.

WORKING PAPERS FOR THE LANGUAGE VARIATION

AND LIMITS TO COMMURICATION PROJECT

umber 2

A VOCABULARY OF B I L I A U , AN AUSTRONESIAN LANGUAGE O F NEW GUINEA,

WITH NOTES ON I T S DEVELOPMENT FROM PROTO OCEANIC

Gary and Linda Siplons

Cornelk Univerai t y
and
Summer I n s t i t u t e of L i n g u i s t i c s
A VOCABULARY OF BILIAU, AN AUSTRONESIAN LANGUAGE OF KEW GUINEA,
WITH NOTES ON ITS DEVELOPMENT FROM PROTO OCEANIC

Gary and Linda Simons

Cornell University
and
Summer I n s t i t u t e o f L i n g u i s t i c s

0. INTRODUCTION
I

1. NOTES ON THE PHONOLOGY f

1.1 Phonemes
1.2 Phoneme d i s t r i b u t i o n r e s t r i c t i o n s
1.3 S y l l a b l e shapes
2
. INTRODUCTION TO THE VOCABULARY

3. BILIAU TO ENGLISH VOCABULARY 1

4. ENGLISH TO BILIAU VOCABULARY

5. THX DEVELOPMENT OF BILIAU VOCABULARY FROM PROTO OCEANIC

5.1 A list of a i l i a u words w i t h , t h e i r p o s s i b l e h i s t o r i c a l sources
5.2 Blliau r e f l e x e s of P r o t o Oceanic phonemes
5.3 S y l l a b l e structure adjustments
5.4 B i l i a u evidence f o r POC *ns and *nj
5.5 Comparison of Bikiau and Gedaged reflexes o f POC I

consonant phonemes
5.6 The Igiliau words l i s t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e number o f i r r e g u l a r
r e f l e x e s t h e y contain
5.7 Evidence f o r new Proto Austronesian and Proto Oceanic forms
REFERENCES
0, INTRODUGZTIOM
The present vocabulary is O f t h e language spoken i n B l i a u
v i l l a g e on t h e R a i Coast of t h e gadang Provinced Papua New Ganea.
It i s l o c a t e d a t approximately 5 35 S and 146 20 E. Zgraggen
(1975) g i v e s the name B i l i a u t o the whole language group which
c o n s i s t s o f e i g h t v i l l a g e s : B i l i a u , Teterei, Y a a n a i , GaLek, Suit,
MaZangai, W i w a i , and U o r i , Very l i t t l e has been p u b l i s h e d on t h e
R i l i a u Language, 0d.y two w o r k s g i v e any language d a t a , The
Gedaged-English D i c t i o n a r y by J. Mager ( 1 9 5 2 ) c i t e s some forms
from t h e BiLiau language for t h e purpose o f comparison, mainly
f r m t h e S u i t v i l l a g e . P e t e r L i n c o l n (1976) h a s r e c e n t l y
conduc$ed a survey o f t h e R a i C o a s t A u s t r o n e s i a n languages, His
comparative w o r d l i s t and g r a m a t = i c a l ruaterial i n c l u d e d a t a from
Gahk v i l l a g e .

The f i r s t s e c t i o n o f this paper c o n t a i n s b r i e f n o t e s on t h e

phonology. S e c t i o n s two t h r o u g h four are t h e vocabulary,
cansistimzg of an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the vocabulary, a Hlialm-
English vocabulary and an English-EilLau vocabulary, The
final sectLon t r e a t s t h e p o s s i b l e h i s t o r i c a l sources for 15C
of the vocabulary i t e m and p o s i t s t h e sound changes by wUch
t h e p r e s e n t day EEiliau vocabulary developed from i t s P r o t o
Oceanic a n c e s t o r language.

I n t h e remainder of t h e paper, any r e f e r e n c e t o a L l i a u

r e f e r s t o t h e Language spoken i n B i l i a u village, not t o the
language group as a whole. The language group i s by no means
homogeneous; e a c h v i l l a g e has i t s own cornurunalect, L e x i c o s t a -
tis.Lci,liji t h e r e i s an e i g h t e e n p e r c e n t d i f f e r e n c e on the
Swadesh 100-word L i s t between t h e two extreme ebds o f t h e
language group, BUiau and S u i t . Thus i t is d i f f i c u l t t o speak
of t h e Riliau language as a whole, The data p r e s e n t e d h e r e
r e p r e s e n t o n l y the language as spoken i n t h e v i l l a g e o f a i a u ,
See Simons (1917a) f o r a d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t of sorne of the
d i a l e c t c i i f f e r e n c e s between the v i l l a g e s .
The d a t a p r e s e n t e d here are a r e s u l t of s i x weeks f i e l d
work in FlUiau v i l l a g e d u r i n g September arid October of 1976,
The s t u d y was c a r r i e d a u t i n c o n j u n c t i o n with the Suuuner
I n s t i t u t e O f L i n g u i s t i c s and the C o r n e l l University research
project, IlLanguage V a r i a t i a n and L i m i t s t o Communication11 which
is being p a r t i a l l y supported by the Nat5ormal Scibnce Foundation
grant BNS76-06031.
 I .
3 ' ~-

A portable microcoxputer, t h e ETP 8L, was used i n the 'held

t o maintain the vocabdary list, The! cmpu'eer wa6 used t o keep
a sorted master l i s t Of BiUau t o EngliSs1 vocabulary, and then
reverse the f i l e t o EngUsh-BiU,au onder and re-eort. The '
programs used to Enat& tb vocabulary file are explakned $,a
SimonsL977b. ??he computer was also used ;iin the analysis of the
s o w d changes frw P r o t o Oceanic t o present day BLliau. Progras
were written t o compile a fist O f aL1 the sound carrespondences
that o c 6 u in a list of p g r e d parent an& daughter forms, count
the number of occurrences- of each correspondence, extract aU the
examples of the correspondences, and mark the word pairs as t o
the number of e s t a b l i s h e d correspondences khey contain,

1. NOTES ON THE PHONOLOGY

1.1 Phonemes
The following 22 phonemes occur in t b m i a u language,
Consonants
labial dveolar velar
stops
voiceless P t k
voiced b d g
fricatives
voicele 68 f S

voiced Z

lateral i i

voiced l i q u i d 1
re t r o f Lexed
voiced f l a p r
nasals m n f

semivowels w Y
Vowels
front central back
high i U
mid e 0
low a
aa
 4

O f the above phonemes o n l y /y/> /w/* and /aa/ d e s e r v e

comment. The s y l l a b l e f i n a l /y/ and /w/ are a r e s u l t o f inter-
p r e t i n g [&] and {uj a6 consonants when they occur in t h e
following g l i d e s : $
[L, ei, o r , u i j au, eu, ou, id. Th;is
decisjLon w a s made for s e v e r a l reasons. First of all, a C W C
s y l l a b l e never o c c u r s ; t h a t i s , a g l i d e always ends a s y l l a b l e
and a s y l l a b l e f i n a l consonant never f o l l o w s a g l i d e , Secondly,
b e f o r e t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s y l l a b l e f i n d [i] and [u3 as /y/
in a C VC2 s y l l a b l e was any consonant phone except
T h i r b y , i n a CV V s I l a b l e , V2 could only be
Thus. .we i n t e r p r e t ti. an6b-j as the consonants
when they Occur a s t h e second element of a g l i d e .
This reduces the number of s y l l a b l e & a p e s t h a t occur and removes
tbe occurrence r e s t r i c t i o n on C2.
The / a d phoneme is p h o n e t i c a l l y [a7a}--two 2 vocoids
separated by a l e d 6 g l o t t d atop. Thjis g l o t t a l o c c u r s nowhere
e l s e i n t h e language. The double a h a s been i n t e r p r e t e d as a
s i n g l e phonerae because it funct%onEi n e v e r y way j u s t l i k e t h e
f i v e s i n g l e vowels, and has no unique occurrence o r
co-occurrence r e s t r i c t i o n s , The f a c t t h a t i t i s a d i f f e r e n t
phoneme from /a/ is a t t e s t e d by t h e following m i n i m a l p a h s :
/wag/ I canoe 1
/waag/ drum1
/Em/ canoe o u t r i g g e r 1
/saam/ skyf
/mad 1father1
/maam/ a s p e c i e s of f i s h

1.2 Phoneme distribution r e s t r i c t i o n s

A l l consonants occur in any C s l o t anywhere i n t h e word. me
o n l y consonant r e s t r i c t i o n i s Bn t h e followlng word shape

where both C abd C2 cannot be stops. There are two e x c e p t i o n s

t o this. Thk f i r s t is in the case of: a word which i s a
r e d u p l i c a t e d stem.
/gubgub/ ditch.
/pidpid/ I bottler
 5

The other c a s e is when a verb h a s undergone the p r o c e s s of vowel

syncope, T h a t iss when a prefix is added t o a two s y l l a b l e verb
stem, t h e first vowel of t h e stern drops.
/baa/ 'he g e t s up'
/dibdi/ they get up!
The sequence /n/ followed by /g/ never O C C U ~ G . Thus the
d i g r a p h &I unambiguotrsly r e p r e s e n t s the velar nasal (3).
A l l vowels occur in initial and m e d i a l p o s i t i o n iin the word.
Only /i/ and /u/ occur word f i n a l l y .

1.3 s y l l a b l e shapes

The f o l l o w j a g s y l l a b l e shapes occur:

V
vc
cv
cvc
s y l l a b l e of a word.
V s y l l a b l e s occur only as the f i ~ s t

/uodud/ * dolphin'
/a.kung/ 'c~am'

VC s y l l a b l e s o c c u r only following /i/ o r /u/, or as a single word.

/ki.el/ 'sail'
/mu. at/ t snake'
/ad ' sun'
CV s y l l a b l e s occur as a single word a n d as any s y l l a b l e i n a word.'
/w 'he coughst
/ta.mol/ (man1
/lab.ni/ 'Leaf
CVC s y l l a b l e s occur as a s i n g l e word and as any s y l l a b l e in a word.
/bind 'talk!
/labed/ 'leaf'
/u.dud;/ dolphin'

Any B u a u word can be s y l l a b i f i e d by a p p l y i n g the t h r e e

unordered rules:
w 4 V,V
cc -+ c.c
vcv + VOCV
 6

2. I"I!RODUC'RON TO TLfE VOCABULARY

Conventions used in presenting the vocabulary a r e d i s -
cus6ed in sectkons one through fivs. Section s i x d i s c u s s e s the
r e l i a b i l i t y of: t h e data.

(1) Noun and verb g l o s s e s -

Verbs are glossed with the
i n f i n i t i v e foran o f the English word and nouns a r e g l o s s e d ~ t h
theb simplie noun form. Th@ m b i g u i t y i n h e r e n t 3.n many English
worda which can be e i t h e r -noun o r verb i s taken care of i n tbLs
way. !I!hus, guab 'flyt i s a noun and rqy ' t o fly1 i s a Verb.

(2) I n a l i e n a b l y possessed nouns -

Nouns which are inalienably
possessed have a hyphen f o l l o w i n g the stem. The possessive
suffixes are :
cingular plural
1st p e r s o n -W -Dam (exclus&ve)
-d (inclusive)
2nd person -m -mil
3 r d person -Y -2

( 3 ) Abbrek6atkOns - The f O l l O v & n g abbreviations a r e used:

lit. t P i t e r a l L y ' ; pl. ' p l u r a l ' ; TP. 'Tok FisLn, Eew Guinea P i d g i n ' ;
sp. ' a p a r t i c u l a r s p e c i e s of'; Sppm 'a number of s p e c i e s o f t .

(4) P l a n t s and a n i m a l s - A simple English gloss is given if

the E i l i a u word i s a generic term. If i t i s t h e name for a

generic term for fish, and aziw 'fish ( s p .

9
p a r t i c u l a r u n i d e n t i f i e d species, the abbreviation lsp.' enclosed
i n parentheses f o l l o w s the g l o s s . Thus, 'fish' is t h e
fi s a particular
u n i d e n t i f i e d s p e c i e s of fish. For d h t h e p l a n t names t h e
-
LiLnnaean genus and s p e c i e s d c s i p a 4 5 o n s a r e given as w e l l as
the Tok P i s i n term when i k w a s considered helpful, M i l d i c (1971)
was ehe standard r e f e r e n c e f o r both Linnaean and Tok Pisin terms.
A t the end of the English to B i l i a u vocabulary, a l i s t d o f all the
plant names i n t h e order o f t h e i r Linnaean designations is
given. This i s done since many of the p l a n t s have no cOmmon
ELEglish name.

* (5) Alphabetization -
The normal English a l p h a b e t i c a l order
i s used f o r the B i l i a u t o English vocabulary with only one
exception. The digraph which represents t h e v e t a r nasal
-
phoneme i s t r e a t e d as a s i n g l e c h a r a c t e r which follows n i n the
alphabet, Thus, 3 follows nji, no, n t , E, etc.
 a
-
(6) R e l i a b i l i t y A l l of the Biliau words were double
checked with native s p e a k e r s t o v e r i f y the spa31irrgs. Meanings,
howevor, were not checked thorougbly f o r all words. There w e
three areas where more c o n s i s t e n c y checklmg would be h e l p h l .
(a) In non-careful speech, t h e /aa/ i s very often pronounced like
/ d . Thus some o f t h e / a / ' e i n the vocabulary list may be / a d 1 8
a d v i c e versa. ( b ) We often had d i f f i c u l t y h e a r i n g the d i f f e r e n c e
between word final /i/ and /ey/. (c).W e a r e n o t s u r e t h a t all
of the i n a l i e n a b l y possessed nouns have been c o r r e c t l y identified,
m d c m v e r s e k y , some nouns which were i d e n t i f i e d as such may not
a c t u a l l y be.
Reduplication is a very wideGpread phenomenon i n t h e & l i a u
language, apparently a f f e c t i n g all word classes, Kearly any verb
stem can be r e d u p l i c a t e d t o i n d i c a t e p r o c e s s o r contiauatzbn,
Noun stems are r e d u p l i c a t e d to show diminution o r abundance,
el3 muat #snake1 and mutmuat 'worm'. Many noun stems are
r e d u p l i c a t e d with no apparent semantic s i g n i f i c a n c e , eg, p i d p l d
,
tbo%.t.lel fumfom 'wooden f l o o r ' , p b m b ' d i t c h ' . Adjoctives
ax8 a p p a r e n t l y r e d u p l i c a t e d t o show that they are d e s c r i b h g
a number of things, ego n a l u lsaaalll and n a l a l u (small ( p l . ) ' ,
kamtex t u x r i p e l and k a r t a t e y ' u n r i p e ( p L ) n h e r e are a t least
two morphophonedc processes a s s o c i a t e d with r e d u p l i c a t i o n , a
weakenhg of t k vowel kn the penulthate s y l l a b l e ( e g , nutmuat
* w o m ~ ,fuafom 'wooden floorr, and mitmet ' s h e l l (sp.)') and
a creep&= (eg, nalu and n d d u lsmaXL1). m e d i d n o t
permit a thorough i n v e s t i g a t k o n of the nsanings and p r o c e s s of
r e d u p l i c a t i o n . T h i s incomplete understanding of r e d u p l i c a t i o n
has no doubt l e d t o some l n a c c u r a c i s s 3.n the vocabulary list,
Only t h e unroduplicated form of v e r b stems is given,
. 3 * BILIAU, TO ENGLISH VOCABULARY

a-g t o eat food t h a t i s not meat (see anginq)

aw tree, firewood
aay dimi s t i c k , lit. tarn o f t r e e '
aay labni green, lit. ' l e a f of t r e e %
aay suru sap, lit. ' b l o o d o f t r e e *
aay warey . r o o t of t r e e , P i t . 'rope/vine of t r e e !
ab house

abang everything
abatut t o plant
adangdangey cold
agaru- neck
ager enemy
awm middle
Clam

alal' so0 t
am who .
aae: f i s h net
an . you p l .
-ageY m e a t o f something, food of something
anangey peak o f roof
ananas pineapple
manu- shadow, p i c t u r e , s p i r i t
anar t o decorate
aning banana
aniaw rain
antam you two
azmgaar t r e e with edible nut, the Tahitian chestnut,
Canarium polyphylluq, TP. 6ali.p
food (not i n c l u d i n g meat)

angru h a 1f
aror net bag
arwaw afternoon
aearur t o bleed
asur blood
ate- bibi palm o f hand, p a h
aw l i m e chewed w i t h b e t e l n u t

awa- mouth, opening

awul hook
awang manioc, c a s s a v a , K i n i h o t u t i l i s s i m a
az sun
aziw fish (sp.1
 9

bad dove, l a r g e and black

babley a l i g h t ; t o light, t o s h i n e , t o i g n i t e
bad one ( i n d e f i n i t e )
badey t o s t a y , t o remain, t o be
badi t o s t a n d up, t o a r i s e
ba-g t o throw away
balag nothing
balbad half
bale- tongue
barnam sand
basadangf straight
basul t o turn
ba t u egg, f r u i t
bayariar millipede
baz baze y eyelash
bazez shell
bazi f e a t h e r , wing
bey first
bibi green coconut t o o youlag t o d r i n k
b i daag bedbug
h,idbidi wet
b i l i l ierngi round
bimi ripe
bininaar h i b i s c u s shkub, Hibiacus rosa-s2.nensi.e
bipg talk,. speech
bingat
biraaw
hisey
crazy
cord-
-

-
v a r i e t y of yamo DioEcoroa e s c u l e n t a , 'Ibp. lnami

b i SO- navel
bog s e a hawk
b.om sago palm, Metroxylon sp,
Mngsag morning, tomorrow .
buaad sauc epan
buaay star
bUW bmAbOO

buhab to c r y (of animals)

bubu3.u body h a i r
buor P i l-3
buot t o bury
burburar reef
hut white dove
bUZ urine) t o urinate
 10

daang t o look, t o see . .

dabi p i t of fruit
dag t o avoid
dag to finish
dagdago- shoulder
dagebi t r e e kangaroo
daging knot

daglaa- thigh
dago? t o wash s o m e t h h g
ddeb
dame
dmo-
- y c a r j o l d garden
shin
forehead
dangdang t o search f o r
darey red
daseg one
daivdaw wind from t h e w e s t
der wind from n a i n l a n d
dieb f i s h (sp,)
dima- a r m , hand
dima- g u n g g u n g elbow
diraa- t i h i thumb, l i t , 'mother of hand'
di&d bad f i v e , l i t . tone hand'
dimad ru t e n , P i t , 'two h a n d s t
dimad z i z i l i bad six, l i t , 'a hand and oile f i n g e r '
dimad z i z i l i ru seven, lit, f a hand and two f i n g e r s '
dimad z i z i l i t o 1 e i g h t , l i t . ' a hand and t h r e e f i n g e r s '
dimad z i z i l i waalbad n i n e , 1st. r a hand and f o u r fingers'
diwdiw b e e t l e (sp.9
dog t o remove coconrnt from shell,
dom s p i k e s which h o l d o u t r i g g e r boom
dos t o s i t down
d0Y t r e e , leaves u s e d as n a t i v e paper, H i b i s c u s
tileaceus
duaan bow; war
dugdug bU6h
duguaay t o jump
dupuroy to fight
eb striae; made from reg grass
ebisi af f i n e
esey expression of d e l i g h t
ew native beer
eY hey !
 11

faat t o float
f ageY eyebrow
fag t r a d i t i o n a l c a r p e n t e r 1 s plane
fangay a n on t a p o f
far frog
fari- lip
fay t o c a r r y i n a net bag
fof. t o hreak a g a i n s t t h o g r a b
fon sea t u r t l e
f ow new
fw t o break
f OY a paddle; t o paddle
foy t i n i r u d d e r , lit. 'mother of p a d d h s t
fU base; o r i g i n
fu a cough; t o cough
fuf o l d ( o f : persons)
f u f t amol g r a n d f a t h e r , grandson, lit, t o l d m a n '
fufen grandmother, granddaughter, lit. s f u f
t o l d wonan'
-+ E n
fum f om f l o o r made f r o a wood'
funfin husk o f a c o c c n i t
f ung to h i t , t o k i l l
fuagung roof
fungul b e t e l pepper, Piper b e t l e
furfor short grass
f u r u n gf u r u r t o come up a g a i n
rut t o make, t o b u i l d '
gaag taboo
gab t o gather
gabar o- gums ( o f mouh)
e;abeY bald
gabeyan above
gabor fog, mist
gagow strong
galmi unripe
gamey now
down
intestines
where
t o eat neat, t o b i t e
tsochus s h e l l
 12

gaw crayfish
gawgaw lung
ge- saliva
ge to spit
gelelawey gill
ESer wall
gikaaz g r a s s used f o r making brooms
gilbaan f i s h (sp.)
giley p o s t o f house
gim t o buy
gimgim dirt
gingging l a n d hawk
girm b e l l ; s l i t gong
giren o i l , grease

finger, t o e
t o be s t a n d i n g up
Grasshopper
bamboo ( s p , )
windpipe
tooth
i n s i d e of
belly; m a t of emotions
in he, she, i t ; they
iatarr they two
iP tree w i t h e d i b l e f r u i t , I n o c a r p u s f a g i f e r u s ,
TP. a i l a
irir liver
kaang gourd used for s t o r i n g water
kaaw t o cover up
kabaal bush; i n l a n d

kafurbad full
kak e l d e r sibling
kakarek chicken
k a l bang bang b u t t e rf l y
kallvang shrub used far decoration, Taetsia fructicosa,
TP. t a n g e t
kalwi t t o catch
kam t o peel
kamdud bee (sp.)
kani s ar s ir grass
kamtatey white ( p l . ) ; u n r i p e ( p l . )
kamtey white; u n r i p e ; white man
k anay seagull
Ist- to t h i n k
k a r a n g r ong a n t (sp.1

karag wind f r o n t h e e a s t
karfoy f i n g e r n a i l , t o e n a i l , claw
kas t o speak, to t e l l a s t o r y
ka taa- h a i r o f t h e head
kawang fence
kidingdengi crooked
k ie l sail

kilow t r e e used f o r f l o o r i n g , mts, bow; AreCa sPp.9

TP. limbum
kiming t r a d i t i o n a l bread
kimpaak pandanus ( s p . )
lrimpi- skin; bark
kin li Gh t d n g
kit brain
kiwaar cassowary

kongkong s m a l l banboo gong

kOP t o cut
kot stomach
kubol handcrafts
kud to c a r r y on head
kukow dust
1aaw rafter
laaz braaching C o r d
labnl. leaf
lal t o swell up
1-g shore
las s k u l l ; shell of coconut
leng riiany
l e n g mat very many

ley ginger
lib hole
lingen g l a s s ; r e f l e c tion
1on fat
lu to vonfit
lunum citrus
lung to d r i n k
luong t o Bear, t o know
 14

nam f i s h (sp.)
maan bird
maas s e a , sal tvrater
maat t o die
magager bee (sp.)
magagwaaw pain
magarew h o t enbers

Bagarngen c; t o f i n i s h , t o conplete
magi b e e t l e grup
naka;y boy
rn a1 loiaclo th
malaa- eY @
malbong f l y i n g fox
n a l e y bad soue, few
nialey b a z i bamboo ( s p . )
naluy duck
? - malwey 1ong
man f a t h e r (tern of a d d r e s s )
marn we (exclusive)
mallisas dry
mamtam we two ( e x c l u s i v e )

nard heavy
rnasalaggam python
raataley flat
mat ey o l d ( o f things)
natiaw stone
mats coral
maw t a r o , C o l o c a s i a sp.

ltzayaay sick
mayal pronged s p e a r
m id i l i short * . ..
miningi crackle of f i r e
mirian i n back o f , behind
nitmet shell (sp. )
n i Z i meat
njzirin bamboo ( s p . )
mol t o f a l l down
mom land crab
aom t o fish w i t h a hook
mot islmd
muat snake
mug be % o r e
 before
arm; t r u r k o f t r e e
t o shout
a sore
later
sago r o o f t h a t c h
-
c u d 1 w o r m i n rottQa f r u i t ( s e e ' r n u t )

t1utnut rubbish
mum- t u y back o f neck
L1UZ.U- wrist
mi2 directional narker away from speaker
nal
nalalu
nalnaal
d v
slAlaU( p l
always
. )

nalu siiiall (og.)

n m 1
nan there, near t h e hearer
nang t h a t , near t h e hearer
narenii; s h r u b used. f o r d e c o r a t f o n , Godiaeum varieaatum,
TP. purpur
n a r n a r on;; color
naw t o scrape coconuts

nay t o cook i n a pan

neysong another
dngi good
dad o u t r i g g e r boom
nieg d i r e c t i o n a l marker, toward t h e s p e a k e r
n iek child
nimanay when
hOW r!luch
here, near t h e speaker
mother ( t e r n of a d d r e s s ) '
this, n e a r t h e ,speaker
-
coconut; paln and fruit, Cocos n u c i f e r a
face
over t h e r e , away from: t h e s p e a k e r and the h e a r e r
non t o cook i n f i r e , t o r o a s t
noran yesterday
V Y ! t b rub
nung that over .I;h0re,'awayfrom both s p e a k e r and
hearer
ngaad stone axe , ,.

ngew bandicoot
ngnngili black
 16

awry
mosquito
bee
t a i l (not. of a b i r d )
s h e l l of a n u t used f o r d e c o r a t i o n
t o swallow
a cough
olu p ~ , p k i n ,Squash
0s snoke, c i g a r r e t t e , tobacco
ot d e c o r a t i o n s f o r dances
ow v i n e ( sp. )
ozizi d o r s a l f i n crf f i s h
padaw p e a d a m s (sp. )
Pagar female ( o f a n i a a h )

paida- first f i n g e r
palaf bush r a t
palangis axe
pala t o 'run
Pan t o s h o o t w i t h a bow
paparuman underneath
Par t o walk
pariw lizard
Paypay papaya
pedipedi c7 fan
Pen WOM;LI1
pidpid bottle
PiP t o c a r r y on t h e back
pir t o weavep t o p l a i t
pisaw fang adze
POW& toy top
PUS t o come up, t o grow
raag ribs '

raan water, r i v e r
ram k u l o t lake
ranraan tide

ranwayway dragonfly
rar clay
raw , t o get ( p l u r a l object)
raw t r e e with e d i b l e f r u i t , N e w Guinea walnut,
Dracantonelon m a n g i f e r m , TP.
ray t o pull, t o tighten
reY t a l l grass, I n p e r a t a arundinacea, W . k u n a i
ror large red a n t
 17

rosi bat ( s p , )
roY t o fly
ru two
rub to go away, t o r u n away, t o Leave
rur brown
saab
Sam sky
-
r u b b e r t r e e , EXkus e l a s t i c a

sab . t o carve
sabal baYey thin
sag arrow f o r shooting pigs
sag O a Y
sag to tie
G a g a r a- back
Sak t o scratch

salu a hoc
Sam t o miss t h e u a r k
s aLL outrigger
sanang what
Sand t o smell
saner rattan, Calanus s p
smer a scratch
sang n i n i why
sar t o conb
sar t o dig
sar white
sareng b a s k e t made o f coconut f r o n d s
sarey .. a conb
saring place m ~ i e , a l o c a l section

sarir t o descend
sarurn clam
sasalli- a r n p it
saweng hornbill
sawlaley l i g h t i n weight
sebananing earthquake
si t o come
xi fork
sib t o sew
sibi very, really
sigang knuckle
silaay bamboo (sPo)
silaay knife
si1sil.i happy
 .' 18

sinunuy vein, a r t e r y
&ge- an close t o , n e a r
singi skin, s h e l l o f something
singpal t o divide
singri s n o u t o f pig, beak of b i r d
sipi thorn
s i si to tear

prawn
angular, buxom
t o chew b e t e l n u t
f a r away
t o s p l i t w i t h t h e grain
t o s h o o t w i t h a spear
t o bathe
SUk t o push
sul torch
sur soup
susiw cockroach
susulil t o back up
SUY breast
SUY t o make a n e t bag
taaf t o throw
t aang t o cry
t aaw to tie
tab mat
tabanaa- head
tabud moon
kali t r e e w i t h e d i b l e n u t , Termindia catappa,
-
TP. talis
talngaa- ear
tm and ( c o n j o i n s t w 9 nouns); two (pronoun)
tanl- f a t h e r (term of r e f e r e n c e )
t an01 n anl
tan t o bury
tan e a r t h , ground
t a n tuy bush s p i r i t , l i t . 'bones of t h e ground'
tangaw SUEUCI deaf
tar t o boil
tawaa- titling '

tw excrerien t
te- younger s i b l i n g
ter f i s h basket
tes t o Leave behind
tst villme
tey s i p i tail o f a b i r d ( p o s s i b l y texcrementr +
sipi 1 t h o r n ' )
teY t o put
teyan on t h e o t h e r s i d e o
ti- buttocks
tiaarn no; n e g a t i v e Marker, ,.a&
tiet stairs
ti e y t o buil d
t i firi t o turn
timtineng d t
tin- mother ( t e r m o f reference)
tini- body, skin
t01 three

ton s p i r i t s of t h e a n c e s t o r s
tor conch s h e l l
tO1.3 s u g a r cane
arrow, s p e a r
tung t o burn
tUP ashes
tursi . r e l a t i v e , on m o t h e r ' s s i d e
turu- knee
tutu- bone
tUY bone
tUY t o h o l d one thing i n t h e band
tVtUY s p e a r with wire prongs; nail
ubu Sunday
udi all
udon night
udud backbone
udud dolphin
ul leech
UlzL garden
un b r e a d f r u i t t r e e and frutt, Artocarpus i n c i s a
un you 8 Q b
uot ' t o do, t o nake
ur steari
urat work
urit octopus
ururor gravel
ut louse
uye- leg
 20

w- nose
Uyu El0untaim
UYUY mouse
UZ to SWiD
UZ&r dawn
waag t o call, to shout
waag hand drum
waal b e t e l nut, Large red v a r i e t y , Rreca SPO
w a d bad OW
warn
waas p l a n t w i t h i e d i b l e leaves, Abelnoschus manihot,
aibika
wab t o get
waday pandanus ( sp. )
wed5.w eel

Waf te r n it e
wag canoe
wagananu Large b l a c k s e a g u l l , lit. fpicture/shadow
o f a canoe'
g i a n t clan
go
r i g h t hand s i d e
hot
wangey big
waggaw crocodile
WaP callopfryllun t r e e , Cd.1ophyU.m i n o p h y l i m
war vine
waray shark
warinan day before yesterday; day a f t e r tonorrow
warmaan vine used t o poison f i s h
wawar t o carry
wawwaw
wayway
wayway dabi
rime
-
m g o t r e e and f r u i t , Mangifera i n d i c a
s a d f i s h , lit. @ p i tof mangot because the fish
e a t s the mango p i t s t h a t have been thrown
, i n t o t h e sea
friend
instrument narker
y m , Dioscorea spp,

witan outside o f
WiW t o dream
wod plate
wol bow s t r i n g
worn t o hide
wun h e a t e d s t o n e s f o r cooking
Yamg wind
 21

maw tey cloud

yaaw fire
Ym door
yamer cloth, clothing
Yanyanang y e l 1ow
yasug t r e e with e d i b

wind frm t h e s e a
c h i n , jaw
we i n c l u s i v e
we two i n c l u s i v e
t o sleep, t o l i e dom
t o fill up
spoon
blue
fish
t o dance
t o pour o u t
shade
yes
t 0 bl ow
YU- husband
zaay l o f t hand side
zag t o help
zagarib br o om
Zd road, p a t h
zamom r o tten
zmung bad

zawwaw
zer
ZiagzetnG
grass s k i r t
c r a b ( sp. )
-
b e t e l n u t and palm, Areca c a t e c h u

zir albino
ziri s c d e s of a f i s h
ziw .,
to laugh
z i zili l i t t l e finger
zorn t o c a r r y maay things i n the hands
zong boar's tusk.
 22

".* ENGLISH TO EILIAU VOCABULARY

above gabeyan banboo (sp.) nakey b a d

adze pisaw fang bamboo ( SP, ) Cli-U
affine ebisi bamboo (spc) silaay
nf t e r n o o n arwaw banana aning
albino zir bandicoot 3 ncew
all udi bark kimpi-
always nalnaal base fu
ancestral b a s k e t Bade of
spirits ton coconut f r o n d s s a r e n g
and tam b a t ( sp. ) rosi
angry ngilang to bathe sug
angular si wsiw to be badey
anixml garung beak o f b i r d singrf
an0 ther neysong beard z i zi-
ant karangrong bee ngiagi
ant, large r o d ror bee (sp.) kamdud
arise badi bee ( s p . ) magager
arm dima- beer, n a t i v e ew
a m dima- mugu b e e t l e (sp.) diwdiw
armpit sasali- b e e t l e grub magi
arrow tung be fore rmg
arrow f o r be fore Dugangay
shooting p i g s sag
behind nirian
bell girm
artery sinumy belly iloz
ashes tUP betel n u t zawwaw
axe pd a n ggi s betel n u t ,
axe, s t m e ngaad large, r e d waal
t o avoid dag t o chew b e t e l song
hack sagara- b e t e l pepper fungul
back o f , i n . mirian
bi g wangey
to back up susm bird maan
backbone udud t o bite gar
bad zaoiung black IkgilngfiP
bag, n e t aror t o bleed asarur
bald gabey blood asur
bamboo buaw t o blow P
bamboo ( s p . ) gus
 23

blue yezyezang child ni ek

body tini- Chill yaw-
to boil tar cigarette 0s
bone tutu- c i trw ltunun
bone tUY clam *-g
bottle p idpid clam sarm
bow duaan clam, g i a n t wagwag
bow string WOl claw karfey
boy n h Y clay rar
brain kit close t o singe- an
bread hirag cloth yamer
breadfruit Un clothing Ymer
t o break fOY cloud Yam& y
t o break a g a i n s t c Ockroach susiw
the grain f of
coconut n i W
breast SUY coconut, t o o
b r o om zagarib young t o d r i n k b i b i
brown Fur cold adangdangey
t o build fut color narnarong
t o build tiey a comb sarey
t o burn tung t o comb sar
t o bury buo t t a cone Si

t o bury tan
bush dugdug tt o
o come
come upup a g a i nPUS
furungfurur
bush kabaal couple t ed magarngeng
bu t t e r f l y kalbarrgbang conch shell tor
bu t t 0 cks ti- t o cook i n f i r e non
buxon siwsiw t o cook i n pan nay
t o buy d m c o r a l , branching 3,wz

to call waag coral rnatul

c an0 e wag cord bisey
to c a r r y wawar a cough ngu r n g or
t o carry i n a t o cough fu
n e t bag fay t o cover up kaaw
t o c a r r y many crab garuY
t h i n g s i n hand zom c r a b (sP.) zingzeng
t o c a r r y on head kud
t o c a r r y on back p i p c r a b , ground mom
c r a c k l e o f fire wining&.
to c a r v e sab crayfish e;aw
cassava aYW-% crazy biraaw
cassowary kiwaar crocodile w=maay
to catch k a l wi 1 crooked kidingdengi
chest ate- b i b i t o cry taang
t o chew b e t e l song
chicken kakar ek
 24

t o c r y (Rnimal) bubuab eel wadiw

t o cut k0P 2 w batu
t o dance YiFEe; eight dimad z i z i l i to1
dawn UZar elbow dimst- gungguang
day nal embers, hot tzagarew
day a f t e r emotions, s e a t o f iloz
tomorrow warinan enemy ager
d a y he f ore
ye s t e r d ay warinan everything abang
excrement taY
deaf tangaw smm eye malaa-
t,o d e c o r a t e mar eyebrow fW P Y
decorations for eyelash baz baz ey
dances ot face RO-
delight, t o fall down mol
e x p r e s s i o n of esey
t o descend sarir fan pedipedi
t o die rimat f a r away =wxay
t o dig sar fat 1on
f a t h e r ( t e r m of
d i r e c t i o n a l markero address) maa
away from s p e a k e r nag f a t h e r (term of
directional narker, reference) tm-
toward s p e a k e r n i e g fl a t h e r bazi
dirt gimgim f ernale ( a n i n a l l pagar
ditch gubgub
divide singpal fence kawang
t o do uot few m a l ey bad
dog gon t o fight dupuroy
t o fill up Yes
dolphin udud fin, dorsal ozizi
door Y W finger guwr
dove, l a r g e b l a c k b a a l finger, f i r s t paida-
dove, w h i t e but
down gmey finger, l i t t l e &zizi
dragonfly ranwayway fingernail k a r f ey
t o dream WiW t o finish dag
finished rnagarngeng
t o drink lung fire yaaw
drum, hand waag firewood aaY
dry mmsas first h Y
dry warn
duck mduy ~
fish Yi
dust kukovr f i s h (sp.) axiw
ear t alngaa- fish (sp.) dieb
fish (~p.1 gixbaan
earth tab fish (sp. ) maam
earthquake s e baaraning f i s h (sp.) PaYPaY
t o e a t food t h a t f i s h basket ter
i s not meat amg
t o e a t cleat gar
 fish n e t amag Grass, s h o r t furfor
t o f i s h with grasss t a l l
ho olr n0El
reY
f i s h , sand mayway d a b i grasshopper mong
five d ina d bad
gravel ururor
flat n a t a ley
grease giren
to f l o a t faat green aay l a b n i
ground tan
f l o a r , wooden furifon
t o grow PUS
to fly roY grub, b e e t l e magi
a fly euab gums o f mouth gabaro-
f l y i n g fox nalbonG hair of head kataa-
fog gabor h a i r , body bubufu
food (not meat) aizginG
food of soliiething ariangey ha1 f angru
h a 1f balbad
f orchead dano-
hand dina-
f orlr si handcrafts kubol
our v a a l bad 1wQY silsili
friend wey
frog hawk 1and gingang
far hawk, sea bog
fruit batu he, she, i t in
full ka f u r b a d
garden Ulil
head t a banaa-
t o hear luoag
garden, o l d daleb heavy marwi
t o gather gab t o help zag
t o get wab h e r e , n e a r speaker n i n
t o g e t (pl.
object) raw hey ! eY
h i b i s c u s shrub b i ~ n a a r
gill geleawey t o hide worn
ginger ley
glass lingen
to h i t fung
hoe salu
t o go Vial t o hold one t h i n g
t o go away rub in hand tUY
gang, s d l hole Lib
bamboo kongkong hook am1
good ningi
gourd f o r s t o r i n g
hornbill sawerg
ho tt wanwaney
water kaang
granddaughter f u f en
grandfather f u f taiiol house ab
how niuch ~ aimern
husband 3nz-
grandmother fufen husk of c o c o n u t funfun
grandson f u f tau01 I nam
grass k am sar sir to ignite babley
g r a s s skirt zer inland kabaal
grass ior r!iaking
b r ooris gil aaz
 26

inside of ilian rLiani oc aYYanE;

i n s t r u m e n t marker - w i nany leng
intestines gmni- nany, v e r y leng mat
island mot nat tab
jaw Y aye- r~eat garune
t a j unip duguaay meat mizi
kangaroo, t r e e dagebi . meat of something anangey
to kill f ung middle at=
knee turu- millipede bayariar
knife silaay t o d s s the mark s a ~
knot daging mist gabor
t o know luong mo on tabud
knuckle sigang morning bong sag
lake raan kulot mosquito nging
later nurgan no t h e r ( t e r n
t o laugh ziw of a d d r e s s ) fin
leaf 1abni mother (term
t o leave rub of reference) tin-
t o l e a v e behind tes noun t a i n U P
leech ul mouse UYUY
l e f t hand zaay nou th awa-
nail tuytuy
1% U p - nane wawwaw
t o l i e down Yen
a light babley navel biso-
t o light babley near singe- an
l i g h t i~ weight. sawlaley neck agaru-
lightning kin neck, back of m u m - tuy
U i ~ efor betel, aw negative mr k e r tiaam
new f0VJ
lip f ari- aright udon
liver irir
lizard pariw nine dinad zizili
hocati onaf waalbad
suffix -an no, n o t tiaan
1O iA C l 0 th rilal nose Uyu-
long rmlwey nothing bdag
t o look daang iPOW gmeY
nut, e d i b l e artgaar
louse ut ocean riaas
lung gawgaw octopus u r it
t o make rut
t o make 10t odor gireY
Lo make a net bag suy Oil @ren
nan tam01 o l d ( o f persons) f u f
mango wayway old (of thing6) natey
 27

on t o p of fangayan rafter laaw

one daseg rain aniaw
one ( i n d e f i n i t e ) bad r a t , bush palaf
OAhy SaG rattan saner
opening awa- really sib%
origin U red darey
other side of, reef bur b u r a r
on t h e teyan
reflection lingen
outrigger Sac1 r e l a t i v e on
outrigger ~ O O E I niad rxothergs s i d e t u r d
outrigger, s p i k e s t o rerlain bade y
t o hold boon dari t o reIl.ove coconut
o u t s i d e 0% w i tan fron shell dog
over t h e r e , a:/ay ribs raag
fron speaker r i g h t hand s i d e wan
and h e a r e r n o ~ ripe bid
a paddle f OY
to p a d d l e f OY
river raan
road z&l
pain nagagwaaw t o roast non
p a l n OT hand ate- b i b i roof
pandanus ( sp. ) kimpaak r o o f , sago t h a t c h mrurot
pandanus ( s p , padaw r o o f , peak of anangey
p a n d a m s (sp. 1 waday r o o t of tree warey
papaya PaYPaX
path zal rotten ZBmOD
round bililierne
t o peel kan t o rub noY
picture ananu- r u b b e r tree saab
P i 3!. buor rubbish nuimut
pineapple ananas rudder foy tjLrl%
p i t of f r u i t dabi t o run P a d I

lm p l a i t pir
plane, c a r p e n t e r fang t o r u n away rub
sago palrs born
to p l a n t abatut sago roof thatch aurot
p l a n t w i t h edible Sail kiel
Leaves waas saliva LSe-
plate vro d Salt tjLElrtineng
p o s t o f house &hey saltwater maas
t o pour o u t Y ok
prawn siw sand barnam
to p u l l ray sap a a y suru
sardine PaYPaY
purrpkin olu saucepa buaad
to push suk s c a l e s of f i s h z i r i
to put t o s c r a p e COCOEIU~S naw
py t h a n masanggan 6cra t ch saarer
 28

t o scratch Sak
sea mas
seagull, kanay
s e a g i l l , big
black wagananu
t o search f o r dangdang
t o see daang
seven d i u d e i z i l i ru
smoke 08
to sew sib snake mat
shade Yo w snout of p i g dngri
shadow amnu- some w e y bad
shark waray soot alal
shell bazez a sore nlanmm
s h e l l (sp.1 guw soup sur
a h e l l (Sp.1 mitrilet
t o speak
t o shell a coconut dog spear
s h e l l of coconut las spear with
shell of nut used wire prongs tuytuy
for decoratSon 1Rgizngi.z s p e a r , pronged
s h e l l ol: speech bing
something s;ingi s p i k e s t o hold
shell, trochus gargar outrigger boon don
shin dmey spirit aAanu-
t o shine babl ey
,
s p i r i t bush tan t u y
t o Bhoot with bow pan s p i ~ t sof
t o shoot with ancestors ton
spear SOY t o spit Ge
shore lw?l t o s p l i t with
short midxu the grain
shoulder dagdago- spoon
to s h o u t waag squash
t o shout mugur stairs
shrub used for t o s t a n d up badi
decoration kabnang to s t a n d up w
shrub used f o r star b-w
decoration naretmg t o stay badey
sibling tawaa- steam ur
siblikng, elder kak stick aay dim2 ,. 1

sibking, younger te- stonach kot

sick waay
t o sit down dos stone matAaw
stone 6 heated
Six diraad z i z i l i bad f o r cooking
akin kimpi- straight
skin -gi string
sh5n tM- string
 29

strong gagow tooth ingo-

s u g a r cane tow top, t o y pang@.
S U az torch Sup
Sunday abu ., ~ t
tree aay
t o &wallow ngo t tree used for
t o swell. up 14 fboorinf;, bows, '
t o swim suz uats ki l ow
t r e e with e d i b l e
tJiLb00 gaae fruit iP
tail not of b i r d n g h g r i t r e e with edible
tail o f b i r d sipi fruit raw
talk bing
taro IlgW t r e e with e d i b l e
t o tear Gis leaves yasung
t o t e l l a s t o r y . kas t r e e w i t h edible
nut angaar
ten: dimad ru t r e e w i t h edible
h e r dt e vraf nut tali
that o v e r t h e r e , t r e e , c d l o p b l G i wap
wway fron speaker t r e e , l e a v e s used
and h e a r e r Dung as n a t i v e paper doy
Ghat, near hearer nang tree, r u b b e r saab
t h e r e , near t r u n k 03 t r e e mu@
hearer nan
t h e r e z over there, t o turn basul
a w a y from speaker t o turn tifiri
and h e a r e r npg t u r t l e , sea fon
they in. tusk, boar's zong
two rU
they two intm two (pronoun) tarn
thigh daglaa underneath papa-
thin sabal baley
t o think k&n unripe galrili
this, n e a r speaker nin unripe ( sg.) katey
thorn sipi unripe (pl,) kantatey
three t 01 t o urinate buz
urinie buz
ts throw taaf vein sfnunuy ,
t o throw away badinc very sibl
t hunb dina- t i n i
tide ranraan village tet
t o tie sag vine W a r
to tie t aaw v i n e (sp.) ow
t o tighten raSr vine use6 t o
poison f i s h wamaan
tobacco t o woclit lu
toe to w a l k Par
toenail wall ger
tomorrow
tongue
cv&r duaan AbeLmoschus manihot waae
t o wash dagor kreca cathecu zawwaw
water raw Areca sp. waal
we e x c l , Elan Areca sPP+ kilow
we h c 1 . Y ed Artocarpus i n c i s a un
two excl. nantan C a h l U U S Sp, saner
we two i n c l , yedtat.1 Callophylum inophylhum WaP
t o weave pir G a n a r i w l o polyphyllwn angaar
wet hidbidi Carica papaya PWPW
what SW#lg COCOS n u c i f e r a niw
where gan C o d i a e w variegatum nareng
when nimanay C o l o c a s i a sp. maw
white (sg.) kmtey Dioscorea e.suken bingat
w h i t e (pl,) btatey Dioscorea ~ S Q Q , WiP
white Sar Dracant0meI.m rnangi ferum raw
who am -us elastica saab
w i Td gQY Gnetum gnemom Yamng
wind Yamg Ribi s c u s r osa- s i n e m i s bininaar
wind from e a s t karag Hibiscus tikeaceus dOY
v i n d from sea yawarti llnperata arundinacea reY
wind from west dawdaw Inocarpus fag5 f e m s iP
Wind, Cold Hangifera i n d i c a wayway
from mainland d e r Wanihot u t i l i s s i m a WY-g
windpipe gustsus Metroxylon sp. born
bazi Padanus S P ~ kinpaah
woman Pea PmdWus spa padaw
work urat Pandanus Spa waday
worm mubuat Piper bet.Pe hsul
wrist muzu-
Taetsia fructicosa kalmang
Y= Wil T e r m i n a b a c a t a p p a tali
Y= (spa) bingat
year daleb
yellow yanya-ls
Yes YOW
yesterday noran
YOU pla an
YOU Sga un
you two mtam
5. TK3 3EiCLOPM2TJT OF BILIAU VOCABULARY FROM PROTO OCEANIC .
I n s e c t i o n 5.1 a l i s t o f B i l i a u words w i t h t h e i r p o s s i b l e
h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s j.ic given. T h i s list w a s used as t h e o r i g i n a l
d a t a f o r t h e st.udy of sound changes, SO t h a t i t e m s were included' i n
t h e l i s t simply on t h e basis of p h o n e t i c s i m i l a r i t y w i t h a rocon-
s t r u c t e d form. Therefore, we a r e n o t clainiing t h a t e v e r y Biliau
word i s r e l a t e d t o t h e r e c o n s t r u c t e d f o r m g i v e n f o r -it. In s e c t i o n s
5.2 and 5.3 t h e sound changes are p r e s e n t e d . I n s e c t i o n 5.4 t h e
B i l i a u evidence which s u p p o r t s a d i s t i n c t i o n between POC *ne and *nj
is presented. Some a l t b m a t e POC r e c o n s t r u c t l i o n s a r e suggested in
the discussion, S e c t i o n 5.5 compare8 t h e B i l i a u r e f l e x c s of POC
consonant phonemes w i t h r e f l e x e s i n Gedaged as given by L i n c o l n
(1973). Gedaged is t h e , l a n g u a g e most c l o s e l y r e l ? , t e d t o B i l i a u for
which comparative work h a s been done (Dernpwolff 1920; MiUe 1961,
196.5, 1968; L i n c o l n 1973). Both l a n g u a g e s belong t o t h e S i a s k Family
(Z'graggen 1975) and share a b o u t 50% c o g n a t e s on t h e Swadesb
100-word list ( r o u g h check by t h e a u t h o r s ) . I n s e c t i o n 5.6 t h e
B i l i a u words and t h e i r p o s s i b l e POC s o u r c e s are a g a i n l i s t e d , t h i s
time i n terms 0% t h e number of i r r e g u l a r r e f l e x e s t h e y c o n t a i n .
This g i v e s a rough measure of t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t a E t l i a u word is
i n d e e d descended d i r e c t l y from t h e g i v e n POC form. I n s e c t k o n 5.7
t h e evidence f o r sonie new PAN and POC f o r m s i s presented.

I n the f o l l o w i n g list, 150 B i l i a u words a r e g i v e n with t h e i r

p o s s i b l e h i s t o r i c a l sources. The p r o t o l a n g u a g e s which are d i r e c t
a n c e s t o r s o f BiLiau a;-e P r o t o Oceanic and P r o t o Austronesian. In '

c a s e s where no P r o t o Occankc o r P r o t o Austronesian s o u r c e form has

been r e c o n s t r u c t e d , a f o r m from a n o t h e r p r o t o language i s c i t e d .
Such a form i s p o s s i b l y r e l a t e d t o t h e s o u r c e form f o r t h e Biliau
word. A l l r e c o n s t r u c t 5 o n s are, taken from W U m and Vlilsonqs
F i n d e r List of reconstructions i n A u s t r o n e s i a n Languages
G r a c e f s m % TP r o t o Oceanic f i x e r l i s t was also consuled.
The first column i n t h e l i s t g i v e s a gloss f o r t h e l 3 i l b u word
given i n t h e second column. The r e c o n s t r u c t e d form i s l i s t e d i n the
as n .
t h i r d column. The v e l a r n a s a l ( 9 )i n a p r o t o form is always written
When t h e prot.o form has a d i f f e r e n t g l o s s t h a n the Bilf-au
w o r d t h i s g l o s s i s given i n s i n g l e q u o t e s f o l l o w i n g t h e proto form.
Otherwise, t h e glosses are assumed t o be t h e same. The f o l l o w i n g
a b b r e v i a t i o n s are used t o i d e n t i f y t h e r e c o n s t r u c t e d forms:

PAP Proto Austronesian

PEO Proto E a s t e r n Oceanic
Prn Proto M a l a i t a n (.from Solomon I s l a n d s )
POC 'Proto Oceanic
PPH Proto Pkilippine
PPM Proto P o l yn e sian
 32

arm, SEE hand

bad ZaBUIlg
base fu
bathe, wash s w
beak, SZE snout
be fore mug POC muqa ' t o precede'
behknd miri-an POC mudl
-an is t h e l o c a t i o n a l s u f f k
b e l l , slit gong @ram PAD? g%r&ng
bird maan POC manu(k)
bite, eat meat POG kaRat.5
black ngLlngkli POC ngkele
blood amr Pm zumq
body, &in tini- POC t i n i
bone tutu, tuy POC tu(dr)(i)

brain kit PO(: quto (k)

breadfruit Un POC kau( n)
breast SUY POC t3U S U
brother ( e l d e r ) kak POC kaka 'sibling, elder'
burn tung POC tunu
PPH tutung
tan POC tanom ' p l a n t , bury*
butterfly kalbangbang PAN kaliban gbang
canarium n u t angaar POC kangari
canoe ' wag POC wangka
c a r r y (in the hands) ZOM POC sambat
chin, jaw Yay+ POC anae
coconut ELW POC n&u(R)
cold adaagdangey POC ma( n) di( n) ding
cf, adidiag from G d e k and Sdt, lThis i s an exanmle of
the creeping i n Biliau, with underlying ding. %bus we
compare ,"" and *ndina;.
comb (verb Bar POC 8 m U
comb (noun) sarey
Conch 6heXl tor POC tapus
cook ( i n z ~ u c c p a n ) nay POC nansu
(in f i r e ) non
coral, branckbg laaz POC lanje
cough 9u: PAN batuk
fufu PPH buhaq
PML fu'u
cry taang POC t a n g i
cut kop POC koeo( p>
day a f t e r tomorrow, warin-an POC wax( ns) a
==is the I o c a t i o n a l (temporal) suffix
day before yesterday
 33

descend POG s u r u ( p )
die POG mate
diLg POC Sara
dog POC ngkaun
dove POC mpulae
dry POC ma-masa
dust POC kopu ( t)
egg POC ng atu 'head, source^
ear
e a r t h , ground
' af
POC t inga
POC kana( q)
e a t ( n o t meat)
food
elbow
t;:: kad
POC sigun
everythjing PAN aPa
PPN afa
excrement tay POC t a q i
eye malaa- POC mata
face 330- POC aako

fat, grease lon POC mona(k)

feather, wing bazi POC p d i )
f i l l up Yes POC oso
fire yaaw POC apiL
firewood, SEE tree
f a t h e r (form o f address) marn PAll mama
f a t h e r ( f o r m o f . r e f e r e n c e ) tam POC tama

finger little
I POC adi( n) si t finger'
finger, t o e POC kuku
fish POC ika(n)
five, SEE hand
f i y (n0.w) PEO fava
fly ( v e r b ) POC Ropo
fog POC kampu( t) 8mi.stt
food, SEE e a t
forehead darno- POC ndangma
four waal bad POC pat
garden UL1 POC quma
gather gab POC kampi ( t)
ginger ley POC lia
ground, SEE earth
hair (=body h a i r ) bubulu POC pulu
hand, am1 ma- POC lima
five dimad bad
he, she, it, t h e y in POC i a I3rd person s5.ng.r
hear, know luong POC dongo
hit, kill m e POC panu(q)
hoe* sau POC s a l u
hook awul POC kawil
 &

34

hole lib PAN lubang

hot wanwaney POC pana(s)
husk o f coconut funfun PPE bunut
i61and mot POC motu
j a w , SEE c h i n
W1, SEE hit
knee turu- POC turu
knife silaay POC sele
know, SEE hear
later murgan POC ~ u d i tafber'
Lie down, SEE: s l e e p
lime chewed w%thb e t e l a w PoC apu 'ashes'
POC apuR ' l i m e !
1o i n c l o t h ma1 POC malo
louse ut POC kutu
man tam01 POC b o l e
meat mizi POC p b s i k o , b f n s i g o
mother (form of address) nin POC t i n a
mother (form of reference) t i n
mouth awa- POC awang
navel biso- POC mpuso(s)
neck agaru POC Ruqa
new fow POC paqoffu
PPN fou
night udom POC (dr)odo
nose w- POC usu U G h , yI*- y't
octopus urit POC kuEtita,, uRita
one daseg PEO ta(n)sa
PPN tasi
outrigger 8am POC nsama
paddle fog POC ponse
pandanus ( sp. padaw POC pada
path, road Zal POG ngala(n)
Pig buor POC mpoRo
pigeon (large black) baal PAIT balug' 'pigeon, dovet
pbeapple ananas PPA ananas
prawn siw PAR si(ng)pu(nN 'shrimp'
PPH h i p m sahrimpt
rat. pdaf P B labav
red darey POC daRa(q) 'blood'

r i g h t (hand) Wan PAM wanan

road, SEE path
roof finguag PAR bung
PAN bubung t r i d g e p o l e l
 35

r o o t , SEE v i n e
rope, SEE vine
round bilj.13- w engi POC 1Ui 'circle1
PAN b u l a t 'roundc
run PdUl POC puru
sap ( o f t r e e ) aay suru PAN ZuRuq 'blood, sap'
s e a , saltwater maas P N ma=ask(n)
seagull kanay POC (ng)kzula(k)e
s h e l l o f coconut, las POcI las(ae)
skull
shore lang
sick mayaay
skin, SEE body
s k u l l p SEE shell of coconut
s l e e p , l i e dovm Yen POC eno ' l i e down1
slit, gong, SEE bell.
me11 Sami POC s a n g i t
snake muat POC ngmata
warm LIU tmu at
snout ( p i g r e ) singri PPH EungaD
b i r d 1 s beak
soup sur POC SUE&( q) 1 broth'
atomac h kot POC kaqu tu b e l l y ,
@

stone matiaw POC pa t u

s u g a r cane tow POC t OPU
sun az POC qms0, qanjo
sboot P a POC: pans( q )
taro maw POC: ngmao
Terminalia tali POC t a l i n s e
they, SEE be
tie sag POC saqit
tie taaw POC takai
think karikan PPH . kuwan
three to1 POC t o l u
toe, SEE finger
torch Sup POC sulu
tree, firevlood aaY POC k a i t tree, wood'
POC api firer
.@

trunk mum POC puqu( n)'

turtle f on . POC ponu
two M1 POC dua
underneaeh papam-an papa 'under'
-
-an. i s l o c a t i o n & s u f f i x
POC
?POC Rungma 'house'
vine, rope war POC waRo
rook of t r e e aay warey
vomit lu POC lua
wash, SEE bathe
water raan POC ndanu
PCP Ranu
we ( e x c l u s i v e ) POC kami
we (hclusive) POC k i n t a
wind POC n s a n g i
wind (from s e s t ) PEO saU( sau) 'windt
wing, SEE f e a t h e r
woman POC papine
worm, SEE snake
yellow yanyanang POC
yesterday nor-an POC
-an i s l o c a t i o n & ( tenporal) s u f f i x
youTsingu1ar ) Un POC

5.2 Bikiau r e f l e x e s o f P r o t o Oceankc phonemes

The sound changes by which t h e B i l i a u vocabulary has

developed from i t s P r o t o Oceanic a n c e s t o r language are d i s c u s s e d
in t w o p a r t s , F i r s t , the B i l i a u r e f l e x e s of POC phonemes are
d i s c u s s e d and i l l u s t r a t e d . Second, t h e syllable s t r u c t u r e
adjustments are discussed. These a d j u s t m e n t s account f o r t h e
widespread development of c l o s e d syllables Pn BiPiau w h i l e in
POC they a r e rare. These two s e t s of changes a r e ordered w i t h
r e s p e c t t o one a n o t h e r ; t h a t i s , t h e phoneme changes must precede
the s y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e changes. Within t h e two s e t s of changes
t h e r e i s no ordering, That t h e s e t s a r e ordered with r e s p e c t t o
each o t h e r is i l l u s t r a t e d by & 'excrement' and tow 'sugar cane',
for example, In the o r d e r of s y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e a d j u s t m e n t s
followed by phoneme changes t h e y would y i e l d :

Whereas in t h e order of phoneme changes Pollowed by s y l l a b l e

s t r u c t u r e adjustments, t h e c o r r e c t forms a r e derived.
POC *t a q i > * tai. > . t a y 'excrement1
POC "topu > * t o u > tow ' s u g a r cane1
I n a l l the examples given t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e sound changes,
t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f t h e B i l i a u form is g i v e n as a sequence of t h r e e
forms. f i r s t t h e POC form i s given. Then an i n t e r m e d i a t e form
i s given i n which t h e POC phonemes are converted t o t h e i r regular
Iifiliau r e f l e x e s , b u t t h e s y l l a b l e a d j u s t m e n t s a r e n o t y e t made.
E5zkaliky t h e p r e s e n t day g i l i a u form is. given. If
 37

this form d i f f e r s from what would be d e r i v e d by a p p l y i n g t h e

s y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e a d j u s t m e n t s t o t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e form, t h e
d i f f e r e n c e s are marked w i t h an u n d e r l i n e . Thus an u n d e r l i n e
represents. an i r r e g u l a r r e f l e x .
The development of t h e U a u system o f phonemes from the
phonemes o f POC i s d i a g r w e d in t h e following chart. The
arrows d i r e c t e d from POC phonemes t o S U a u phonemes r e p r e s e n t
a r e f l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p . Vbhere a series of phonemes i s enclosed
in a large r e c t a n g l e , the arrow i n d i c a t e s that t h e whole s e r i e s
of U a u phonemes. When a box on the Proto Oceanic s i d e
cololkains more than one p r o t o phoneme, a merger is i n d i c a t e d .
When a box on t h e Biliau s i d e c o n t a i n s more than one phoneme,
a s p l i t i s i n d i c a t e d . The c i r c l e s i n d i c a t e s p l i t s and mergers
i n v o l v i n g individ- phonemes from two d i f f e r e n t s e r i e s .

P r o t o Oceanic Biliau

L I I I J

/
 38

We now give evidence for the r e f l e x e s of each o f the POC

phoneanea in turn.
POC *p >? / @tervocalicalLy, preceding / a /
fl / intervocalically, elsewhere
Poc *topu *toll tow 1 sugar cane&
POC *ctapuRL *tawi tar 'conch shellt
POC *apu * atp aw @lime *
POC "papa *papa papa-ruman 'underneath'
POC *p > p o r f / initially. : /p/ appears t o
precede /a/ and /e/, while /f/ precedes /o/
and /u/, th e sounded vowels. T'nc'Yaas.'r&flexes
a d .oo&ditiQd::g'~f&tOr& or * p 'occur In
Gcdagea- [see#Lincoln 1973)

POC *pans *pana pan 'shoott

POC "papine "paine pen lwomanl
* POC "ponu * f onu fon ' s e a turtle8
POC *puqu " fuu fu cbaset
POC *t >t */ in d l environments
Po(: *tin& * tm tbi- 'bodyt
POC *tans tan leartht
POC "motu *motll mot 'island'
POC *k > k or pI / i n all environments. Both refhexes a r e well
aktested and there is. no apparent condit3,oning.

POC: *kopu +kou kow 'dust'

POC Ykaqutu *kautu kot 'stomachf
POC * M a *kaka kak 'elder brother'
POC *kutu *Ub u t 'louse'
POC "kawil *awil a w 9 thookl _.

POC *nako *nao 'no- 'face'

POC *q > $4 / in all! environments
POC *quma *uma urn 'garden'
POC *taqi *kai . tay 'excrement1
POC "puqu *fUU fu 'base'
POC *mp >b/ in all environments .....

POC *mpuso *bus0 bi so- navel * ' I

.,
..
-+ .
POC *mpune * bune 6 2 tdovet
PO@ *mporo *boro I bsor ' p i g *
POC *kampi *kabi &ab 1 gather'

PCM: *ngp >b / only one example

POC *ngpatu *batu bat& 'egg?, POC gloss i s
thead, source*
 39

POC * n t > d / The one possible a t t e s t a t i o n o f t h i s r e f l e x i s very

tenuous. ~ Further support i s given b$- t h e
p a t t e r n o f the other n a s a l grade phonemes *mp,
*nJ, and *a& and t h e Gedaged r e f l e x (Lincoln 1973).
POC *k&nta *ids -
yed 'we i n c l u s i v e '
POC *nB > d / isi all environments
POC *riding
POC *ndangma
*ding
*'dam dam&-
ding 'cold'
I forehead1
'

POG *ngk >g / in all environments

POC *wan& *waga wag 'canoe'
POC "ngkaun *gaun eon 'dog'
POC * n > a / i n a l l environments
POC "motu "motu mot ' i s l a n d '
POC *malo *m&0 m a 1 'loincloth1
POC * t m a * tama tam * f a t h e r '

POC *ngm >m / i n a l l environr!ients

POC "ndangma *dma d-mp I forehead'
POC *ngmata *mata mzat 'snake'
POC * n w o *ma0 maw ' t a r o '
POC *n >n / i n a11 environments
POG *Ikiu *(niU KLw t c oc O D U t 1
POC *tini- " tini. tM- 'body'
POC *ponu * fo m ' fon l ~ e at u r t E e r
POC *ng > n g / i n a l l environments

POC *tan@ *tang% t a a n g 'cry'

POC * t a U g a "takinga talagaa- 'ear'
Y POC: *riding *ding ding 'cold'
POC * s > s / in d l environments
POC *Sara *Sara sar * d i g t
POC *6*U * sullu sul ftorcht
POC *las *las l a s ' s h e l l of coconut, skull '
 POC *ponse *foye foy ' p a d d l e '
POC "aase *aye yaye- ccbin, j a w 1
.Lc

Po0 %ansu *nayu nay 'cook i n saucepan'

see
POC *nJ> z / in d l environments section
POC *.lan;le *laze laap ' c p r a l ' 5-4
POC * u a n j o *azo az 6un
POC *ifaTa *z a l a z a l 'path, r o a d '
. .
I .

PO@ *d > r / iLn all environments

POC *mudi * muri mur-gam * l a t e r 1
POC *dua *rua r u 'two'
POC "mudi *muri m-ri-an behind'
POG *r >r / in a l l environmsnts

POC *saru *saru sar fcomb'

POC * t u r u *turu turu- 'knee'
POC *Lapor0 * boro -
bu o r C pi g 1
PO6 *R >r / in a U environments
POG *tapulti *taw& tor 'conch s h e l l '
POC * w e 0 "war0 w a r 'vine'
POC *Ruqa *rua -ru- 'neck'
POC *l > 1 / in a l l environments
POC *malo "mal0 m a 1 'loincloth'
POC *las *las las ' s h e l l of coconuts s k u l l '
POC *Pua *ha Lu tvomit'
POC *w >w / in a3ik e n v i r o m e n t s

POC *waRo "war0 w a r vine 1

POC *wangka *wags wag 'canoe'
POC "kaWi4 *awil; am-1 'hook'
POC *y > y / The data c o n t a i n * o n l y one i n s t a n c e of POC- *y.
. . , i .. !
. ,

' POC *yaago *yango ' yagaag 'yellowl

POC *i > i / i n a U environmeate
PO@ *tini. * tini, ~ K L -'body, skin'
POC * d U "nibu! niw * c oc o m t@
POC *e > e / in a l l environments
PO *arise *we xaye- 'chin, jaw'
POC *en0 weno pi 's3.eept
POC *u > n / i n a l l environments
POC * t u r u * turu %uru- 'knees
POC * q u a *uraa UM'garden'
POC *o > O / in a l l environments
POC " t o l u *t o l u t o 1 'three'
POC *mpuso *bus0 b&so- navel.
POC *a > a or aa / in all environments. There is no a p p a r e n t
conditioning which explains t h e origin of the
/ a d phoneme. The f a c t Ghat t h e double v o w e b
occur i n t h e o t h e r , dTalectss of t h e ailiau
language, but w i t h no r e g u l a r correspondeQce
t o the double vowels i n a i l i a u village (see
Simons 1977a) i n d i c a t e s that i t is a r e c e n t
i n n o v a t i o n which has been a p p l i e d in different
ways by different v i l l a g e s rather than some-
thing that.h;ws been i n h e r i t e d through a
regular p r o c e s s of sound change.

POC "saru *b a nBar lcomb~

POC * l i m a
POC "manu
+*a
*Manu
dima- 'hand' .
maan '.bird'
-
POC * t a L i n g a *tnlinga talngaa- 'ear'(.

5.3 Syllable s t r u c t u r e a d j u s t m e n t s

The b a s i c s y l l a b l e ' Gbapes icrr POC are CV and V. The great

m a j o r i t y of r o o t s are of the'fosm CVCV, eg. POC *toIu 'three',
POC * l b a 'hand1. Some c o n s i s t of three CV syllables, eg. POC
*tamole 'xmnf, POC*kaqutu tstomacht, IP some car;es, the i n i t i a l
 42

OE final s y l l a b l e i s simply V!, eg, POC * a p i ttree', POC *%hg . +

*fisli', POC *dua 'two', POC *ngmao ' t a r o 1 , R a r e l y is a c l o s e d

s y l l a b l e reconstructed, and
eg. P W *koso(p) ' c r y ' POC *manu(k) bird' .
when i t is, i t is o f t e n w i t h doubt,

In section 1.3 of t h i s p a p e r w e noted t h a t the s y l l a b l e

shapes which occur in B i l i a u a r e four: V , W 9 VC, and CVC. The
s y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e a d j u s t m e n t s account for t h e widespread
development of c l o s e d s y l l a b l e s i n Biliau, while i n POC they are
rare,
POC *V > P, / CVC-CI[C That. is, a t h r e e s y l l a b l e proto form
which i s mff'txed t o c l o s e t h e f i n a l
s y l l a b l e i s reduced t o two s y l l a b l e s
o f CVC shape by dropping the second vowel.
POC * t a l i n g a * t a l i n g a - p o s s mf takngaa- tear'
POC "rnamasa *mamasa-s mamsas fdryt
cf, PAN wkalibangbang kalbangbang f b u t t e r f l y c
POC *roudi *muri- gam murgam 'later'

POC *V >$3 / VC-# That is, t h e word final vowel 3.q a two o r
three s y l l a b l e p r o t o form i s dropped. ThLs
p r o c e s s a c c o u n t s f o r the g r e a t m a j o r i t y of
CVC s y l l a b l e s i n B i l i a u .

POC *wan@ *waga wag fcanoe?

POC * k u E t a *u.rita urLt foctopuct
POC *tapuRi *tauri tor 'conch s h e l l '
This p r o c e s s of dropping the final vowel, c o u p l e 4 w i t h the
loss of an i n i t i a l *k or *q r e s u l t s i n many of the WC s y l l a b l e s .
POC .*panjo *am a2 'sun'
POC * b t u "Utll u t 'louses
When the stem final vowel La n o t word final, that is when a
suffix f o l l o w s it, it is n o t dropped.
POG "'Clini * tjlxli tw- rbody,
POC *mpuso *bus0 -
biao- n a v e lf f

POC *mudi *muri- an a&rian I behind 1

-
-an i s the l o c a t i o r r a l s u f f i x
No C W C o r 63VV s y l l a b l e s occur i n f3iBiau. I n t h e inter-
mediate s t a g e , a f t e r t h e phoneme changes, many W sequences occur
as a r e s u l t of consonant loss ( o f POC *p, *k, o r *q) o r o f a W
sequence in tho original POC form. The f o l l o w i n g s y l l a b l e shape
a d j u s b e n t s reduce these W sequences t o single vowels t o y i e l d
t h e s y l l a b l e s h a p e s of present d a y U a u , CV and CVC. The
ffnal adjustment changes CW sequences t o CVC sequences, a n o t h e r
o r i g i n o f t h e B i l i a u CVC s y l l a b l e ,
 43

*V V >V / T h a t is, two i d e n t i c a l c o n s e c u t i v e vowel6 become

1 1 1 one o c c u r r e n c e o f that s m vowel.
POC "puqu * fuu f u 'base'
, POC *Ropo +r6o roy ' f l y *
POC *talinse * t a l i y e tali ' B r m i n & ~ a i
> tali
T h a t is, *talinf3e > * t a L i y e > * t d i y (=*talii)
(word final vowel loses does not apply twice).
*eWC > C W / in d L environments
*au, *ao >o
POC * t a p u R i "tauri tor 'conch shehPt
POC *ngkaun *gan gon 'dog'
POC "kaqutu *kautu kot 9 stomacha
POC "nako *nao- no- Iface1
POC *paqoRu *faop fow anew'
*ai >e
POC "papine *paLne pen 'womar~*
*CV V > C V / i n word f i n a l position when V ,is POC "a
12 1 2
POC *&qa *rua -ru- tnockl
POE * h a *.:'kua l u 'vomit'
POC *dua *r w ru two' '
*CV V
1 2
> CVIC / i n word f i n a l p o s i t i o n when V is POC *u, * 0 9
*e, or *i. V2 becomes a s h a r semivowel.

Vz *o and *u > w
POC *apu. * au aw Pime 1
POC *ngmao *ma0 maw t taro '
POC "topu *tou tow 1 sugar cane'
POC *kopu +kou kow 'dust'
POC "niu *dU niw . 'coconut'
V2 .*e and *i >y
POC * t a q i *td. tay lexcrernent'
POC *kai *ai aay ! t r e e '
POC *kanae *kanae kanay ' I ooagulll
POC * t u i *t u i tuy "bof;ke'
 44

5.4 B i l i a u evidence for POC *ns and *n3

The e x i s t e n c e o f POC *nj i s n o t widely accepted by Oceanic
s c h o l a r s ( n o t e its omission i n Pawley 1975 i o r i n s t a n c e ) . The
Bjiliau data g i v e p o s s i b l e evidence for a contrast between POC
*ns and *nj, T h i s is n o t very s u r p r i s i n g , however, s i n c e *nj was
first p o s t u l a t e d by Milke p a r t l y on t h e basis of evidence from
Gedaged, a c l o s e l y r e l a t e d language (Iolilke 1965, Lincoln 1973:283).
I t a p p e a r s t h a t POC *nj is r e f l e c t e d i n a u i a u as x and POC
*ns f : r e f l e c t e d as y. There are two c l e a r examples of-POC *nj:
POC * n J a l a > z a l 'road, p a t h '
POC *Lanje > l a a z ' c o r a l '
We also propose t h a t t h e 2 of a z 'sunt is d e r i v e d from POC +nJ,
'Sun' h a s been r e c o n s t r u c t e d a F P O C *qanm. N e i t h e r t h e Bciliau
farm, s, nor t h e Gedaged f o r m , & ( G i s t h e regular reflex of
POC *nj, Lincoln L973), r e f l e c t *ns; r a t h e r t h e y s u g g e s t *nj,
The PAT+ form or 'sun' has been r e c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h *nj by Dyen
(*qanjaw>t Ellust ( * -zi(n>jafl), and Dempwolff ( * q a ( N ) jaw) (wum
and Wilson 197.5:209). Thus we p o s i t :

There a r e a nuniber of examples of POC *ns r e f l e c t e d as 9 i n

HJiau:
POC *nansu > nay 'cook'
POC: *ponse > foy ' p a d d l e '
POC *man@. > yang Iwknd'
POC *ame > yaye-- ' c h i n , jaw'
POC * t a U n s e >
* t a l i y = tali, 'Terminalia'
Two a d d i t i o n a l examples a r e p o s s i b l e , POG *usu 'nose' i s r e l f e c t e d
by W i a u E, -
where we would expect KtL * w u , *ns is t e n t a t i v e l y
r e c o n s t r u c t e d for PEO ( * i ( n ) s u ) , however, so w e suggest t h a t i t
be r e c o n s t r u c t e d or P O C as well t o explain the x i n $iUau w.
POC *mas& ' s i c k ' i s r e f l e c t e d by B U a u m a y a a y where *masaax
would be expected. Again PEO k a s *ns (=*z, * m a z h ) and w e
propose r e c o n s t r u c t i n g *ns or POC. Thus,
>
POC * u ( n ) s u uyu- 'nose'
POC *ma(n)saki > mayaay ' s i c k 1
The data c o n t a i n f o u r a d d i t i o n a l examples o f POC *ns which
appear t a he counterexamples. The first can be e x p l a i n e d as an
a l t e r n a t i o n between oral and nasal grade. POC *nsama ' o u t r i g g e r '
-
Ls r e f l e c t e d i n Sj_liau as sam which s u g g e s t s a POC *sama. The
evidence from o t h e r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e i n i t i a l
 45

consonant i s i n v o l v e d i n a n oral-nasal g r a d e a l t e r n a t i o n - - P m
*kka man and *(n')t'aman, POC *sarima and *nsama, PPN * m a and
*sama ( r e f l e c t *sama and *nsamdS r e s p e c t i v e l y ; see H a r m s 1973:299,
E o c k e t t 1973). Thus w e propose;
POC *(n)sama > sam 'outrigger'
The three remaining examples O f POC *m show a r e f l e x of 2.
Each of t h e s e examples, however, c o n t a i n s two a d d i t i o n a l
i r r e g u l a r i t i e s , and t h e y are t h u s v e r y q u e s t i o n a b l e .
?POC * p i n s i k o >mizi 'meat*
?POC * n d i n s i > z i z i l i ' l i t t l e f i n g e r '
?POC * n s a q a t > zamung ' b a d '

Grace (1369:44) n o t e s t h a t Milke b e l i e v e d he had p e r h a p s

d i s c o v e r e d t h e t r u e n a s a l grade of POC * s i n M s *nj. The
symmetry of t h e E i l i a u r e f l e x e s of POC s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s may
be true. The Ei1ia.u re.:lexes O f POC n a s a l g r a d e phonemes are
t h e voiced c o u n t e r p a r t s of t h c r e f l e x e s o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
o r a l g r a d e phonemes. That is,

P r o t o Oceanic F3iliau reflexes

Oral g r a d s 'p *t *k *s > p t k 6

N a s a l grade "mp *nt *ngk *nj > b d g z

5.5 ComparLson of B i l i a u and Gedagcd reflexes of POC consonant

phonemes

Cornparism o f the Biliau r e f l e x e s o f POC consonant phonemes

&ins e c t i o n 5.2 w i t h t h e Gedaged r e f l e x e s ' g i v e n by L i n c o l n (1973:
284-285) shows a c l o s e r e l a t i o n between t h e two l a n g u a g e s as
expected. T-heir r e f l e x e s o f *p, *mp, *ngp, *m, +ngm, *w, *t, *nts
*ad3 "1, *ns * s s *k, *ngk, "ng, *q, and *y are i d e n t i c a l ; o n l y
*ds *r, *Ro *nj and *ns a r e r e f l e c t e d d i f f e r e n t l y . The d i f f e r e n c e s
are s e t o u t in t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e :
 46

IPOC '. Gedaged BLUau

*R, *r, *d
Iz) Ia3 r
*rid, *nt d d

*ns Y
"Y Y

The f i r s t row of t h e t a b l e r e p r e s e n t s a p h o n e t i c shift only;

there is no d r f f e r e n c e Ln the resulting phonemic systems. That
is, t h e r e f l e x of POC *d3 *r3 and *R is pronounced in Gedaged
a6 a voiceless l a t e r a l f r i c a t i v e whiLle in E i U a u i t is pronounced
as a voiced r e t r o f l e x e d flap. The n e x t two r o w s show a d i f f e r e n c e
i n the resuftdng phonemic systems. I n Gedaged t h e r e i s a merger
o f *nd and *nt with *nj which a r e a l l r e f l e c t e d by d. I n B i l i a u
there is no merger; *nd and *nt are r e f l e c t e d by d &ich is
d i s l d n c t from 25, t h e r e f l e x Of *nj. It should belhoted h e r e t h a t
i n the t h r e e e a s t e r n v i l l a g e s of the B;iliau language groug (Yam&,
Galek, and S u i t ) 2 and g have a l s o merged and d r e f l e c t s *nd,
*nt, aad *nj (Simons 1977a). The f i n a l two liEes of t h e table
show that g i l i a u h a s merged *ns an& *y t o 9 w h i l e Gedaged h a s
dropped t h e *as completely.
 47

5.6 The B.sliau words l i s t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e number of

L r r e g u l a r refkexes they c o nt ai n
The number of: i r r e g u l a r r e f l e x e s c o n t a i n e d a word g i v e s
a rough i n d i c a t i o n of how p r o b a b l e i t i s t h a t t h e B i l i a u form is
d i r e c t l y descended from t h e r e c o n s t r u c t e d POC form. Stated i n
a n o t h e r way, t h e fewer t h e number of i r r e g u l a r r e f l e x e s , t h e
g r e a t e r the p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e word descended d i r e c t l y from t h e
given pOC form. An i n s p e c t i o n of t h e l i s t s in 5.6.2 and 5.6.3
o f words c o n t a i n i n g i r r e g u l a r r e f l e x e s r e v e a l s a number of
E i l i a u words which d e f i n i t e l y seem t o be d e r i v e d from POC fn
-
s p i t e of t h e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s . For i n s t a n c e , dim @ h a n d @
-
"lirna should be "Pima, l u o n g ' h e a r ' from POC *dongo should be
from POC
*rang, and fung ' h i t , killr from POC * unu s h o u l d be *fun. There
are a number 08 p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s k t h e s e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s .
The sound changes p o s i t e d i n s e c t i o n 5.2 could be wrong, o r
incomplete. The i n d i v i d u a l words as t h e y developed may have been
s u b j e c t t o s p o r a d i c change o r borrowing, Another p o s s i b i l i t y i s
that t h e s e i r r e g u k r i t i e s arc common i n other Oceanic languages,
e i t h e r as an a r e a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o r throughout Oceania in
general. F u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i a n o f such c a s e s could l e a d t o t h e
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a l t e r n a t e POC form^ wikh widespread d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
o r of forms confined t o some subgroup of Oceania, I t i s hoped
that t h e following l i s t s may be u s e f u l data for this k i n d o f
research.

I n s e c t i o n s 5.6.2 and 5.6.3 t h e form i n p a r e n t h e s e s i s t h e

form t h a t would have d e r i v e d from t h e g i v e n POC form by the
sound changes p o s i t e d i n 5.2 and 5.3. The i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n t h e
I U l i a u word are u n d e r l i n e d . Square b r a c k e t s encPose a portion
o f a BiEiau word which i s n o t compared. Items are l i s t e d by
a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r of t h e E n g l i s h g l o s s ,

5.6.1 Briliau wards c o n t a i n i n g no i r r e g u l a r r e f l q x e s

POC *puqu > fu ' b a s e !
POC *manu > maan ' b i r d '
POC * t i n % > t i n i - @body'
POC *tui > t u y 'bane1
POC * M a >k& ' e l d e r b r o t h e r '
POC "kangari, > a n g a a r 1C;anarium n u t '
POGT "wangka > wag tcanoe'
POG *niu > n i w 'coconut1
POC *adiLgg > ding, from adangdiangi ' c o l d '
POC *saru > sar 'comb'
POG *tapuRi > t o r 'conch s h e l l '
POC *lanje > l a a z @ c o r a l !
POC *tan@ >taang ' c r y '
>
POC *nansu nay @cook'
7
1

48

POC *mate >maat ' d i e '

POC *Sara> sar ' d i g '
POC: Wrngkaun > gon 'dog'
POC *kopu > kow ' d u s t '
POC, * t a l i n g a > t a l n g a a - 1 e a r 1
POG *tana > tan ' e a r t h '
>
POCZ * t a q i t a y 'excrement1
POC * q k o > no- ' f a c e t
POC *taxria > t a m "father'
POC, *quma > urn ' g a r d e n '
Pob: *motu > mot ' i s l a n d '
POC * t u r u > t u r u 'knee'
PX *mudi > mur-rgw] ' l a t e r '
POC *apu > a w ' l i m e '
POC *malo,> m a 1 I l o i n c l o t h '
POC *kutu > u t Ilouse'
POC *tamoLe > tarnol ' m a n '
POC * t i n a> p n 'nother'
POC IRuqa > a g a 3 r u - (neck'
Y*C u ( n ) s u uyu- 'nose'
POC *ku,'tita > u c i t 'octopus'
POC *(n)sama > satn ' o u t r i g g e r '
POC *ponse > foy rpaddle'
POC * n j d a > z a l ' p a t h , road'
POG *lili > lbi)- lili-[wengq 'round'
POC *ma-asi> maas ' s e a , saltwater'
POC *kanae ) k a n a y 'seagull1
POC *las > l a s ' s h e l l of coconut, skuU,'
POC *ma(n) saki > rnayaay 1 sick'
PO@ *GURU > s u r 'soup, b r o t h '
>
PO@ *kaqQtu k o t 'stomach'
POC *topu > tow ' s u g a r cane'
POC *qanjo > a z 'sun'
PO@ *pans > p a n ' s h o o t '
POC *agmao> m a w ! t a r o 1
POC s t a l i n s e > t a l i ' T e r m i n a l i a '
POC *tolu > to1 Ithree'
POC *su1u > s u l ' t o r c h '
POC * h i > a a y ' t r e e , firewood'
POC * a p i > aay ' t r e e , firewood'
POC *ponu > fon ' t u r t l e '
POC *dua >ru ' t w
POC *papa > papa-erum-m] 'underneath'
POC * R u n p a 'house' > ] [ -1
[papa-rum- 'underneath
PPC *waRo > war t v i n e '
POC * l u a > Lu 'vomit!
POC *xisang&> yang 'wind'
POC * p a p i n e ) pen twoman'
POC *noRa > nor- [a] ' y e s t e r d a y '
 49

5.6.2 Etiliau words c o n t a i n i n g one i r r e g u l a r r e f l e x

PPC *suku > (*suk) SUB ' b a t h e '

PUG *muqa >(*mu) mug 'before1
PO6 *mudi > (*muri) Gri- an ' b e h i n d '
POC, *kulu > (*ILL) un f b r e a d f r u i t c
POC *su[sui > (*su) Zuz Itareast'
POC *tunu > ( * t u n ) tunn 'burn'
POC *tauom > (*tanonJ t a n ' b u r y '
POC *anse > ("aye-) xaye- 'chin, j a w 1
POC *kosop > (*kogop) kop I c u t 1
POC *waRinsa > (*wari) wariE- an 'day begone y e s t e r d a y '
POC *mpune >(*bun) but *dove1
PO@ * m a m a s a > (*mamas)-mamsag d r y '
POC *panga > (*gang) aang f e a t '
POC *kanji > (*an) aann ' e a t '
POC "mats > ("mats-) maLaa- ' e y e '

POC **a
-
PO@ *mona > (*mon) l o n ' f a t , g r e a s e '
> (*i) ;ri ' f i s h '
POC *Ropo > ( * r o ) r o x 'fly1
POC "rmdangma > (*dams-> dam+ Iforehead!
PGC *kampi > (*kab) gab lga.Yher1
POC *lima > ( " l i n a - ) dima- 'hand1
POC *ia > ( * i ) i n 'he';- s h e , i t , t h e y )
Pocl *punu > (*fuz) fun^ I h i t , k i l l '
POC * s a l u > ( t s a l ) sa12 'hoe'
POC *kawil > (*awil) awul (hook'
POC *pana > ( * p a n ) ganwzney ' h o t '
POC *awang > (*awann) awa- 'mouth'
POC *mpuso > (*buso-) biso- ' n a v e l '
POC *paqoRu > ( * f o r ) SO; 'new'
POC *mpoRo > (*borT buor 'pig'
POC * l a u > (*law) l a n n '&ore'
POC *en0 > (*en) Len 'sheep'
POC *ngmata > (*mat) mEat 'snake'
POC "takai, > ( * t a y ) taaE ' t i e '
POC wndanu > (*dan) Laan 'water'
POC *kami > (*am) am * w e e x c l u s i v e '
POC *yango > (*yang) yanyasang ' y e l l o w l
5.6.3 R i l i a u words contafning two o r more irregular reflexes
POC, *nsaqat > ( * y a z ) za[mung] 'badf
POT, * M a t i > (YkaraLF gar 'bite, eat meat'
POC *ngkele > ( * g e l ) n g k l n g i l i 'black1
POC *quto > (*ut) 1ci.t ' b r a i n '
POC * a m b a t > ( * q a x t ) zom ' c a r r y '
7

POC *mru > ( * s u r ) sg&r 'descendt

POC Wsigun > (*&gun) g u s g u a n g 'elbow1
POC *pan2 > ("pard-) &a21 'feather, wing'
POC *oso > ( " 0 s ) y e s I f i l l up!
POC * a p i > (*ay) Xaaw ' f i r e '
POC * k h > (*kuk) g u 'finger'
---
POC * n d i n s i > ( * d i y i r z i z i l i ' l i t t l e f i n g e r '
~
POG +kampu > (*kab) Zabor 1 fog',
POG * p a t >(*pat) waa&[Gd] ' f o u r '
POC * l i a > ( * X i ) 1% ' g i n g e r '
POC *pulu > ('"Jlul) bubulu body hdrf
POC *dongo > ("rang) &&g ' h e a r , know'
POC * s e l e > (*sel) s i l a 'knife'
POC "pinsiko > ( * p i y & f i z i
POC *odo > ( * o r ) udog-9nie;ht'
-- 'meat1

POC "pads > ( * p a r r p a d a E Cpandanus sp.'

POC *daRa > (*rar) cJare~ 'red*
POC *puru > t*?ur) p a l a 'runt
POC * s a q i t > i * s e t ) T a z k ~ e t
POC Ypuqu > ( * il) ;trunk'
POC *kinta > ( * i d ) yed 'we i n c l u s i v e '
POC *ko >(*to) -
un 'you s i n g u l a r !
5.7 Evidence f o r new P r o t o A u s t r o n e s i a n and P r o t o Oceanic forms
I n the list of p o s s i b l e h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s , B i l i a u words
were l i s t e d f o r which no similar POC form b a s been r e c o n s t r u c t e d
b u t whiich show s i m i l a r i t y t o a form t h a t has. been r e c o n s t r u c t e d
elsewhere i n Austronesia. These g i v e e v i d e n c e f o r POC forms that
have n o t y e t been r e c o n s t r u c t e d . Examples a r e c i t e d from P r o t o
A u s t r o n e s i a n (PAN), P r o t o P M l k p p i n e (PPK) Proto Eastern
,
Oceanic (PEO) P r o t o M a l a i t a n ( P a ) and P r o t o P o l y n e s i a n (PPR).
I n terms o f a f a m i l y t r e e diagram, t h e s e are r e l a t e d t o P W ,
Biiliau (BIL), and t o one a n o t h e r as follows.

PAN

PPH POE.

From this diagram i t c a n be s e e n t h a t a B i l i a u word which

is similar t o a PEO, PML, or PPR form g i v e s evidence for a new
POC form. A B i l i a u word t h a t i s s i m i l a r t o a PAN form a l s o gives
evidence f o r a new POC form. F i n a l l y , a a U a u word which is
similar t o a PPH form g i v e s evidence f o r a new PAN form and a
new POC form,
Some of the g i l i a u words d i r e c t l y r e f l e c t t h e PAN form v i a
r e g u l a r POC r e f l e x e s o f PAN phonemes (from Pawley 1975) and
r e g u l a r B i l i a u r e f l e x e s of POC phonemes. I n t h e s e cases, t h e
shape of a POC form c a n be p o s i t e d as the regular r e f l e x of PAN.
The POC phoneme f o r a correspondence between PAN * b and BIL b is
g i v e n as *(m)p. PAJT *b s h o u l d y i e l d POC *p, b u t BfL b shoulz be
L.

a r e f l e x of POC *mp.

POC *suRu(q) 'blood, s a p '

from FAET *ZuRuq3 evidenced by EIL asur 'blood' and
BIL
-
s u r u ' s a p of t r e e r . POC *suRu(q) has a l r e a d y
been r e c o n s t r u c t e d by ELIke w i t h t h e glosses ' f l u i d ,
liquAd, f l o o d , wet, coconut ELLUS, b o i l , b r o t h , , Here
the two g l o s s e s 'blood! and ' s a p ' are added.

POC * k a l i ( m) pang( m) pang 1 b u t t e r f l y 1

from PAN +kalibangbang, evidenced by EIL kalbangbans.
Pm *mama ' f a t h e r '
from PAN *mama, evidenced by BIL E.
POC "punu, P,m *bunut 'husk o f coconut'
evidenced by PPH *bunut and BIL funfun.

POG *(rn)palu 'pigeon, dove'

from PAN *balug; evidenced by EEIL baal,
POC * d p u 'shrimp, prawn'
from PAN * S i p , evidenced by BIL s i w . -
POC *wana ' r i g h t (hand)
from PAN *wanan, evidenced by BIL wan, -
POC *pung ' r o o % '
from PAN *bung, evidenced by BIL fungung.
Other p a i r s of forms which o f f e r p o s s i b l e evidence f o r new
POC and PAN f o r m a r e given below. Here t h e evidence i s not
sufficient t o p o s i t t h e s h a p e of a POG or PAN form, or even i t s
s u r e e x i s t e n c e , s o only t h e s u p p o r t i n g f o r m s a r e given.
BELL, SLIT GONG -
PAN " g i r i n g , BIL giram
BURN -
PPH *tutung, BIL t u n 5 ( c f . POC * t u n u )
COUGH - PPH "buhaq, PML * f u ' u , RIL fu
EVERYTHING - PAN *spa, PPM *afal B U abang
FLY (n,) -
PEO *xava, pab
HOLE PAFT *lUbmg, RIL lib
-
ORE PEO *tam, PPN * t a d , BIL daseg
PINEAPPLE -
PPH *ananas, BIL ananas ( I t i s n o t c l e a r whether
thLs word i s d i r e c t l y i n h e r i t e d o r borrowed through
German Ananas.)
-
RAT PAN "labav, BIL palaf
SITOUT, BEAK -
PPH *suEGaD, EIL sinC;rl,
TaENK -
PPB "kuwan, EXL kankan
WIND -
PEO * s a u ( s a u ) ) EWCL dawdaw ' w i a d from westr
 53
4

REPEPCES

Dempwolf f , Otto. 1920. Die Lautenksprechungen der Fndonesfechen

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and 19.

Grace, George YJ. 1969. A Proto-Oceanic f i n d e r list.

University o f Hawaii Working Papers i n Linguksfice 2(3):39-84.
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 .

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-. . .