EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON THE HUMAN BODY 1

Effects of Radiation on the Human Body

Neeki Amirjavadi

Ms. Everett

Chemistry

29 November 2016

New West Charter High School

EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON THE HUMAN BODY 2

An Introduction to the Effects of Acute and Chronic exposure of Radiation

on the Human Body

Long-term biological risks to the human body identified by large-scale epidemiological

studies validate that both acute and chronic exposure to ionizing radiation compass

damaging effects under the circumstance that the dose of radiation and energy levels are

high. It is often perceived, without thorough scientific background, that high doses of

radiation through chronic exposure is less damaging in contrast to acute exposure. It is

incorrect assumption that receiving radiation periodically is less harmful than an

immediate exposure. This conception is reject-able due to the imperative research from

various sources, including the organization of Radiation Answers that radiation does not

subside or diminish if the exposure is acquired periodically. However, the level of

ionizing radiation, the source, and the interval length between prolonged exposures are all

aspects that determine the biological risks of chronic exposure. Both acute and chronic

exposure at high levels of frequency and doses are detrimental to the health of all

individuals and gives rise to injurious, and often times long-term side effects due to the

lingering of radiation acquired into our systems (Radiation Answers, 2007). An insight

on the "Health Consequences of Exposures to Ionizing Radiation from External and

Internal Sources: Challenges to Radiation Protection Standards and Biomedical

Research by Rudi H. Nussbaum and Wolfgang Kohnleinexpress the detriments of

radiation exposure. Acute and chronic exposure to ionizing radiation serves as a

consequence of living in a radioactively contaminated environment, being treated with

nuclear diagnostic and therapeutic tools, nuclear explosions, or criticality accidents

(Nussbaum and Kohnlein, 1995). These elemental sources, which will be emphasized
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through the statistical and analytical data from collected research, provide the vital

information regarding the effects of high dose ionizing radiation of both acute and

chronic exposure. Keep in consideration that being exposed to radiation in a short or long

period of time is not an indication of the total radiation dose. The purpose of this research

paper is to focus on the short and long periods of radiation exposure, specifically of high

doses. Small amounts of radioactive material can be found in our bodies, products we

use, in the soil, and remain a natural part of the everyday lives of humans. Although

radiation is used and harnessed by humans mainly for beneficial purposes, it is imperative

to recognize the dangers of certain aspects of radiation under such conditions in which

acute and chronic exposure is detrimental.

Identifying Individuals Susceptibility of Health Determinants in Relation to

Radiation Dose of Acute and Chronic Exposure

The most prevalent concerns the average individual has regarding radiation are

the potential dangers of exposure. To truly identify these dangers, and ones

susceptibility of contracting harmful effects after exposure, the collective or immediate

level of radiation doses you have been exposed to must be taken into consideration. The

organization of Radiation Answers illustrates that there are observable, harmful effects of

high radiation doses (Radiation Answers, 2007). Radiation exposure that results in a

large dose to our body in a short period (acute) of time can cause health effects

immediately, days or within months. The same concept applies to radiation exposure of

high level doses through a periodically or long period (chronic) of time that leads to

biological damages. For instance, if an individual receives an acute time of high

radiation dosage exposure, he or she has a very high percentage of potential health risks
EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON THE HUMAN BODY 4

either immediately or in the near future. An individual who receives doses high enough

are still susceptible to biological damage even under the circumstance that the exposure is

chronic. The high collective dosage of radiation through a prolonged amount of time

results in cellular damage. (2007) These two periods of exposure, both prolonged and

acute, equally serve as risks to health if the radiation is severe. The European Centre of

Technological Safety or TESEC provides knowledge on nuclear hazards after the

Consequences of Chernobyl Catastrophe. Professionals in this radiation protection field

confirmed, the chance of a fatal cancer from radiation exposure increases in proportion

to the magnitude of the exposure and that the risk is as high for chronic exposure as it is

for acute exposure. In other words, it is assumed that no radiation exposure is completely

risk free (TESEC, 1996). In all, both chronic and acute exposure to high ionizing

radiation impose health threats that are detrimental.

Taking all of this information into consideration provokes the question if low

doses of radiation from either acute or chronic exposure are safe. Radiation exposure that

leads to smaller doses of radiation for our bodies is safe in the sense that there is no effect

or the effect is to miniscule to observe (Radiation Answers, 2007). There has been little

evidence of increased risk of illness at small radiation doses that are similar to the

amounts we receive from natural background radiation and x-ray procedures (2007).

However, international study has now provided the strongest support for the idea that

long-term exposure to low-dose radiation increases the risk of leukemia, and other

cancers.

A Psychology Today magazine article posted online and written by Lisa Rankin

(M.D.) expanded on the concept of dose ranges and exposure. Annually, natural sources
EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON THE HUMAN BODY 5

expose the average individual to around 6.2 millisieverts (mSv) of radiation (Rankin,

2011). One millisievert of radiation equals at least 10 chest X-rays (2011). The target

is limit exposure to ionizing radiation above the universal 6.2 mSv (2011). To place

everything in perspective, a high-altitude flight would add 0.05 mSv, a chest X-ray would

add 0.1 mSv, a mammogram would add 0.7 mSv, and a medical CT scan would add 10

mSv (2011). Scientists differ on the effects of low-level ionizing radiation exposure, and

the majority claims no dose is safe. A respectable caution now, since there is no way to

precisely identify the risks of low-level radiation. To date, there remains no proven body

of evidence that an increase in human disease serves as consequence of radiation

comparable to earths natural background radiation (2011). Since there is no efficient

way to measure risks of lifetime chronic exposure to low levels of radiation, measuring

the effects of extremely high doses is extrapolated determine very rough estimates of

low-level risks. In all, a human exposed to 10 extra millisieverts of radiation in small

doses chronically over a lifetime, would have a 0.3 percent greater chance of dying from

radiation (2011). Studies of the reaction of the body to low levels of radiation have

expressed that as exposure increases, it causes the same cancers as very high doses, yet as

a fraction. After years of chronic over-exposure, what follows is generally chances of

lung cancer, skin cancer, breast cancer, and stomach cancer (American Cancer Society,

2015). Radiation is absorbed by the body and never truly eliminated from the system

before it begins emitting damage. The more energy absorbed by cells, the greater the

biological damage. The absorbed dose plays a large role in the biological damage of our

bodies. In all, although it has proved difficult to exactly determine whether this
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relationship holds at low doses, the higher the accumulated dose, the greater the

biological damage.

Ionizing Radiation Biological Damage Molecularly: Cellular Destruction and

Cellular Mutation

It has been established that exposure to intense ionizing radiation inflicts damages

upon a cellular level and places human biological health in risk through cellular

destruction and cellular mutation (Brenner & Hall, 2007). In a research study conducted

by Dr. David J. Brenner and Dr. Eric J. Hall (2007), the concept of how radiation inflicts

damage can be analyzed through their research. The cellular disruption, damage, and

mutation provoked by ionizing radiation exposure gives rise to consequential health

problems. Human beings are still exposed to multiple sources of benign background

radiation aside from radiation generated by human means (2007). Those exposures fall

below the threshold amount which radiation exposures are detrimental to human health

(Radiation Answers, 2007). Regardless, ionizing radiation remains harmful to living

beings. Ionizing radiation carries enough energy to free electrons from molecules and

atoms, thereby ionizing them (Brenner & Hall, 2007). Ionizing radiation is made up of

energetic subatomic particles, ions and atoms moving at incredibly high speeds, and

electromagnetic waves on the high-energy end of the electromagnetic spectrum (2007).

High frequency radiation and the fast moving particles smash into a living cell with a

great amount of energy that knocks electrons free from the molecules that makes up the

cell. The molecules transform into ions due to the missing electrons. The presence of

these ions essentially disrupts the normal function of the cell. In the research study

conducted by Dr. David J. Brenner and Dr. Eric J. Hall (2007), the process of ionizing
EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON THE HUMAN BODY 7

radiation damaging cells is illustrated in terms of the influence of X-rays which are

energetic enough to overcome the binding energy of the electrons orbiting atoms and

molecules... these radiations can knock electrons out of their orbits, thereby creating ions.

In biologic material exposed to x-rays, the most common scenario is the creation of

hydroxyl radicals from x-ray interactions with water molecules; these radicals in turn

interact with nearby DNA to cause strand breaks or base damage (Brenner & Hall,

2007). There are two principal mechanisms which radioactivity causes damage to the

cells of human beings and other living species: cellular destruction and cellular mutation.

(Brenner & Hall, 2007).

Cellular Destruction is attributed to the micro-holes carved by radiation particles into

cells as they pass through the body. In an article title how can radiation damage a living

cell, author Randy Russell expands on the aspect of both cellular damage provoked by

radiation as well as the repair process. The most severe damage that can be inflicted upon

a cell is to its deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. Already, DNA is the critical aspect of

containing instructions to produce cells, and radiation can obstruct its function it in two

major ways: The water in the body would absorb a large portion of the radiation and

become ionized. When water is ionized it forms free radicals that are highly reactive

molecules (Russell, 2008). Free radicals naturally react with and damage the DNA. The

energy associated with the speed of the radioactive particles also causes direct damage to

the cellular DNA. Some of which damages, such as double strand breaks, may not be

capable of complete repair (2008). Single-strand breaks in DNA are generally repaired

normally due to the double-strand nature of DNA. However, in the case of double-strand

breaks, repair is difficult and errors the method of re-joining the ends occur. Mis-repairs
EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON THE HUMAN BODY 8

result in the induction of cell mutations (2008).

Cellular Mutation is attributed to the spontaneous mutations of DNA molecules

produced by the bombarded of radioactive particles (Radiation Answers, 2007). Radiation

exposure cause cancerous diseases by triggering the process of DNA mutation.

Generally, cancer arises when organic cell DNA is damaged in a way that interferes with

the regular mechanisms by which tissue cell growth is regulated (Radiation Answers,

2007). Returning to the studies of Dr. Brenner and Hall in 2007, the fatalities of the

atomic-bomb survivors who received low doses of radiation, ranging from 5 to 150 mSv

were used as solid evidence to infer that Most radiation-induced damage is rapidly

repaired by various systems within the cell, but DNA double-strand breaks are less easily

repaired, and occasional mis-repair can lead to induction of point mutations,

chromosomal translocations, and risk of cancer (Brenner & Hall, 2007). Evidence

strongly suggests that radiation exposure is responsible for causing these mutations.

Mutations or changes in the DNA can be passed along to offsprings, which can be

detrimental to their health (2007). Depending on the severity of the radiation, cells may

not be able to repair. Low-level exposure to radiation is damaging to cell, but doesnt

present damage that exceeds the capacity of the natural immune responses of repair

(Radiation Answers, 2007). However, as discussed in that regard, there's considerable

argument to the degree to how low-level radiation exposure contributes to long-term

disease and the potential ability of the human body to repair chronic cellular damage.

Acute and Chronic Radiation Syndrome and Cancerous Health Effects

EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON THE HUMAN BODY 9

Acute and chronic exposure to high ionizing radiation impose detrimental health

threats and as scientifically proven and observed through the side effects of occupational

exposure, radiation therapy, medical imaging, and the aftermath of Japans nuclear crises

such as Hiroshima, engender biological damage to the human body which emerge

immediately, and with the most serious threats such as cancers arising later in the long

term. It is critical to recognize the two principal divisions in which adverse health effects

of radiation exposure are categorized. The research article, Risks Associated with Low

Doses and Low Dose Rates of Ionizing Radiation, by Mark P. Littlel, Richard

Wakeford, E. Janet Tawn, Simon D. Bouffler, and Amy Berrington de Gonzalez portrays

the fundaments and basis of these two categories. The first are harmful tissue reactions

acknowledged as deterministic effects (Little, Wakeford, Tawn, . Bouffler,

& Berrington de Gonzalez, 2009 ). These deterministic effects occur in large part to the

malfunction and death of cell in response to high radiation dose. (Littlel, et al., 2009) The

second division of health effects is stochastic effects (2009). Stochastic effects, which

regard the mutation of somatic cells, give rise to cancer and heritable disease to the

individual's offspring due to mutations of reproductive cells. (2009) In regards to the

length of exposure, and individual is susceptible to chronic or acute radiation syndrome.

These forms of damage to organ tissue are caused by excessive exposure to ionizing

radiation and classify as radiation sickness or more commonly, radiation poisoning. Acute

radiation syndrome is used to refer to problems caused by a large dosage of radiation in a

short period, as the term chronic radiation syndrome refers to the effect that arises from

long term exposure. Health effects of exposure dose- dependent; collectively in chronic

radiation syndrome and completely in acute radiation syndrome. Prolonged exposure to

EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON THE HUMAN BODY 10

high amounts of ionizing radiation develops deterministic effects of radiation exposure

and the frequent observable host for these side effects is occupational exposure and

excessive medical imaging. Even the individuals who live in a radioactively

contaminated environment, such as locations near Japans Hiroshima disaster are at high

risk for chronic radiation syndrome. Although it may occur at low enough doses to permit

cellular mechanisms of repair in response to radiation damage, generally the length of the

exposure period is too long for efficient recovery (Russell, 2008). Atomic-bomb

survivors are the biggest victims of chronic radiation syndrome due to the aftermath of

the explosion and living in a radioactively contaminated area. For instance, UCLA

produced a general question and answer formatted study to clear up the information

regarding the Japanese atomic-bomb survivors. The following question was imposed:

Are radiation-induced cancers still occurring among atomic-bomb survivors? to which

the answer was;

Yes. The excess risk of leukemia, seen especially among those exposed as

children, was highest during the first 10 years after exposure and has continued to

decrease throughout the study period. However, the excess risk for cancers other

than leukemia continues today, and it seems likely that this excess risk will persist

throughout the lifetime of the survivors. About 16% of all cancer deaths and about

25% of the excess--or radiation related--cancer deaths for the period from 1950

through 1990 occurred from 1986 to 1990. (UCLA Stats., n.d)

In other occurrences, an exposure of high quantities of ionizing radiation during

an acute and short period also causes biological damage. From large-scale triggers such

as nuclear explosion, and criticality accident, also come the dangers radiation therapy
EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON THE HUMAN BODY 11

causing cancers. (American Cancer Society, 2015) For instance, the American Cancer

Society, in their electronically published guide to radiation therapy, described the

potential hazards of such a procedure as provided by records and research. A long-term

problem linked to radiation treatment is the possible increased risk of getting a second

cancer many years later. This is caused by the radiation damage to healthy tissues. The

risk of this happening is small but real. The link between radiation and cancer was noted

many years ago in studies of atomic bomb survivors, workers exposed to radiation on

their jobs, and patients treated with radiation therapy. For instance, young women who

had radiation to the chest for the treatment of Hodgkin disease were later found to be at

increased risk for breast cancer and some other cancers. Some cases of leukemia are also

linked to past radiation exposure (American Cancer Society, 2015). The Instantaneous

effects as a reaction of the body when exposed to radiation during this short period are

vomiting, nausea, and falling blood counts, which are regularly, reported patterns of

patients undergoing radiation therapy. (2015). DNA and cellular damage are the evident

perpetrators of the stochastic effects of acute radiation syndrome. This collateral

destruction occurs due to the cell's inability to divide normally and causes cancer

symptoms.

The purpose of this information and the comparisons between acute and chronic

radiation syndrome is to signify that it is crucial to take away that both, in the long term,

cause cancers.The process of damage of various tissues, DNA damage, and cellular

degradation means that any exposure to ionizing radiation, even at doses too low to

produce any symptoms of radiation sickness, can still induce cancer because of cellular

and genetic damage.

EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON THE HUMAN BODY 12

Conclusion to Bring Light Upon the Imperativeness of Recognizing the

Harms of Acute and Chronic exposure

The weight of the empirical, scientific evidence suggests that both acute and

chronic exposure to ionizing radiation compass damaging and biologically harmful

effects under the circumstance that the dose of radiation is high. To that same degree,

nuclear radiation exposure in low-doses, although miniscule to observe the direct effects,

still contribute to small yet, not negligible amounts of cellular damage that cumulatively

results in detrimental health effects in the long-term. Accordingly, doctors, as well

patients undergoing nuclear diagnostic procedure and therapeutic tools, should be

educated in various risks and benefits of clinical tools that are now being relied on more

routinely. The same concept applies for individual whose occupational exposure, or

exposure to their radioactively contaminated environment deems as a health risk.

Measures must be taken to emphasize the risks at hand and informative procedures must

take place to aware the public of nuclear dangers. Just as low-dose radiation serves as a

potential harm to the well being of human as much as high-dose radiation does, a higher

concern for both chronic and acute exposure must be established. Both periods of

exposure, whether prolonged or immediately direct, serve as consequences to health

when the radiation is severe enough to observe. Comparisons between acute and chronic

radiation syndrome demonstrate the importance to recognize both chronic and acute

exposure cause cancers. Through the damage of tissues, DNA, and cellular degradation

means that any exposure to ionizing radiation, whether acutely or chronically, still cause

cancer because of cellular and genetic damage.

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References

American Cancer Society. (2015). A Guide to Radiation Therapy. Retrieved from

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http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/treatmenttypes/radiatio
n/understandingradiationtherapyaguideforpatientsandfamilies/understanding-
radiation-therapy-long-term-side-effects

Brenner, D.J., Hall, E.J. (2007). Computed Tomography An Increasing Source of

Radiation Exposure. Retrieved from

http://www.columbia.edu/~djb3/papers/nejm1.pdf

European Centre of Technological Safety-TESEC. (1996). Health effects of radiation

Received from http://www.tesec-int.org/TechHaz-site%2008/Health%20effects

%20of%20exposure.pdf

UCLA (n.d). The study of long-term health effects in the survivors of the atomic

bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Retrieved from November 28, 2016, from
http://www.stat.ucla.edu/~dinov/courses_students.dir/data.dir/AtomicBombSurviv
orsData.htm#faq4

Littlel, M. P., Wakeford R., Tawn E. J. , Bouffler S. D. , and Berrington de Gonzalez, A.

(2009). Risks Associated with Low Doses and Low Dose Rates of Ionizing
Radiation; Why Linearity May Be (Almost) the Best We Can Do. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2663578/

Nussbaum, R. H., and Kohnlein W. (1995). Health Consequences of Exposures to

Ionizing Radiation from External and Internal Sources: Challenges to Radiation

Protection Standards and Biomedical Research. Retrieved from
http://www.ippnw.org/pdf/mgs/2-4-nussbaum.pdf

The Organization of Radiation Answers. (2007). Answers to Questions About Radiation

EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON THE HUMAN BODY 15

and You. Retrieved from http://www.radiationanswers.org/radiation-

introduction.html

Russell R., (2008). Radiation Damage to a Living Cell: How can Radiation damage a

living cell? Retrieved

from http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/cell_radiation_damage.html

Rankin, L. (2011) Radiation 101: How Does Nuclear Radiation Affect The Body?

Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/owning-

pink/201103/radiation-101-how-does-nuclear-radiation-affect-the-body