel a timely ( 5 days ) identification of premature

failures, due to modes of degradation other than the long-term ultimately controlling wear-out
mode, and to stabilize transient modes. To identify premature failures of the wear-out type,
survivors of overstressing are subjected to rate monitoring in which wear-out degradation
rates, established in a reasonable time ( 50 days ) may be sorted. Overstress aging also detects
the initially occurring saturable degradation mode, present to some extent in most lasers, and
force its rapid stabilization, so that it will not obscure determination of activation energy of
the wear-out modes. With a credibly determined value for the latter, it can be
deterministically inferred from the rate-monitoring results screening of the light-emitting
reliability of the lasers at ocean bottom temperatures ( 50o F - 10o C ) to be more than
adequate to meet a system design lifetime of 20 years.
j) Photodiodes: Conventional high-temperature burn-in of photodiodes is impractical and does

not reliably remove devices which fail by low activation energy process.
The first stage of screening is microscopic optical examination to check for missing, broken,
or unattached wires, misaligned or misbonding on the chip, or handling damage.
This is followed by a purge process of thermomechanical tests ( e.g., temperature cycling,

mechanical shock, vibration, hermeticity ) and overstressing using carefully controlled high
temperature and reverse bias. Care must be taken in selecting these parameters to ensure
purging does not damage the robust devices that survive and hence shorten their lifetime.
The final phase is surveillance of the robust surviving devices over a period of weeks, to
detect devices that deviate from established performance curves, both of the devices by
themselves, and then incorporated into the associated electronics unit.
Page AA.83
k) Passive optical devices. There is no information on screening of passive optical devices, so

the following is a suggested method based on other optical components.
The first stage of screening for passive optical devices could be microscopic optical
examination to check for misalignment, facet contamination , or handling damage.
This could be followed by initial characterization, then passive aging at elevated temperature
( 176o F to 338o F - 80o C to 170o C ), with and without humidity. The characteristics are
checked again, along with microscopic optical examination, to remove devices that have shown
deterioration.
The last stage could be a purge process of thermomechanical tests ( e.g., temperature cycling,
mechanical shock, vibration ). Care must be taken in selecting the parameters to ensure
purging does not damage the robust devices that survive and hence shorten their lifetime.
AE.5 Assembly.
AE.5.1 General.
Assembly of the electronics/optronics units for ocean cable systems consists of two parts. The
first is the construction and testing of the electronics/optronics units and the second is the
installation of these units in the pressure housings.
The primary requirements to ensure that the two parts of the assembly process do not degrade
the reliability of the system are cleanliness, inspection and testing and training of the
personnel involved; combined with properly planned assembly process or processes.
AE.5.2 Planning.
Undersea electronics/optronics units are normally relatively complex units of compact form,
and to ensure that assembly is done in a manner that will allow reliability, testing,
inspection, etc., to be properly carried out, a flow chart of at least the major steps is required,
even for a one off unit.
For large operations, the planning will have to extend deeper with full PERT, CPM, manpower
and resources, and costing analysis being done to ensure control of the assembly to meet
system objectives and installation times.
AE.5.3 Environment.
Cleanliness is one of the most important aspects of assembly of electronics/optronics and

pressure housings. It extends from the dust conditions of the assembly areas to the methods
used by the personnel in the assembly, to ensure that the completed units do not contain
material that would jeopardize their reliability.
Air conditions typically should conform to the requirement of less than 50000 particles above
0.5 micron diameter per cubic foot, temperature of 75o 2o F ( 26o l o C ) with a relative
humidity of less than 40 percent. Special operations, such as capacitor winding may require
more stringent conditions. For small systems, this can be achieved using laminar flow tables
and curtained off work areas. Large systems may require full clean rooms. The floors, walls
and ceilings must be of sealed material designed not to hold dust. Small vacuum cleaning units
should be supplied to clean components, tools and equipment to reduce contamination from the
outside as much as possible, and from the assembly processes. The vacuum cleaners used to
clean assembly areas should be restricted to this job only to reduce the possibility of outside
Page AA.84
contamination being introduced from other areas.
All personnel in the clean work area must wear protective clothing, consisting of cap, coverall
and overshoes designed for dust free operations, to ensure dust is not introduced from
clothing or hair. For handling components, gloves must be worn to protect against corrosion
from the natural oils in the skin.
Lighting must be good and cover all work areas evenly, with small directional lights used
where required. Over-all illumination of 85 foot-candles is typical for general lighting using
fluorescent lighting.
To prevent problems due to static electricity build up, work areas and benches should be
covered with anti-static materials and personnel should be grounded during critical
operations.
AE.5.4 Inspection and Testing.
To ensure reliability, every operation in the assembly of the electronics/optronics units and
the assembly of the pressure housings, seals, etc., must be inspected. In addition, major sub-
assemblies and complete units must be thoroughly tested. While this adds considerably to the
time and cost of manufactures the possible cost of system downtime and repair, far outweigh
this.
The use of soldered joints in the electronics/optronics is to provide an inspectable joint, as no

other method available provides inspection without the need for testing which may be
destructive or damage the joint. As each component is inserted and its leads soldered, it is
inspected and recorded. If the joint(s) are not acceptable, it is remade, and reinspected. For
high reliability, a joint should only be remade once. Methods for high reliability soldering
and its inspection are laid out in several codes and MIL-SPECS though long-life systems may
require even more stringent standards. It is assumed that all components have been screened
and aged prior to assembly, so that component inspection and testing at assembly should be by
visual inspection only.
As each major sub-assembly is made into complete units and tested, the results of these tests
must pass inspection and be recorded.
When the electronics/optronics unit is inserted into its pressure housing, all operations must
also be subjected to inspection and where applicable, testing, with full records being kept.
Mechanical components must be inspected prior to assembly to ensure that they are clean and
no defects exist.
AE.5.5 Training and Qualification.
In order to achieve the level of skill needed in the assembly process, all inspectors and
constructors must be familiar with the operations they must carry out, and have or be trained
in the necessary skills. For example, high reliability soldering methods are taught in courses
given mainly by avionics manufacturers or repairers. For large systems it may be economical
to carry out in-house training.
In addition, where applicable, each constructor must be able to demonstrate that he or she can
meet the required standard before being allowed to engage in the assembly of components for
the system. Similarly inspectors must demonstrate that they understand the criteria needed to
pass or reject operations in their area.
Page AA.85
AE.6 Ocean Cable Installed Transmission Characteristics.
AE.6.1 General.
In the design of electromechanical and ocean cables, calculations are done for the
transmission characteristics of conductors, both electrical and optical. However in practice,
the transmission path not only includes that of the ocean cable, but also the strength
terminations, pigtails and conductor seals, as well as manufacturing splices, if they have been
required. Allowance must also be made for the effects of repair to the ocean cable. This
section outlines the effect of these factors on the complete transmission path that must be
included in the calculations of the full transmission characteristics. It should be noted the
the cable length used for calculations is the actual cable length, not the cable track length, as
slack is always laid unless the cable is plowed in.
Values given in the following sections are for reference only. In practice, full measurements
must be made of the effects, as the range of variation in design of the various components is
too great for definitive values to be given.
AE.6.2 Multi-Conductors.
Ocean cables with multi-conductors, typically those with pairs or quads, are normally not
affected significantly by the fittings on the cable ends, or by splices, unless used at very high
frequencies ( for pairs/quads ), where the geometry of the conductor seals in the end closures
and splices may have some effect similar to those found in coaxial conductors. If optical fibers
are used for signal transmission, then the effect of conductor seal(s) will be similar to those
in section AE.6.4.
However for normal use, the calculated transmission characteristics for the ocean cable only
are adequate. The only allowance that must be made is for repairs, that is for a length of
additional ocean cable. This length may be negligible for conditions with ample slack laid, or
about twice the water depth if the cable is buried or likely to be so.
AE.6.3 Coaxial.
Transmission characteristics for coaxial conductor between repeaters ( or repeater and

equalizer ) includes those of the coaxial ocean cable, manufacturing splices, cable repeater
terminations ( strength member, pigtail, conductor seal ). In addition, allowance must be made
for repair splices and a length of repair cable if the cable is buried.
Outside of the ocean cable, the cable repeater terminations have the most significant effect on
transmission characteristics. For large bandwidth systems, insertion losses are of the order of
0.13 dB per repeater at 30 mHz. However the terminations also contribute a loss ripple due to
impedance interaction with the repeater and cable. Reflections occur at each end of the pigtail,
and because the insertion phase of the directional filter and output networks vary rapidly
with frequency ( typically 360 degrees across the high band of a large bandwidth system ), the
phase of the repeater reflection coefficient across the high band can change by up to several
revolutions. The reflection coefficient at the cable end of the termination results from excess
capacitance in the reflection area. The interaction between the two reflections, separated by
an electrically long pigtail, causes rapidly varying loss ripple whose magnitude can be up to
0.035 dB in the high band of a large bandwidth system.
Page AA.86
Splices in the cable due to manufacturing or repair cause both attenuation loss and
reflections. Normally splices are not permitted within set distances of cable ends and
normally not more than two in a manufactured section. Also a minimum distance between
splices is set. Transmission losses in splices is relatively small, however return losses in
large bandwidth systems can be high. The distances for splices and transmission losses are
determined by the type of coaxial cable and top frequency.
Practice in manufacturing coaxial ocean cable is to make the repeater to repeater ( or repeater
to equalizer length ) slightly long and then cut to length after testing to obtain the design
attenuation. This allows repeaters to operate at design characteristics and removes the
possibility of the need to adjust individual repeaters to match the cable sections on each side.
AE.6.4 Optical.
Transmission characteristics for the optical path between repeaters includes those of the
optical fiber in the ocean cable, manufacturing splices, cable repeater terminations ( strength
member, pigtail and conductor seal ), coupling of the laser to the laser coupler and the coupler
to the fiber and the coupling of the wave-guide to the detector.
Splices in the optical fiber, produce a conservative loss of 0.1 to 0.2 dB, and as the cable
termination must contain one splice, this is also typical of their loss.
As with coaxial ocean cables, the length of ocean cable between repeaters in an optical system
would also be cut to give the required design value of attenuation averaged across all the
optical fibers.
AE.7 Repeater and Equalizer Design.
AE.7.1 Function.
Repeaters are required in ocean cable systems when the attenuation in the cable is too great to
allow successful signal transmission. Repeaters are essentially amplifiers which are spaced
along the cable to boost the signal to compensate for the attenuation. The amplifier may be
broad band for multi-carrier transmission or narrow band for single carrier or optical
transmission.
Equalizers normally only occur in repeatered coaxial and optical ocean cable systems and are
placed at regular intervals along the cable. They are used to correct misalignments in signal
transmission arising from cable laying effects, and tolerances in cable characteristics and
repeaters. The ocean cable between equalizers and its repeaters is known as an ocean block
and the equalizers as ocean block equalizers. This type of equalizer has its characteristics set
during the laying of the system. In some large capacity systems, equalizers that can be set
from the shore are included to counter aging effects. Optical systems tend not to have laying
effects due to the design of the ocean cable.
AE.7.2 Multi-Conductor Ocean Cables.
The majority of multi-conductor ocean cable systems are relatively short and hence do not
require repeaters. Cables with pairs or quads often use load coils spaced along the cable to aid
in signal transmission for longer length cables ( as for land cables ).
If repeaters are required, the many different types of signal transmission modes used in
multi-conductor ocean cables, may require repeaters to consist of a simple amplifier with gain
to compensate for a single carrier, or base band, frequency, or, for multi-carrier transmission
Page AA.87
it may well be of similar form to those used in coaxial cable systems. Normally because the
length of ocean cable used for such systems is relatively short, the design and manufacturing
criteria are not as stringent as for long haul coaxial or optical systems.
AE.7.3 Coaxial Ocean Cables.
AE.7.3.1 Repeaters.
The design of repeaters for coaxial ocean cables is an iterative process. The first stage is to
specify the allowable signal to noise ratio for the system and the signal load ( for
communications systems, the international objectives were 1 pWpO/1000 m signal to noise and
-13 dBmO per 3 kHz spaced channel ). Once the noise, load, channel capacity and cable
diameter are specified, the achievable amplifier noise figures and modulation coefficients
known, the repeater gain and spacing can be determined. This can be done using the following
approximate relationship:
(
s n= "1.8 " 13 M A + B " C + 10 log ( n p ) + 20log( n ) )
" 23 ( 10 log ( KTB ) + N F + GR + 10log( n ) )
where
sn = Signal to noise ratio in decibels.

M A + B "C = Repeater third-order modulation coefficient for 3-tone products of the A+B-C
type.
n = Number of repeaters in the system.
np = Equivalent number of third order intermodulation products which add in
phase from-repeater to repeater.
KTB = Thermal noise = -139 dBm at 3000 K in 3 kHz.
NF = Repeater noise figure.
GR = Repeater insertion gain.
Normally the analysis is done for the highest carrier frequency, as proper signal level
shaping will significantly reduce the noise at lower frequencies.
The form of repeaters for coaxial ocean cables is fairly standard, consisting of power
separation filters at each end to extract power from the center conductor of the cable,
directional filters to separate the carrier frequencies into low and high bands, that is the two
directions of signal transmission ( not required in a single ended system with one direction of
signal transmission ), an amplifier and a supervisory oscillator for maintenance. Some
systems use two amplifiers, one for the low band and one for the high band, this makes the
design simpler but adds substantially to the number of components.
The block diagram of a typical repeater is shown in figure AD.7.3.1(a),
The ground separation filter isolates at DC the cable sea ground potential from the repeater
ground high potential, while coupling signals between the two. In addition, the ground
separation filter separates the DC power from the signal to provide power to the repeater.
The directional filter is a constant impedance network with two low pass and two high pass
filters, as shown in figure AE.7.3.1(a). In-band transmission ripples from the filters are
typically held to less than 1/1000 of a dB. This layout gives two spurious feedback paths
around the amplifier. Cancellation of the signal in these paths is done using a 1:1 transformer
Page AA.88
in one path and a l:-1 transformer in the other. This is aided by maintaining the return loss in
each directional filter port above a specified value. For a single ended, that is a single
direction of signal transmission, the directional filters are omitted from the repeaters.
The design uses a single amplifier with no redundancy, to obtain the minimum component
count and hence minimize the FITS . The amplifier requires extreme gain stability for a long
life system, and linearity requirements dictate a feedback amplifier. The amplifier gain is
shaped to compensate for the variation of attenuation with frequency in the cable, the losses
in the repeaters directional and ground separation filters, the amplifier ) effect and, if
equalizers are used, to give a slight gain boost at low frequencies to provide additional flat
loss for the ocean block equalizer.
The supervisory oscillator inserts a sinusoidal tone into the high or low band and is used for
maintenance and performance checking. Each oscillator typically has a lifetime stability
requirement of 40 Hz and to ensure accurate monitoring, the level of the oscillator is
required to vary by less than 0.5 dB at any operating temperature over the system lifetime.
Oscillators that insert into the low band use a low pass filter to ensure no harmonics are
inserted. Some repeater designs insert tones into both the low and high bands.
B end High band A end

signal B-
High Low
pass pass
!:-!
filter filter
2 1 DC and
High band low band
signal signal
B-
Ground Ground
sepa- sepa-
ration ration
filter filter
Spurious Spurious
path 1 path 2
DC and High band
low band signal
signal !:!
Low High
pass pass
filter filter
2 1 Supervisory
oscillator
B+ Low band Sea ground

signal
Repeater ground
B+
Fig. AE.7.3.1(a) Block diagram of a typical repeater ( SF ).
Protection against voltage surge in the primary signal and power path is provided initially by
gas tubes, or solid state devices, across the input and output. These typically have a
breakdown voltage of about 75 volts and reduce the surge level.
To provide protection for the transistors and diodes, normal practice is to place a zener diode
with a breakdown voltage several volts above repeater voltage, across the amplifier power
terminals for the low frequency component of the surge. Current transients can have value's of
60 amps and the tail can last up to 1 second. The high frequency component of the surge,
which is not shunted by the gas tubes, or solid state devices, is passed to the amplifier input
and output ports. Input port protection is typically shunted by a pair of opposite poled
silicon diodes. Output port protection is shunted by a pair of oppositely poled silicon pnpn
diodes, to handle the higher signal load.
Page AA.89
Later coaxial fiber ocean cable systems were laid with minimal excess slack, and when a
repair was done, a section of cable with a repair repeater was spliced in, the repair repeater
compensating for the added length of cable inserted between the adjacent repeaters to the
repair.
AE.7.3.2 Ocean Block Equalizers.
Ocean block equalizers are inserted at regular intervals along the cable normally between two
repeaters. The length of cable between these equalizers and its repeaters is known as an ocean
block.
The function of an equalizer is to compensate most of the accumulated misalignment in these

ocean blocks. This misalignment arises from design and manufacturing deviations in both
repeaters and the ocean cables and also from unpredicted effects produced on the cable
attenuation as the cable is laid ( laying effects ).
The length of cable between the two repeaters into which an ocean block equalizer is inserted,
is less than the normal repeater to repeater length, the nominal attenuation of the equalizer
being equal to that of the length of cable by which the distance is shortened.
Ocean block equalizers are passive devices consisting of power separation filters and
attenuation networks. For larger bandwidth systems, the attenuation networks are split into
high and low band groups and directional filters are included ( for two way signal
transmission ).
The overall accumulated misalignment at the end of an ocean block consists of the sum of many
deviation versus frequency shapes. The attenuation networks in the equalizer are made up by
connecting various constant resistance bridged-tee type equalizer networks together to
produce the overall desired equalization. The basic types of these networks are:
a) Build-out equalizer.
b) Repeater direction filter Q equalizer.
c) Mop-up equalizer.
d) Cable manufacturing equalizer ( common to both bands ).
e) Switchable or plug-in equalizers ( depends on equalizer design ).
The mop-up equalizers are a series of simple bumps slope and flat networks, which are used to
equalize repeater design deviations and are selected from tests on the repeaters used in the
ocean block.
The direction filter Q equalizers are used to equalize manufacturing Q variations of the
repeater directional filter inductors. This deviation has a predictable shape whose amplitude
depends on the average Q of the directional filters in the repeaters in the ocean block.
Build-out equalizers provide the required loss of the shortened length of cable between the
two repeaters, into which the equalizer is inserted, and the value is determined after the mop-
up and direction filter Q equalizers are decided. Also included into this filter is an overload
limiting circuits consisting of a transformer and oppositely poled diodes to clip abnormally
high signal peaks, preventing the possibility of system overload singing.
Page AA.90
The cable manufacturing equalizer is selected to compensate for the part of the ocean block
deviation caused by cable batches having more or less than normal dielectric conductance
loss.
Switchable or plug in equalizers are set or inserted during the lay, just prior to the equalizer
lay, and the values are determined from transmission tests made during the lay. The shapes
are designed to compensate for laying effects on cable attenuation and residual manufacturing
deviations of repeaters and cable.
For single direction signal transmissions,direction filter Q equalizers would not be used.
Variations between different equalizer designs may combine some of these equalizer networks
into single units.
Two types of equalizer design are in use. The first uses plug in boards, which are made up and
inserted on the cable ship during the lay. The equalizer electronics unit is inserted into its
pressure housing and sealed just prior to laying. This method has the advantage of all joints
being soldered and flexibility in component selection. Its disadvantages are that the cable
ship is limited in clean room conditions for assembly and it is not possible to fully test the
pressure housing prior to laying.
The second type of equalizer design is fully made up in the repeater factory and uses rotating
switches to select from a series of networks. Two or more, additional conductors are used, one
for the test lead for transmission tests during laying and the other(s) to drive the rotary
switches to select the networks. The advantage of this type is the unit is assembled under the
same conditions as the repeaters, and its pressure housing is fully tested to ensure
reliability. The disadvantage is that the connections at the magnetic latching double transfer
relays which place the networks in or out of circuit, these being activated/deactivated by the
rotary switches, are not fused, that is soldered junctions and not open to inspection, however
this type of relay switch has performed successfully in systems for over 20 years.
AE.7.3.3 Shore Controlled Equalizer.
Shore controlled equalizers were not used in most systems, however in very large bandwidth
systems where aging effects in the cable become significant, the use of this type of equalizer
in long haul systems could become essential to maintain system performance over the required
lifetime. The number required in a system was determined from calculation of aging effects
and compensation networks that can be used.
The basic design is similar to the ocean block equalizer, with switchable equalizing networks.
The main change is that no build-out equalizer networks are included and switchable
networks have about twice the attenuation as for ocean block equalizers.
The rotary switches are driven by a motor powered by an amplifier ( Note: later systems used
solid state circuits to replace the motor-switch system ) and the magnetic latching double
transfer relays are driven by a second amplifier.
The equalizer is activated by a carrier consisting of a frequency pair, located at the edge of
the signal transmission bands. This frequency pair is selectively amplified and rectified to
produce control voltages, which in turn drive the switches and relays. An additional switch is
used to identify the network selected and this is transmitted back to the shore end by
modulating the second harmonic of the motor channel frequency.
Page AA.91
AE.7.4 Optical Fiber Ocean Cables.
AE.7.4.1 Repeaters.
Optical signal transmission in ocean cable systems is of digital form and the function of the
repeaters is to amplify and reform the signal to compensate for attenuation and dispersion in
the optical fibers.
Initial repeater designs used regenerators which converted the optical signal back into an
electrical signal, which was cleaned up, amplified, and used to drive the laser diode that
inserted the signal into the next section of ocean cable. Reliability was improved by
redundancy for each signal path. In communications systems, for each fiber pair, two
regenerators were used, one for the up signal and one for the down signal, connected
together to provide for supervisory functions.
Erbium
Gain
doped fiber Isolator
equalizer Filter
amplifier
Coupler Coupler
Up in Up out
Input monitoring
980 nm
Fiber pump
WDM Bragg laser Output
coupler grating modules monitoring
Coupler
Supervisory
Drivers and
Optical
Optical
time domain
time domain
reflectometry
reflectometry
coupling Input coupling
monitoring
Laser pump unit
Output monitoring
Down out Down in
Power supply
Fig. AE.7.4.1(a) Block diagram of typical optical amplifier for fiber pair.
Page AA.92
The next generation replaced the electo-optical amplifier with a totally optical amplifier
using erbium doped fiber amplifiers. In communications systems, each fiber pair
amplification is done in a single module, which provides redundancy for the pump lasers and
provides for supervisory functions and optical time domain reflectometry for repeater
monitoring. However like the first generation, the signal was a single wavelength. The other
change was the reduction in active components, and hence improved reliability.
The current generation uses wavelength division multiplexing to increase capacity. The
amplifiers are a development of the erbium doped fiber amplifiers to handle the multiplexing
using fiber Bragg gratings. Figure AE.7.4.1(a) shows a typical block diagram for the amplifier
module for a fiber pair.
As with repeaters for coaxial ocean cables, protection against voltage surge in the power path
is provided initially by solid state devices, across the input and output, reduce the surge
level.
Additional protection for the electro-optical and electronic components is provided against
the AC components of a surge.
In a single ended system with one direction of signal transmission, each fiber has a single
amplifier, basically half of the optical amplifier shown in figure AD.7.4.1(a).
As optical fiber ocean cable systems are laid with minimal excess slack, when a repair is
done, a section of cable with a repair repeater is spliced in, the repair repeater compensates
for the added length of cable inserted between the adjacent repeaters to the repair.
AE.7.4.2 Equalizers.
Equalizers are inserted at regular intervals along the cable normally between two repeaters.
The length of cable between these equalizers and its repeaters is known as an ocean block.
The function of an equalizer is to compensate most of the accumulated misalignment in these

ocean blocks. This misalignment arises from design and manufacturing deviations in both
repeaters and the ocean cables.
Equalizers are passive devices consisting of attenuation networks for each optical fiber, and a
power bypass.
The length of cable between the two repeaters into which an equalizer is inserted, is less than
the normal repeater to repeater length, the nominal attenuation of the equalizer for each
optical fiber being equal to that of the length of cable by which the distance is shortened.
AE.7.4.3 Branch Units.
The use of branch units along trunk ocean cables allows access to the trunk along its length
for additional shore stations, or for the trunk to have two landing sites at an end. The branch
unit has two terminations for the trunk cable, one for the branch cable, and a sea earth. The
branch unit is a switch for both the optical fiber pairs and the power feed. Fiber pairs can be
switched from the trunk cable into the branch, or vice versa, to control traffic. Normally the
sea earth is used for the branch cable, but in the case of a failure it can be switched to allow
limited use of the system in the case of a fault occurring in a part of the trunk. If the fault
occurs in the branch, then traffic can be set to bypass the branch.
Page AA.93
AE.8 Shore Station Equipment.
AE.8.1 General.
The shore station provides for the termination of the ocean cable(s) and ocean ground ( sea
earth ), and the houses of the shore station equipment which provides power to the underwater
system, signal insertion and reception, signal multiplexing and demultiplexing, and system
monitoring and maintenance, the exact equipment depends on the system design. To provide
protection against loss of power, shore stations normally have standby generators. In some
cases the shore station may be inland from the shoreline, requiring shore extension cables
between the shore station and the cable termination vault, near the shore line.
Where the shore station is for a range, surveillance system, etc., it may also house the
analysis equipment and be, essentially, self contained. For communications systems, the shore
station is connected to the land communications system.
AE.8.2 Multiconductor Ocean Cable Systems.
Shore station equipment for multiconductor ocean cable systems is normally specially
designed for the system, as the majority of these systems are nonstandard and are generally
single ended ( e.g. ranges ). If the power and the signal share the same conductors, then power
separation filter(s) are required. The other equipment consists of the power supply, the
demultiplexers, monitoring, and, if signal is sent down the ocean cable, multiplexers. For
ranges, surveillance systems, etc., there will also be analysis equipment. If the operation of
the system is critical, then standby equipment will be necessary. The multi-
plexers/demultiplexers may be electrical or optical, depending on the signal conductor type.
AE.8.3 Coaxial Ocean Cable Systems.
Shore terminal equipment for coaxial ocean cable systems are normally based on standard
units. The major components include the power separation filter to separate the power and the
signal, the power supply, directional filter, the multiplexers and demultiplexers, monitoring,
order wire and power supply control. All systems are duplicated for reliability. For
communications systems, there will be equipment ot feed signals to the multiplexers and
receive signals from the demultiplexers, and connect to the land telecommunications network.
A typical simplified arrangement of the equipment in a shore station is shown in figure
AE.8.3(a).
For systems such as ranges, surveillance systems, etc., which are normally single ended, there
will be not be the directional filter and the multiplexers or the connection to the land
communications network. In addition there will be the analysis equipment.
Page AA.94
Transmitting line 1
Cable
Transmitting Signal shaping - S = switch
build-out
multiplex equalization
network
From land
communications S
network
Cable
Transmitting Signal shaping -
build-out
network
Transmitting line 2
Directional
filter
Receiving line 1
Inverse
Receiving Signal restoring -
cable
equalizer
To land
communications S
network
Inverse
Receiving Signal restoring -
cable
equalizer Ocean
Power cable
Receiving line 2
separation
filter Ocean
Ocean
ground
ground
Power feed panel
cable
equipment
Power
plant
I Load
transfer
Power
plant
II
Fig. AE.8.3(a) Simplified arrangement of shore station equipment -

coaxial ocean cable system. ( monitoring order wire
equipment not shown. )
AE.8.4 Optical Fiber Ocean Cable Systems.
Shore station equipment for optical fiber ocean cable systems are normally based on standard
units. The major components include the power supply, the submarine line terminating
equipment, equipment to connect to the land communications network, and line monitoring
equipment. All systems are duplicated for reliability.
A typical simplified arrangement of the equipment in a shore station is shown in figure

AE.8.4(a). Equipment from different manufacturers may contain additional components and
different names can be used for the components. Where the system has branches, then an add-
drop multiplexer will be required to control traffic in the trunk or branch, depending on
Page AA.95
whether the shore station is for the trunk or a branch. The terminal line amplifiers provide
amplification for the transmitted and received signal for the optical fiber pairs. The
wavelength terminating equipment provides wavelength division multiplexing and
demultiplexing. The land network equipment connects the system to the land
telecommunications network.
For systems such as ranges, surveillance systems, etc., which are normally single ended, there
will be equipment for receiving the signal from each optical fiber. In addition there will be
the analysis equipment.
Submarine line
terminating equipment
Land Wavelength Terminal

network termination line
equipment equipment amplifiers
To/from land
communications
network
Fiber
pair(s) Ocean
Line cable
monitoring
equipment
Ocean
Ocean
ground
ground
Power feed panel
cable
equipment
Power
plant
I Load
transfer
Power
plant
II
Fig. AE.8.4(a) Simplified arrangement of shore station equipment -

optical fiber ocean cable system.
AE.8.5 Power Feed Equipment.
AE.8.5.1 General.
Power feed equipment for multiconductor ocean cable systems is normally of relatively low
voltage output and does not require the level of design needed for coaxial or optical ocean
cable systems. In many cases, it can be adapted from commercially available equipment and
hence is not described. However note should be taken of the allowable ripple levels in
systems where interference with signal is critical.
Both coaxial and optical ocean cable systems normally use high-voltage constant-current DC
power supply equipment of a type not found outside ocean cable applications.
Page AA.96
Power feed equipment for last coaxial ocean communication cable systems could provide up to
a nominal voltage of 5200 volts at up to 657 mA, with an allowance for a tolerable earth
potential of 2300 volts, giving a maximum voltage of 7500 volts. For optical fiber
communications cable systems, power feed equipment can provide a maximum voltage of
12500 volts at up to 1.6 Amps, for transpacific systems with 4 fiber pairs. The +ve voltage is
normally for the A end of a trunk of a system, a branch or a single ended system, with the -ve
voltage for the B end of the trunk. As most systems are constant current systems, with the
voltage across the system being adjusted to maintain the current, the allowable variation in
the current must be tightly controlled, typically of order 0.015%.
The design of the power feed equipment must be such that it provides the highest reliability,
including power grid outage, failure of a power plant, and differential ground potentials.
For differential ground potentials, the power feed equipment at each end of the ocean cable
must be adequately regulated to absorb potentials of similar magnitude while maintaining the
cable current. ( Potential differences of as much as 2.7 kV have been observed between ocean-
ground grids in the TAT-1 system, 1950 n. miles apart ). For single ended systems, the power
feed equipment must also be able to adjust for the differing ground potential at the ocean
grounds at the shore station and at the ocean cable end.
AE.8.5.2 Coaxial and Optical Fiber Ocean Cable Power Feed Equipment.
The arrangement of a typical power feed equipment is shown in figure AE.8.5.2(a). The
equipment can be set up to be either a +ve or -ve power supply. The output is fed to the cable
termination unit, where power is fed into the ocean cable, directly for optical fiber ocean
cables, or through a power separation filter for coaxial ocean cables. The ocean ground is also
connected through this unit.
The major components are the batteries, the power plants and the load transfer. The batteries
and power plants are duplicated for reliability, with standby alternators providing backup
against power outages from the commercial AC power grid. To aid maintenance, the various
units are modular in construction, to allow easy replacement, and all access to high voltage
areas is interlocked to ensure safety when the power plant is in operation.
Normally the power for the system is provided from a commercial AC power grid. Power grid
outage is normally handled by having diesel driven backup alternators.
The batteries act as an uninterruptible power supply, further enhancing reliability, able to
handle the power drop out during the change over from the grid to alternators, and back, and
other short term dropouts. The output voltage of a battery varies, depending on the system
design, but 140V and 42V-60V are typical. Higher voltages reduce current into converters.
The DC to DC converters are typically a switch mode push-pull topology operating at a

frequency of 20kHz. They can develop voltages of up to 2500V each at the rated current for the
system. To obtain higher voltages they are combined, as shown in figure AE.8.5.2(a), where the
configuration shown would be capable of a maximum of 7500V. The converters are driven from
the batteries, with the only other input required being control signals. Efficiency of power
converters approaches 90%.
The plant monitors contain systems to monitor the plants output. These include metering and
recording, voltage and current alarms, overvoltage current droop and overvoltage shutdown, as
well as plant control.
The switch in the load transfer unit is used to switch the power plants between the ocean cable
and the test load. Manual versions use cams to operate the switching through plungers in
Page AA.97
vacuum interrupters.
To
Power plant I
cable
termination
DC to DC
Commercial unit
converter
AC power 1
DC to DC
Plant
Rectifier converter
monitor
2 Load transfer
Test
Battery DC to DC load
A converter
3
Switch
Power plant II
Rectifier DC to DC
converter Ocean
1 ground
bus
Battery
B DC to DC
Plant
converter
monitor
2
Standby
alternators DC to DC
converter
3
Fig. AE.8.5.2(a) Arrangement of typical power feed equipment.
AE.8.5.3 Control of Two Ended System Power Supplies.
The standard method for controlling in ocean cable systems with power supplies at each end,
under normal operation, is to make one end's power supply the master power supply and the
other end's power supply, the slave. The master power supply is set at the nominal supply
voltage for its end and the slave power supply continuously adjusts its supply voltage to
maintain the required current in the cable. As both power supplied are identical, except for
polarity, either may be master or slave.
Page AA.98
In the case of severe adverse voltages occurring between the ocean grounds, that force the slave
power supply towards its maximum voltage output, then the master power supply voltage is
adjusted upward to compensate and rebalance the voltages across the cable ends, until such
time as the adverse ground potentials subside.
AE.8.6 Shore Station Power Separation Filter.
The shore station power separation filter, which separates the power and the signals for ocean
cables, is normally found in coaxial ocean cable systems and multiconductor systems where
the power and signal share the same conductors.
The following description is for a shore station power separation filter for a large bandwidth
coaxial ocean cable system ( SG ). Smaller bandwidth systems have less stringent requirements
and hence the design can be simpler, however the basic principals remain the same.
The shore station power separation filter ( PSF ) is situated in its own bay to ensure isolation
from the power supply. Here the signal transmission path and the high-voltage DC power path,
which share the ocean cable's center conductor, are separated for connection to their
respective terminal equipment. Viewed in simplified form, the PSF circuit is a three-port
filter, with an all-pass port for connection to the ocean cable, a high pass port for connection
to the sideband signal transmission equipment, and a low-pass port for connection to the
power supply.
There are two fundamental but diametrically opposite design requirements for the PSF circuit;
(a) to pass the sideband signal with some minimum acceptable values of return loss and
insertion loss, which requires that components be small and circuit paths short; and (b) to
keep high-voltage partial discharge activity below some appropriate threshold that requires
that components be large and circuit paths widely spaced and long, in order to minimize
destructive charge transfer in dielectrics and to satisfy transmission impulse noise
objectives. For large bandwidth systems with high maximum operating voltage, the resulting
dilemma is formidable and requires extensive changes in the electrical and mechanical
configurations compared to shore station PSFs of smaller bandwidth coaxial ocean cable
systems.
The PSF bay also provides proper electrical and mechanical termination of the ocean cable, an
impedance match between the signal transmission equipment and the ocean cable, and
shielding and filtering to prevent EMI from reaching the equipment and personnel.
A simplified diagram of the PSF circuit is shown in figure AE.8.6(a). The broken lines
represent copper compartments, which serve the dual purpose of EMI shielding and high-
voltage protection. The end of the ocean cable connects to the cable compartment, and the
sideband signal path is separated from the high-voltage power path by C1 and L . The signal
path proceeds from C1 through the transmission compartment to the signal transmission
equipment port. From L , the high-voltage power path goes through the wall of the inner
compartment to switch S , through filter network N , to the power supply port. Switch S is a
rotary power switch that controls the mode of operation of the PSF. Auxiliary contacts ( not
shown ) operate vacuum relay K .
The dominant requirement on the design of the signal path is a return loss over the entire
band. This requires that impedance discontinuities be kept to a minimum. These occur
primarily in the cable compartment, where high voltage considerations require large
clearances, resulting in significant structural variations from the desired signal path
impedance. A 20 dB return loss requirement is equivalent to a voltage reflection
coefficient * + 0.1, since return loss is 20 log 1 * . For a cable of characteristic impedance
Page AA.99
Z0 terminated in an impedance ZT :
ZT " Z0
*=
ZT + Z0
Let the PSF be represented by its equivalent series impedance Zs = Rs + j X s , and let each
signal port be terminated in its characteristic impedance, Z0 ( both ports referred to same
impedance level ). Then the reflection coefficient at either port is:
( Zs + Z0 ) " Z0 Zs
*= =
( Z s + Z0 ) + Z0 Zs + 2 Z0
The series resistance is small, and at higher frequencies lead inductance dominate, so that
j Xs
*=
2Z0 + j X s
whence for
* + 0.1, X s + 4 99 Z0 ! 0.2Z0
This result provides a means of estimating the maximum allowable lead length through the
cable compartment.
To attain the required inductance, the equivalent series inductance can be reduced by (a)
shortening the path length, (b) reducing the distributed inductance per inch, or (c) adding
shunt compensating capacitance. The path length can be minimized by using a small high-
voltage vacuum relay ( K ) to perform the required transmission path switching and by using
a small capacitor as the high-voltage blocking capacitor, C 1. The distributed inductance of
the remaining path can be reduced by creating a separate cable compartment for the high-
voltage portion of the signal path. The radial dimension of this compartment is made as small
as possible consistent with the high-voltage, partial-discharge, activity requirements,
thereby reducing the distributed inductance. Shunt compensating capacitance is not added, as
this would require the introduction of additional components into the high-voltage circuits in
the cable compartment, increasing the possible sources of impulse noise and reducing
reliability.
The principal requirements affecting the design of the high-voltage path are those concerned
with high-voltage, partial-discharge activity, which must be kept below some appropriate
level to satisfy signal-path impulse-noise objectives and to minimize destructive charge
transfer in dielectrics.
Typical impulse-noise objectives allow one "pop" ( partial discharge pulse ) per 15 minutes
exceeding a threshold of -10 dBm0. Since there a number of possible sources of impulse noise
in a terminal other than the PSF, the actual pop rate allocated to the PSF should be
significantly less than one each 15 minutes.
Page AA.100
Ocean
cable
Signal
transmission
port Transmission compartment Cable compartment
Ocean cable
C1 K
test jack
T
Relay K is operated
when switch S is
connected to aux.
DC compartment
load or cable test
C2
N
Filter S
Inner
Power network
Cable test compartment
supply
L
port
Auxiliary
To ocean load Building Ocean cable
ground ground return tape ground
Fig. AE.8.6(a) Simplified circuit of the shore station power separation filter.
Establishing limits to minimize the destructive effects is more difficult. Destructive charge
transfer limits for dielectrics are nebulous and difficult to specify. A maximum value of 10
pC, based on levels permitted in existing coaxial ocean cable systems, with a rate
corresponding to that of the data transmission interference requirement. For a maximum pulse
duration of 50 ns in a 50 ohm system, gives a peak voltage threshold of 5 mV.
If the impulse noise and destructive charge transfer requirements are now combined, the
resulting partial discharge activity requirements is typically a rate limitation of under 1 pop
per hour.
The creation of a separate cable compartment not only aids in the solution of signal-
transmission design problems but also provides an effective way to isolate the high-voltage
and signal paths, and thereby attenuate any noise which might otherwise be introduced via the
high-voltage path. High voltage is fed from the DC compartment into the cable compartment via
a skin effect, low-pass filter consisting of L , C 2 and the inner compartment. C 2 is a feed-
through, ground separating capacitor constructed like a coaxial cable. The feed-through lead
is the center conductor, and the outer conductor is composed of two high-voltage, insulated,
concentrically wrapped foils, each of which is connected to a ground cap at opposite ends of
the cylindrical structure. At DC, the two ground ends of C 2 are isolated, but at higher
frequencies, they are effectively connected, and C2 is equivalent to a short piece of coaxial
cable. One ground of C2 is connected to the cable compartment, while the other ground is
connected to the inner compartment. The high-voltage path from the power supply is connected
to the outside surface of the inner compartment. Hence, the inner compartment floats at the
cable supply voltage, while for AC signals it is effectively an extension of the cable compart-
Page AA.101
ment ( ocean cable return tape ground ).
The inside surface of the inner compartment is connected to L which bridges the high voltage
onto the signal path via the center conductor of C 2. The high-voltage path consequently
passes through the wall of the inner compartment, and any noise following this path is
attenuated by the skin effect of the wall. Using the classical formula for current penetration,
for a thickness t in inches, and a frequency f in Hz, at 200 C:
Attenuation= 20 log 10 e" 0.0594 t f
Filter network N provides attenuation for the power supply converter frequency ( typically
20 kHz ), and its harmonics, and protects against tones which might be radiated or conducted
around the power supply output filters. Together, N and the skin effect filter C 2 , can be
designed to provide a minimum loss of 80 dB, as measured from the power supply port to the
signal path.
Page AA.102

Ocean Cable Engineering Handbook Vol7 Compiled by Ian S. Coote

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3.5.4 Electro-Mechanical Cable Selection. 44

A.1 Function and Form. A1

B. Hydrodynamic Forces on Ocean Cables. A4

C. Active Beach Profile. A16

C.1 Introduction. A16

D. Bottom Penetration by Trawls, Anchors, etc. A18

D.1 Data. A18

AA. Underwater Housings. AA.1

AA.1 Introduction. AA.1

AA.5.1.1 Form. AA.24

AB. Ocean Cable Types. AA.40

AB.1 Introduction. AA.40

AC. Electro-Mechanical Cable Types. AA.52

AC.1 Introduction. AA.52

AD. Mechanical Testing. AA.59

AD.1 General. AA.59

AD.3.4 Sheave Tests. AA.69

AE. Electronics and Optronics. AA.73

AE.1 General. AA.73

AE.7.4.3 Branch Units. AA.92

2.3(a) Arrangement of a typical communications system with 4

2.3(b) Typical layout of trunk cable with one branch unit. 5

2.5(a) Simple harbor defense surveillance system. 6

2.5(b) Littoral surveillance system. 7

2.5(c) Barrier surveillance system comprised of a large number of 8

2.5(d) Barrier surveillance system comprised of a small number of 8

2.5(e) Typical deep water surveillance array ( fixed distributed 9

2.6.2.1(a) Layout of SCARF and Sandia ranges. 12

2.6.2.1(b) Long-baseline array hydrophone unit ( SCARF type dual 13

2.6.2.1(c) Long-baseline array hydrophone unit ( AUTEC type single 14

2.6.2.1(d) Original BSURE system. 15

2.6.2.1(e) Arrangement of a TATU. 16

2.6.2.1(f) Ocean cable paths and hydrophone positions, SOAR II. 17

2.6.2.1(g) General arrangement of hydrophone unit/repeater. 17

2.6.3.1(a) Location of arrays and cables - July 1970 - St. Croix. 19

2.6.3.1(c) Low frequency 3-D range multiplex array ( 12000 lb - 5454 Kg ) 21

2.6.3.2(a) Geometry used to calculate the position of a vehicle relative to 22

2.7.2(a) Typical arrangement of bottom mounted calibration range. 24

2.7.2(b) Alternative methods for ocean cables connecting sensor units 25

2.7.2(c) Typical arrangement of sensor unit for a bottom mounted 27

2.7.2(d) Sensor unit mounted on a pile driven into the bottom. 27

2.7.3(a) Taut sub-surface mooring for acoustic calibration range 29

2.7.3(b) Typical sensor housings for taut moored magnetic calibration 30

2.7.3.(c) Methods of mounting housings on electro-mechanical cables with 31

2.7.3(d) Single leg,taut sub-surface moored magnetic calibration range. 32

2.7.3(e) Linear chair ( Goalpost ) taut moored magnetic calibration range 33

2.7.3(f) Linear chair range configurations for installed ( Operational ). 34

2.8(a) Environmental sensor single leg, taut, sub-surface mooring 37

2.9(a) Neptune Regional Observatory System location and layout (2004). 38

B.3(a) CDC versus Reynolds number. A5

B.3(b) CL + versus Reynolds number. A8

B.4(a) Relationship of wave period, length and depth A11

B.4(b) CI + versus Reynolds number. A13

B.4(c) CI + versus K. A14

B.4(d) CDC versus K. A14

B.4(e) CL + versus K. A15

AA.2(a) SB flexible repeater. AA.2

AA.2(b) Details of construction of B.P.O. housing. AA.3

AA.2(c) SF/SG rigid housing. AA.4

AA.2(d) B.P.O. rigid repeater for Lightweight coaxial cables. AA.5