UNDERSTANDING SHIP DESIGN

Table of Contents
Introduction to Submarine Design.................................................................................... 2
Understanding Stability of Submarine.......................................................................14
Diving and Surfacing of Submarines...................................................................15
Surface Stability of Submarines:.........................................................................17
Submerged Stability of Submarines:...................................................................21
Buoyancy Elements............................................................................................ 25
Weight Elements................................................................................................. 27
Submarine Design: Unique Tanks On a Submarine...................................................28
Understanding Structure Design of a Submarine......................................................37
Understanding Design Of Container Ships............................................................................50
Understanding Design Of Bulk Carriers....................................................................63
Understanding Design Of Oil Tanker Ships...........................................................................80
Understanding The Design of Liquefied Gas Carriers...............................................94
Effects Of Ice Accretion On Ship Stability...............................................................109
Understanding Ship Stability During Dry Dock.......................................................114
Understanding Heavy Lifting Operations And Vessel Stability................................120
Introduction to Submarine Design

Submarines are underwater self-propelled crafts that are designed and built to

perform underwater operations for a stipulated amount of time. Submarine

design consists of a single or double hull system that houses all the necessary

systems and manpower required for completion of their mission. This, though,

is a very simple description of a very complex engineering product, which are

used for a wide range of purposes such as underwater research, underwater

rescue, and submarine warfare; the last one being the most widely used.

In this series of articles, we will study the design of naval submarines. In the

first few articles of this series, we will not go into the design process, rather, we

will familiarise ourselves with the design and functionalities of a submarine, its

parts, general arrangement, structural design and arrangement, stability of a

submarine, the systems used in a submarine, etc. Once we have looked into

these, it would be easy for us to touch on the submarine design process.

Though the design process followed by all navies is confidential, and different

from each other, the basics still remain the same.

Figure 1: Indian Navys Akula Class Attack Submarine INS Chakra (Surfaced

Condition). Source: Wikipedia

The primary submarine design objectives are:

The submarine should cater to the functional purpose of the customer.

The design should be capable of being constructed with the available

resources.

The cost of the project should be acceptable by the customer.

Parts of a Submarine:

Outer Hull and Pressure Hull:

Most designs of submarines have two hulls. The hull that houses all the

accommodation spaces, weapons, weapon control systems, communications

and control room, battery banks, main and auxiliary machinery, is the

pressure hull. It is called the pressure hull because it is designed to withstand

the hydrostatic pressure at the maximum operable depth of the submarine.

Figure 2: Cylindrical Pressure hull and Outer hull of a submarine.

The pressure hull is housed inside the outer hull, which is not pressure tight.

Why? Because, in submerged condition, the spaces between the outer and the

inner hull always remain flooded with sea water. Hence, the hydrostatic

pressure on the outer hull is negligible.

Main Ballast Tanks (MBTs):

Now, the floodable spaces are compartmentalised into tanks, which in

submarine terminology, are called Main Ballast Tanks. The distribution of main

ballast tanks in a submarine depends on the shape and interaction of the outer

and pressure hull. We will understand the working of MBTs after we deal with

the process of submerging a submarine, and submarine stability. Some designs

have MBTs only at the forward and aft regions, and the rest of the pressure

hull is flushed with the outer hull. Other designs have completely different

outer and pressure hull, with space for ballast between them. Some

arrangements of MBTs are shown in the figures below.

Figure 3: Exposed Pressure Hull (MBTs at forward and aft).

Figure 4: Enclosed Cylindrical Pressure Hull (MBTs throughout the length).

Figure 5: Waisted Pressure Hull (MBTs at certain parts of the length).

Figure 6: Exposed pressure hull reduced at ends (MBTs at forward an aft).

Sail or Bridge Fin:

The sail is the streamlined shaped non pressure resistant part of the

submarine over the outer hull. Its different types of masts that are deployed

from within the submarine when snorkels or sails just under the free surface.

The different masts used in a submarine are periscope mast, communications

mast, radar mast, weapon sensor mast, etc. These are raised from the bridge

fin when the submarine requires surface monitoring in stealth mode. Figure 7

shows the sail in a submarine, when the masts are not deployed.

Figure 7: Bridge Fin or Sail in a submarine.

The profile of the bridge fin in a submarine design is always an aerofoil shape,

as it acts as a hydrofoil with the submarine sails with just the fin above water.

This shape reduces the drag on the submarine. It is very important to keep the

drag within limits as it prevents eddies and subsequently, minimises the

acoustic signature of the submarine.

Control Surfaces:

When the submarine is in submerged condition, changes in direction and

depth is carried out by use of hydroplanes that act as control surfaces. To

understand the application of hydroplanes, we first need to know the nature of

motions experienced by a submarine in submerged condition. Unlike a surface

ship, submarines are subjected to lesser heave and pitch motions due to

absence of surface wave effects. A pair of hydroplanes or fins at the forward

and aft are used to control the heave and pitch independently. The hydroplanes

or fins are shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Fins on a submarine.

Two hydroplanes mounted at the aft in the vertical plane are used to change

the lateral direction of the submarine when in motion. These are basically

called rudders. Do note that unlike ships, the rudders of a submarine are

forward of the propeller. Why? Because in case of a ship, the rudder requires

the propeller outflow for maximum lift efficiency. But in a submarine, since the

entire hull is submerged, undisturbed streamlined flow is incident onto the

rudder surface. If the submarine rudder were placed aft of the propeller, the

flow onto the rudder would be more turbulent, increasing the probability of

cavitation.

One important thing to note is, hydroplanes operate at optimum efficiency only

at high speeds.

General Arrangement of a Submarine:

Before moving onto knowing the operation and functions of the different

systems on a submarine, it is vital to know the spatial distribution of the main

compartments and systems along the length and breadth of the hull. This will

be best understood when referred to Figure 9.

Figure 9: Schematic General Arrangement of a Diesel Electric Submarine.

The pressure hull and outer hull are clearly distinguishable in the above figure

of the submarine design. The forward part of the pressure hull houses the

weapon systems and sensors. The sensors are usually housed in the flooded

space between the forward of the pressure hull and the outer hull. Sensors are

always placed at the forward for reduction of noise from turbulent flow at the

aft and obstruction of machinery in case of aftward position. The weapon

system includes the torpedo tubes which house the torpedoes, torpedo

launching system, and torpedo operating tanks. The forward most part of the

pressure hull is used to store the weapons. They are loaded into the torpedo

tubes which are located partially within in the pressure hull and extends upto

the forward most periphery of the outer hull.

The midship portion of the pressure hull is used for the following purposes:
 Ship and Weapon Control Systems: All the systems on the submarine

are remotely operated from the ship and weapon control centre. This

compartment houses all the navigational control systems, the weapon

firing systems, machinery control and monitoring panels, diving and

surfacing system, steering control system, etc. All communication

between the submarine crew and the naval base or any external source

of data is carried out from this compartment. Submarines today are

automated to such extent, that all the operations on a submarine

during normal patrolling and war missions can be carried out from this

compartment, with no crew required to be present anywhere outside the

control room.

Accommodation and Life Support: The accommodation modules, toilet

modules, galley, cool and cold rooms are placed at the midship

compartment of the pressure hull. Such a positioning is not only

beneficial functionally, but also provides easy access to the forward and

aft parts of the submarine. Since this position is also under the sail, it

makes escape most feasible for the crew in emergency conditions.

Battery bank: The source of power on a diesel submarine is hydrogen

cells. These are charged by diesel alternators. Batteries comprising of

hydrogen cell units are stacked in arrays and placed in a compartment

called the battery bank. Usually, a submarine would have a battery

bank in more than one watertight compartments for redundancy. Each

battery bank has capacity sufficient for supporting all the operations of

the submarine for its endurance period. Ventilation and elimination of

 hydrogen from the battery compartment is a top priority, as any

presence of hydrogen in the compartment may lead to explosions.

Machinery and Auxiliary Machinery: The main and auxiliary

machinery contribute to about one third the weight of the submarine.

The main machinery consists of the main diesel alternators that are

used to charge the batteries and its associated systems, the air

conditioning plant, main high pressure air system, etc. The auxiliary

machinery compartment is separated from the main machinery

compartment by a watertight bulkhead. The auxiliary or economic

electric motor, auxiliary AC plant, auxiliary high pressure air system,

etc. are housed in the auxiliary machinery compartment. The diesel

alternators are used to charge the batteries, which in turn power the

main and auxiliary electric propulsion motors.

Propulsion Compartment: Located at the aft of the pressure hull, this

compartment houses the main electric propulsion motor, the main

propulsion shaft and its associated systems, the tail shaft, and the

forward and aft glands that are used to attain water-tightness at the

pressure hull and outer hull openings. In design of diesel electric

submarines, the reduction gear box is also located in the propulsion

compartment.

Hullform of a Submarine Design:

The most initial submarines used a hullform which was much different from

those used in modern day submarines. The evolution of hullform and the

reasons behind it is hence an interesting aspect of submarine design. The most

ideal shape of a submarine hull for minimum drag is the idea streamlined

shape with a parabolic bow and an elliptical stern, as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Ideal streamlined hullform.

The first submarines in the 1940s used this shape for minimum power

requirement and negligible flow separation around the hull. But it was

observed that due to the streamline shape, the usable volume within the hull

was insufficient, as the radius of the hull saw a steep decrease from just aft

and forward of the midship region. This not only kept the production costs

high, but also weakened the possibility of incorporating multiple deck levels.

Figure 11: Modern submarine hullform with cylindrical mid body.

The hullform used in modern submarines (since late 1970s) is the long

cylindrical mid-body with elliptical bow and stern. Though a shift from the

ideal streamlined shape increases the drag and subsequent power

requirements, the additional fuel costs over the lifetime of the submarine is
offset by the low production costs, since cylindrical sections are much cheaper

and easier to construct. This shape also enables the incorporation of multiple

decks within the same hull volume, hence ensures more spatial use.

It is important to know that the shape and geometry of a submarine hull is an

important starting point of the design, since it would not only dictate the

aforementioned point, but also affect a range of other factors of the submarine

as discussed below.

A cylindrical hullform increases the manoeuvrability of the submarine due to

larger hydrodynamic forces generated by hydroplane action. It has also been

observed that the minimum overall drag on the hull and best manoeuvrability

characteristics are obtained for Length to Breadth ratios ranging from 6 to 8.

The diameter of the submarine is decided primarily based on the length. And

the length is fixed based on the required pressure hull volume and

displacement of the submarine. Multiple decks increase the usability of

pressure hull volume, and the number of possible deck levels in a submarine is

decided primarily by its diameter.

A submarine with one deck would have two levels within its pressure hull.

Submarines with hull diameters ranging from 4 to 7 meters are restricted to

one deck. It would allow two accessible levels below deck level and above deck

level, as shown in the figure below.

Figure 12: Possible deck levels for different hull diameters.

Twin decks with three accessible levels is possible in submarines with hull

diameter ranging from 7 to 8 meters. Large sized diesel electric submarines are

usually of this dimension.

Triple decks and dour deck designs are used for hull diameters ranging from 9

to 11 meters and 11 to 13 meters. Such large diameters are used mostly in

nuclear powered submarines where large vertical space is required for the

nuclear power plant.

With the aspects of submarine design discussed in this article, the moot point

to be extracted is that having known the parts and functions of the submarine

and its systems, the art and skill of a good designer lies in trying to achieve

maximum volumetric efficiency for a design. There are some spaces within the

submarine with may be highly volume specific (for example, main ballast

tanks), whereas some may have only a few specific dimensions (example,

battery bank). There would also be cases where there are specific volumetric

demands, but not shape specific (for example: torpedo operating tanks and
main ballast tanks). Depending on such demands, a good designer would

prioritize the stages of design and the parameters that are fixed at each stage.

One of the most vital aspects of submarine design is its stability. Though it may

seem simple as compared to ships, the understanding of submarine stability is

more complex than that of a ship, as it would operate in both, surfaced and

submerged conditions. And the stability parameters of a submarine change

drastically the moment a submarine dives into the water, or resurfaces, which

gives rise to a point where the submarine is at the tipping point of floundering.

How and why, is what we will discuss in the next article.

Understanding Stability of Submarine

You will soon understand why we did not discuss the stability aspect of

submarines in the previous article itself, rather had focused on familiarising

ourselves with the main parts of the submarine. That is because, design in

itself is a complex and long process that includes both understanding and

implementation. It is hence recommended that you read the previous part prior

to this to understand submarine design basics. This article also assumes that

you are familiar with the basic concepts of ship stability.

The most unique feature of submarine design stability is that unlike ships,

submarine stability is studied at two conditions:

Surfaced Stability (when part of the submarine is above the waterline),

and

Submerge Stability (when the submarine is completely submerged, and

no part or appendages are above the waterline).

The fundamentals of floatation and Archimedes Principle are used to arrive at

the equation of floatation of a submarine, that is, in either of submerged or

surfaced condition, the weight of the submarine is equal to the buoyancy force

acting on it. This also implies that for a surfaced submarine to submerge, the

total weight of the submarine has to increase. It is only then that in submerged

condition, the buoyancy on the volume of the submarine above the waterline

(in surfaced condition) can be balanced by the additional weight.l

So how weight added to the submarine? Remember Main Ballast Tanks

(MBTs)? Sea water is taken into these tanks, and this added weight of the sea

water increases the weight of the submarine, which allows the submarine to

dive.

We will first look into the diving and surfacing techniques before going further

into stability and understanding how submarine works.

Diving and Surfacing of Submarines

We will look into the parts and components of a main ballast tank to

understand the sequence followed in diving and surfacing. The following figure

illustrates a transverse section of an MBT.

Figure 1: Transverse Section of Main Ballast Tank.

The two vital parts of MBTs are the:

flood ports, and

air vents

Flood ports are openings at the bottom most position of the outer hull that

allows water to enter and leave the tank.

Air vents risers, one on port and starboard side each, are routed from the

tank to the main air vent at the top of the pressure hull. For a surfaced

submarine to dive, the air vent at the top is opened. This allows the air in the

tank to escape, and sea water floods in from the flood ports below. The ballast

weight now added helps the submarine to dive in.

Now, the operating depth of most modern submarines is 300 to 450 meters. For

a submarine to surface from that depth, it first uses its hydroplanes to reduce

its depth upto 3 to 4 meters below waterline. Once it cruises at that depth, high
pressure air at approximately 15 bar is introduced into the tank through the

air valve. The air pushes the water out of the tank through the flood ports.

Once this weight is lost, the submarine is now positively buoyant and rises up

to surfaced condition.

The figure below shows the flooding conditions of the MBTs and freely flooded

regions (forward dome, aft cone, and the sail) during submerged and surfaced

conditions.
Figure 2: Submarine in Submerged and Surfaced Conditions.

Surface Stability of Submarines:

A submarine in surfaced condition has to satisfy the same stability principles

as that of a surfaced ship. The primary requirement in surfaced condition is

that, it should remain afloat even after any kind of damage. Which means,

there should be a significant volume of the hull above the waterline. This is

called the Reserve of Buoyancy (ROB). The figure below represents the volume

of the hull that contributes to reserve of buoyancy.

Figure 3: Volume of Hull contributing to ROB of a submarine.

Understanding the concept of ROB is very vital to a designer, as in, it helps the

designer to arrive at a primitive value of the required volume of MBTs for a

given pressure hull volume.

The ROB of a submarine is basically the ratio of the effective volume of all the

MBTs to the volumetric displacement of the submarine in surfaced condition.

The effective volume is the total blowable volume of the tanks (i.e. volume of

the tank required to be filled to submerge the submarine). And just like

surfaced ships, the surface displacement of the submarine is the weight of the

submarine minus the free flood water. Now note in Figure 2, that in submerged

condition, the only structure providing buoyancy is the pressure hull. Hence,

the weight of the submerged submarine minus the free flood water is equal to

the buoyancy on the fully pressure hull.

The above definition and analysis of ROB helps us to arrive at the following

relation between the ROB and pressure hull volume to achieve the total

blowable volume of MBT required.

The amount of ROB that needs to be incorporated in a design depends on the

size of the submarine. Smaller submarines will have lesser freeboard, hence

the larger ROB is desirable in smaller submarines than larger ones. ROB in

submarines usually range from 10 percent to 20 percent, and the value can

reach higher limits in case of double hull submarines.

The transverse stability analysis of a submarine is similar to that of a surface

ship, as both follow the same hydrostatic principles. The stability criteria of the

submarine in surfaced condition is its metacentric height (GM), as shown in

the figure below.

Figure 4: Surfaced Stability of Submarine.

In the above case, when the surfaced submarine heels, the centre of buoyancy

(B) shifts to a new position (B1). The metacentre (M) if above the centre of

gravity, creates a righting moment that brings the submarine back to upright

position.

Submarines are very weight sensitive, as in, during the entire operation of a

submarine, all operations are to be carried out in such a way so that there is

minimum shift in the longitudinal position of the centre of gravity. As shown in

the figure below, the slightest change in longitudinal centre of gravity will cause

a trimming moment that results in a drastic decrease in the water plane area.
Since the longitudinal metacentric height will be proportional to the on the

waterplane area, any trimming moment rapidly reduces the metacentric height.

Figure 5: Change in waterplane area due to trimming moment.

Submerged Stability of Submarines:

When the MBTs are blowed and pressed full, the submarine dives, and now

enters an environment of operation that is not familiar to most engineers and

designers of surface ships. The first property of a submerged submarine is its

ability to execute motions in all six degrees of freedom. The minimum and

maximum allowable depths are called ceiling and floor. The above properties

are similar to that of an aeroplane, but there is one aspect that makes a

submarine unique, that is, unlike an aeroplane, a submarine does not depend

on forward motion to support its weight. The fins on a submarine are only used
to invoke lift forces that help it to alter depth. But a submarine can remain

static in a submerged condition without any forward motion, and without the

help of its fins, why?

The answer lies in the weight-buoyancy relation maintained in submarines.

When the weight of the submarine is more than the buoyancy, it sinks until

any corrective action is taken to reduce the weight or increase the buoyancy.

This condition is called Negatively Buoyant.

Similarly, when the weight is less than the buoyancy, the submarine is said to

be Positively Buoyant, and floats up until corrective action is taken to

increase the weight. But all submarines in submerged condition operate on a

condition that lies between the above two, such that the weight and buoyancy

are always equal. The submarine, in this condition, is called Neutrally

Buoyant. How a submarine achieves neutrally buoyant, is something we will

study in further articles of this series.

Figure 6: Submarine in Positively, Negatively, and Neutrally Buoyancy

Conditions.
The transverse stability criteria of a submarine changes significantly in

submerged condition. Since any angle of heel in a submerged submarine does

not cause a change in the underwater volume, the centre of buoyancy remains

unchanged. In other words, the metacentre of a submerged submarine

coincides with the centre of buoyancy. Hence, the metacentric height (GM) is

transformed to (BG), as shown in the figure below. Now, there can be two cases

here. One, when the centre of gravity (G) is below the centre of buoyancy (B).

Two, when the centre of buoyancy (B) is above the centre of gravity (G).

Figure 7: Stable and Unstable Conditions in a Submerged Submarine

As shown, when the G is below B, a righting moment is developed, which

brings the submarine to its upright position, whereas, when the G is above B,
the submarine capsizes. It is due to this reason, the centre of buoyancy of a

submerged submarine is always maintained above the centre of gravity. Or in

other words, since the position of B is fixed for a particular submarine, it is

always ensured that the G is below B. There are special tanks and systems

used to maintain this condition, the details of which are in the scope of future

articles of this series.

The stability criteria of a submerge submarine is BG, and the variation of the

righting lever GZ with the angle of heel is as shown in the figure below.

Figure 8: Stability curve of a submerged submarine.

Buoyancy and Weight Elements:

A study unique to the design of submarines is the identification of the

buoyancy and weight elements in a submarine. Before we do that, we will first

know the meaning of each, and why they are required during the design

process.

Buoyancy Elements

The components of a submarine that constitute to its total buoyancy are

collectively called buoyancy elements. To identify them, let us start with the

easiest one. Most of the buoyancy acts on the pressure hull (refer figure 2), and

hence the entire pressure hull volume is a buoyancy element. But since the

components inside the pressure hull are not in contact with sea water, they do

not contribute to the buoyancy, and cannot be categorised as buoyancy

elements.

The displaced volume of the outer hull (that is, the volume displaced by

the steel plates of the the outer hull) also contributes to buoyancy. Note that

the volume enclosed by the outer hull is not being considered here.

In some cases, the forward and aft structure that is freely flooded, may contain

tanks that are not flooded. In such cases, the enclosed volume of those

external tanks are considered as buoyancy elements.

The sail is freely flooded in submerged condition, and it also contains the

conning tower (escape trunk), periscopes and an array of masts. The volume

occupied by these structures add to the buoyancy, and hence their enclosed

volumes are considered as buoyancy elements.

In the forward region, part of the torpedo tubes are within the pressure hull,

and part of them are outside the pressure hull in the freely flooded region, as
depicted in the figure below. The enclosed volume of the torpedo tubes in the

freely flooded region acts as a buoyancy element.

Figure 9: Torpedo tubes as buoyancy elements.

The propeller shaft passes through a tube which is freely flooded, hence the

volume of the portion of the propeller shaft in the freely flooded region acts as

buoyancy element.

The buoyant volume occupied by all the appendages like propeller, rudders,

forward fins, aft fins, sonar arrays, etc. also contribute to the buoyancy.
Additionally, any air pockets created in the ballast tanks are also buoyancy

elements, and hence these are unwanted as they unexpectedly increase the

buoyancy on the submarine, therefore creating a positively buoyant situation.

Weight Elements

Components on a submarine that contribute to its total weight are called

weight elements. All the fixed weight on the submarine as listed below are

among the primary weight components:

Pressure hull structure that includes pressure hull plating, circular

stiffening frames, tanks, brackets, etc.

Main propulsion plant that includes the diesel alternators, the electric

propulsion motor (for a diesel electric submarine), shafting system,

thrust block, thrust bearings, propeller, and associated machinery.

Batteries stored in battery banks.

Weapons stowed inside the submarine.

Weight of all other machinery, component, and permanent fixtures on the

submarine.

Apart from the fixed weight elements, there are variable weight elements, that

is, their magnitudes change with time:

Weight of crew.

Weight of stores (e.g. fresh water, food, etc)

 Weight of consumables (diesel oil, lube oil, etc.)

Weight of bilge, and solid waste.

Weight of ballast.

A proper listing of all the weight and buoyancy elements are required, along

with their individual weight, centre of gravity, enclosed volume, and centre of

buoyancy. Once all the buoyancy elements are listed with their volumes and

centre of volumes, the data is used to arrive at the total buoyancy of the

submarine, and the 3D coordinates of the centre of buoyancy. Similar analysis

is done for all the weight elements to arrive at the CG and weight of the

submarine. This data is used to correlate the weight buoyancy relationship for

a submarine.

Though this article has provided a lot of new insight on analysis of stability for

submarines, there are significant parts that are related to this, but will require

further knowledge to be understood. Which brings us to the next article, where

we will discuss all the different types of tanks in a submarine, and their

functions, and how design decisions are taken for each type of tank depending

on their purpose.

Submarine Design: Unique Tanks On a Submarine

Though some of the tanks used in a submarine are similar to that used on

surface ships, most of them are different and unique to the nature of operation

of a submarine, which makes it an important aspect to be studied in detail.

For a quick glimpse, did you know why a submarine uses a system of four

tanks just in the process of firing one torpedo?

We will first look into the tank plan of a diesel electric submarine and as and

when we familiarise ourselves with their terminologies, we will study their

functions, the reason behind their location, and other design aspects related to

them.

Tank Plan of a Submarine:

Along with the general arrangement drawing, the tank plan is prepared to

locate the position of each tank. Their names, along with the fluid to be carried

in them, is specified in the tank plan itself. The capacity of each tank is listed

on a separate document called the tank capacity plan.

The following figure shows the tank plan of a double hull diesel electric

submarine.
Figure 1: Tank Plan of a Diesel Electric Submarine.

We have studied about the purpose and operation of ballast tanks in detail in

the article on submarine stability, hence this topic will be skipped in this

article.

Compensating Tank:

Remember discussing how when a submarine is positively or negatively

buoyant, it takes actions to maintain a condition of neutral buoyancy by

adjusting its weight? This is achieved with the help of a compensating tank, a

component uncommon to the traditional concepts of ship design.

Compensating tanks are located at or in close vicinity to the longitudinal center

of gravity of the submarine (refer Figure 1). Why? Because, any changes in
weight caused at significant distance from the longitudinal center of gravity

would create a trimming moment, which is unwanted, as the submarine only

needs to adjust its weight. It is located within the pressure resistant hull and

takes water or pumps water to the sea depending on the situation to be

tackled.

The compensating tank can be emptied by a pump or high pressure air (in case

of low noise operation), but for high pressure air to be a feasible option, the

tank structure must be pressure resistant to the extent that it can withstand

an internal pressure higher than the external pressure.

The following alterations in weight and buoyancy balance are compensated for

by compensating tanks:

When a submarine dives to greater depths, it enters waters that have a

varying density than that at the surface. Specific gravity of sea water

usually increases from 1.008 to 1.028 with depth. Since density is

directly proportional to the buoyancy, the buoyancy increases, therefore

making the submarine positively buoyant. To achieve neutral buoyancy,

the compensating tank takes water from the sea till the weight cancels

out the buoyancy.

Weight differences are caused due to consumption of stores such as

provisions, fuel oil, fresh water, lubricating oil, and other solid stores.

Water is taken into the tank to compensate the effect. An interesting

thing happens in case of fuel oil consumption. In submarines, as and

when fuel oil is used up, the vacant volume in the fuel oil tank is

automatically filled with sea water, such that fuel oil always floats on
 sea water. This is done to prevent free surface effects. But since water

takes up the volume of the consumed fuel, the weight of the submarine

increases due to this. The compensating tank is also used to offset this

change in weight.

At deeper depths, the high external pressure results in compression of

the pressure hull. This reduces the pressure resistant volume of the

submarine, which reduces its buoyancy. The lost buoyancy is

compensated by releasing water from the compensating tank. Usually,

for submarines having maximum diving depth from 200 to 350 meters,

volume available for this purpose in the compensating tank ranges from

from 0.3 to 0.4 percent of the total pressure hull volume.

A submarine designer considers two special border loading conditions to

estimate the capacity of the compensating tank for a particular design. The

loading conditions are listed below:

Load-Case 1: At the end of a very long, slow cruise in sea water with

maximum density. At the end of a very long and slow cruise, all the

consumables like fresh water, stores, food are used up, but relatively sufficient

amount of diesel oil is left. The vessel is sailing in sea water of maximum

density, which means buoyancy is higher. Both the conditions together require

the compensating tank to be filled to its maximum capacity.

Load-Case 2: At the end of a very short, fast cruise in sea water with minimum

density. In this condition, the consumables have been partially used up, and

the diesel fuel is completely consumed. Since the sea water density is
minimum, the buoyancy is least. In such a case, the water required in the

compensation tank would be minimum.

In actual case, when a submarine begins its cruise, the volume of water in the

compensation tank is somewhere between those corresponding to the two

border cases. It has be observed by parametric studies, that compensating

tanks usually have volume of 2.5 to 3 percent of total pressure resisting volume

of the submarine. This data is also used by designers in the preliminary design

stages.

Trim Tanks:

Trim tanks are used to maintain the longitudinal center of gravity just under

the center of buoyancy, so that the submarine can be maneuvered to a neutral

trim condition. These tanks are equal in size, and are located inside the

pressure hull and as far forward and aft as possible so that the trimming

moment caused by them is maximised (note the trim tanks in Figure 1). The

trim tank system consists of two pairs of tanks, one pair at forward (port and

starboard), the other at the aft (port and starboard).

These tanks are interconnected by pipes called trim lines, and the fluid used is

called trim water. Trim water is circulated among the forward and aft

depending on the required trim condition. Circulation is carried out either by

pumps or by low pressure air.

The dimensions of the trim tank are estimated using border conditions

determining load-cases and trim conditions and analysing them with the

method similar to that of compensating tanks. Trimming effects due to weight

shift during firing of torpedoes are also taken into account. For empirical
purposes, the volume of trimming water required is 0.5 percent of the pressure

hull volume.

An added use of trim tanks is its multi-functional properties, where it can be

used as both, trim and compensating tank. In such designs, the trim tanks are

provided with flood ports. If say, forward trimming is required, then the forward

trim tank is filled and the aft tanks are emptied. If the submarine is to reduce

her weight without any change in trim, then both the pairs of tanks are

emptied to the required amount. This system offers added advantages with

regard to space allocations, as submarines are very space restrictive.

Negative Tanks or Quick Diving Tanks:

These tanks are used as auxiliary means to dive in waves. When a submarine

dives in waves, the added buoyancy due to wave action prevents it from diving

promptly, and hinders its ability to dive to a deeper depth. As troughs of waves

pass across the submarine, the free flooding parts at the topmost deck levels

(at the sail and upper deck) remain partially flooded, resulting in failure to dive.

In order to combat this effect, a tank with flood ports is provided at a low level,

just forward of the center of gravity of the submarine. Not its location in Figure

1. Flooding this tank would not only add negative buoyancy (or add to the

weight), but due to its longitudinal position with respect to the CG, it also trims

the bow and helps in quick diving. Due to this, they are also called quick diving

tanks. Once the submarine has dived and all the free flood areas are filled with

water, the negative tank is drained out quickly by using compressed air.

Torpedo Tanks:
Torpedoes are fired from torpedo tubes that are located at the forward section

of a submarine. The weight of each torpedo, in general, is approximately 4 to 5

tons. Hence, once a torpedo is fired, the loss of significant weight from a

position away from the CG of the submarine causes a trimming moment, which

if not prevented, would hamper the course keeping ability of the submarine.

The firing of a torpedo from a submarine involves a sequence of steps to

prevent the above.

Figure 2: Torpedo tubes (Top View)

The torpedo tube is a pressure resistant cylindrical structure that has a door at

the forward (Muzzle door) and one at the aft (Breech door). A submarine

usually has multiple torpedo tubes and can fire more than one torpedo

simultaneously. About one thirds of the length of a torpedo tube is inside the

pressure hull, and the remaining is located outside the pressure hull, in the

free flooded region leading to the forward most point of the outer hull where the

front door is located. The portion of the tube in the free flooded region is

subjected to external pressure, and is stiffened externally to protect it from

buckling.

Step One: First, the aft door is opened, and the torpedo is loaded into the tube.

Once the rear door is closed, water from the Weapon Round Tank (WRT) is

admitted into the space between the torpedo and the inner walls of the tube.

The volume of WRT is sufficient to provide enough water for firing all the

torpedoes, without requiring a refill. The location of WRTs is always just above

or below the torpedo tubes. Why? If WRTs were located longitudinally away

from the torpedo tubes, shifting of water from WRT to the torpedo tubes would

have caused unwanted trimming moments, causing the submarine to trim by

the bow.
Figure 3: Torpedo being loaded into a torpedo tube. (Breech doors open)

(Source:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpedo_tube#/media/File:FS_Redoutable_torpi

lles.jpg)

Step Two: The front door always opens in the outer direction, but it cannot be

opened at this stage, because at large depths the external pressure is higher

than the internal pressure. Hence, the water inside the torpedo tube is

pressurized so that the internal and external pressures equalize. Once this is

done, the front door is opened hydraulically, and the torpedo is fired.
Step Three: Once the torpedo is fired, the space inside the torpedo tube that

was occupied by the torpedo is automatically occupied by sea water that floods

in.

Step Four: Though the volume of the torpedo inside the torpedo tube is

occupied by sea water, the weight of the sea water is less than the torpedo. In

order to prevent a trimming moment, additional water is to be taken in to

compensate for the difference in weight. This additional amount of water is

taken into another tank called the Air Inboard Vent (AIV), which is located just

below or above the torpedo tubes.

Step Five: Now, to reload another torpedo into the same tube, first the front

door of the tube is closed, while the tube is flooded. The water in the tube is

first drained to another tank called Torpedo Operating Tank (TOT), and then

another torpedo is introduced into the dry tube. The TOT is located so as to

prevent any longitudinal weight shift. The volume of the TOT is sufficient to

carry all the water required to be drained out of the torpedo tube if all the

torpedoes are fired.

Hover Tanks:

As and when the submarine dives or rises, its depth-maintaining capability is

challenged due to changes in density and resultant compressibility effects. In

many stealth operations, naval submarines are required to hover at a fixed

depth whilst stationary. In such case, a constant balance of the weight-

buoyancy equation is required. This balance can be achieved by a sensor

controlled system dedicated to a special tank where water can be taken in

when the submarine rises, and water from the same tank can be pumped out
when the submarine sinks. This exchange of water is rapid, and is required to

be carried out on a continuous basis. Hence a special tank called Hover Tank

located outside the pressure hull, is used to cater to this purpose. The reason

behind its location in the outer hull (unlike a compensating tank, which is

inside the pressure hull) is to maintain its contents at ambient sea pressure so

that continuous inflow and outflow of water is possible.

However, in cases where the submarine is to be designed to hover near to the

surface, the hover system needs to be more robust so as to compensate the

destabilizing effects of wave action.

The other types of tanks used in a submarine are fuel oil tanks, lubricating oil

tanks, sludge oil tanks, bilge tanks, and fresh water tanks. They have not been

discussed here as their operation and purpose are similar to those of surface

ships. It is however, important for a designer to carry out parametric studies of

tank capacities of various existing designs before parametrically reaching an

estimate for capacity and plan for the tanks of a new design.

Understanding Structure Design of a Submarine

Approximately 40% of the focus and priority in the entire submarine design

process is given to its structural design. The full process of designing its

structure also takes up majority of the time, as it is not only related to strength

factors, but also to a nexus of functional aspects that are interrelated to it.

Structural design always begins with the process of identifying the loads that

the structure would be subjected to. The loads on a submarine during its

mission can be classified into the following:

1. Loading Due to Diving Pressure:

Depth is one of the most important and deciding structural design criteria. The

pressure hull is the primary structural element of the submarine, and is

designed to be able to withstand the external hydrostatic pressure. It is

designed for a particular collapse depth, at which complete failure is expected

within a very narrow range. The collapse depth is actually calculated by

multiplying the maximum operable depth (MOD) or service depth with a factor

of safety. The hydrostatic pressure at this depth is considered as the design

pressure for all the pressure hull calculations.

In usual design, safety factors of 1.5 are used, and submarines designed to

such limits should not go below the service depth. Whereas, in designs allowing

higher safety factors like 2.5, they can dive deeper than the service depth, but

only in emergency conditions.

2. Shock Loads:

A submarine is designed to withstand the loads generated by underwater

detonations (for example, mine explosions, pressures generated by bursting of

large underwater gas bubbles).

The physics of underwater explosions is a very interesting subject, as in, it is

remarkably unique when compared to an explosion in air. To understand it,

watch the video below, and notice how the explosion ball is created and how it

contracts and explodes again, to release a cloud of gas bubbles.

At the instant of explosion, a shockwave is created, which applies radial

outward pressure on the water around the point of explosion. This ball of

explosion expands to the point where the internal pressure on the inner wall of

the ball becomes equal to the external hydrostatic pressure due to the water

around it. Now that the ball has expanded, the pressure at its centre is lower

than the external pressure. This is what causes it to contract and implode.

This implosion generates a cloud of gas bubbles which expands radially. The

same process of contraction, implosion and expansion recurs in series till the

energy of the explosion is completely dissipated. The diameter and magnitude

of each recurrent explosion is less than the previous.

The study thus helps us conclude, that when a submarine is subjected to an

explosion, it should be able to withstand not one, but a series of shockwaves. It

has also been observed during tests, that due to each contraction of the

explosion cloud, the submarine has a tendency to be sucked towards the

centre of the explosion cloud. The worst case scenario is an explosion under a

submarine, as a result of which the suction is downwards, and it if caused at

maximum service depth, can result in the submarine being sucked into larger

depths, causing additional risk to the structure due to hydrostatic pressure.

Apart from the direct shock load imparted from the explosion, each shockwave

from a single underwater explosion causes a wave of vibration to propagate

along the pressure hull. Vibratory loads not only reduce the fatigue life, but

can cause resonance resulting in major structural failure.

3. Other Loads:
Like a surface ship, a submarine in surfaced condition is subjected to

longitudinal bending loads, transverse shear forces on transverse structures,

and torsional loads caused due to wave action.

Local loads like longitudinal and torsional vibrations are caused by action of

engine. The structure is to be so designed that the level of vibrations are well

within the limits.

Strength of the Pressure Hull:

The cylindrical pressure hull in dived condition is subjected to

longitudinal compressive stress. This longitudinal stress is of half the

magnitude of the hoop stress or the circumferential stress.

The following expression for the longitudinal stress on the pressure hull is used

for obtaining the required thickness of the hull and the scantlings of the

stiffeners required to prevent failure of the pressure hull by buckling.

The longitudinal stress therefore is a function of the external pressure, the

radius of the pressure resistant hull, and the thickness of the hull plate. Now,

what role does a submarine designer play with this equation? The radius of the

pressure hull is an input from the client, as in, the radius of the submarine is

specified along with a range, and this would mean that the pressure hull

radius is a fixed entity for the entire structural design.

The hydrostatic pressure at the collapse depth is considered as the external

pressure in this calculation. Since the collapse depth is also specified in the

contract, it remains fixed. The remaining variable in thickness of pressure hull.

Now, the maximum longitudinal compressive stress on the pressure hull is

determined by the yield strength of the material used. What a designer

calculates for a particular material, is the minimum thickness that is required

to keep the stress within limits.

The following observations can be made from the above relation:

For a fixed MOD, a submarine with larger diameter requires thicker

pressure hull plate than a submarine with lesser diameter.

The minimum thickness of the pressure hull required for a submarine

can be reduced by using material with higher yield strength. A lesser

thickness would be advantageous in reducing the weight, but comes at

a cost of higher price.

The pressure hull shell absorbs all the forces in the longitudinal direction

without the requirement of transverse ring stiffeners. However, the shell is

stiffened by ring stiffeners that can absorb the circumferential stresses

originated due to buckling loads. The ring stiffeners (usually T profiles) are

welded to the pressure hull shell, and the entire system acts as one unit.
The pressure hull can fail in three modes, and the probability of occurrence of

each mode depends on the arrangement of the stiffeners, as discussed below:

Failure Mode 1: The first mode of failure occurs when the ring stiffeners have

high scantling and are placed very close to each other. This results in yielding

of the shell plate between two consecutive frames. The yielding occurs over the

circumference of the shell between two frames, and hence, is also called

symmetrical buckling, as shown in the image below.

Figure 1: Yielding of shell plate between two frames.

Failure Mode 2: This mode of failure happens when the scantling of the

frames are too low, and they are placed too distant from each other, that is, in

case of larger frame spacing. The shell plate, in this case buckles in the form of

a wave throughout the circumference between two consecutive frames. One

buckle will be directed inward, while the next one will be directed outward, as

shown in the schematic figure below.

Figure 2: Second Mode Buckling (transverse view).

Note that the number of waves created in the above case is five, hence it is

called a five-lobe buckling. The number of lobes created can vary from two to

five, depending on the spacing between the stiffeners and the stress. The

following figure shows a real image of shell buckling between frames.

Figure 3: Shell buckling between frames.

Failure Mode 3: The first and second modes of failure were local failures, and

any such occurrence would not post immediate threat to the integrity of the

complete structure of the pressure hull. But failure in mode three involves

buckling of the pressure hull over its entire length, and this causes the

transverse rings to bend out of axis, as shown in the image below. The effect

would extend to the length of the pressure hull between two heavy transverse

structures like bulkheads or heavy web frames. This is also called total collapse

of pressure hull. This is caused due to inadequate strength of the material, or

when the submarine dives to depths more than collapse depth.

Figure 4: Total collapse of pressure hull.

Other than the above three modes of failure, some other failure modes for a

pressure hull are as discussed below:

General instability of the pressure hull shell, circular frames, bulkheads

and decks caused by improper welding or improper scantling

calculations may lead to local failures or failures extending to a series of

frames.

Snap-through buckling may occur at the forward elliptical bulkhead

(dome) or the aft conical bulkhead as these shapes are subjected to

varying compressive loads.

Low cycle stresses on the pressure hull structure may lead to

development of cracks followed by crack propagation.

 Failures due to stress concentration at regions of discontinuity in shape,

for example: the joint between the cylindrical section of the pressure

hull with the aft conical and forward elliptical ends is subject to high

stresses.

The following figure summarises the nature of failures that a pressure hull is

prone to, and their effects on the geometry of the structure.

Figure 5: Forms of failure of a submarine pressure hull.

Quick Fact: The pressure hull of submarines can be stiffened either internally or

externally. But external stiffening is ore preferable due to the following reasons:

1. It has been observed that external stiffeners of the same scantling as that

of internal stiffeners, provide 5 percent more strength than the latter.

 2. Since external stiffening occupies the space between the pressure hull and

outer hull, a lot of usable space can be obtained within the pressure hull.

But some designs, especially where the pressure hull is itself the outer hull for

most part of the submarines length, internal stiffening remains the only option.

Just like a surface ship has a midship drawing, and drawings of structural

components at all transverse frames, the following figure shows the structural

components of a double hull submarine at a section that contains the sail. The

right half of the drawing is the arrangement at an ordinary frame, and the part

to the left of the centreline is a web frame (usually at three to five frame

spaces).
Figure 6: Structural components of a submarine (transverse view)

Pressure Hull Penetrations:

The pressure hull is a pressure tight enclosed structure with atmospheric

pressure within its enclosed volume. Even then, it is required to provide means

to pass from inside to outside in both, surfaced and submerged conditions. For

this purpose, circular hatches (conning tower at the centre, one hatch at

forward and aft, each) are provided for access of personnel. Penetrations are

provided for access of pipelines and cables that connect equipment which are

housed outside the pressure hull but are actuated from inside.

The forward elliptical dome bulkhead also has a number of penetrations, the

primary ones being for the passage of torpedo tubes, and the secondary ones

providing access to pipelines for the weapon compensating tanks. Penetrations

on a forward bulkhead of a submarine is shown in the figure below.

Figure 7: Pressure hull penetrations on the forward elliptical bulkhead of a

submarine.
These are very critical structures because they are unavoidable discontinuities

on the pressure hull, and the edges of the penetrations (whether circular or

elliptical) become points of high stress concentrations. Hence, welding

processes of pressure hull penetrations is a highly scrutinised process and

usually more than one type of non-destructive testing (NDT) is conducted on

the welds of pressure hull penetrations.

Class of Structures on a Submarine:

Submarine structures are broadly categorised into three types depending on

the effect their failure would have on the submarine.

Class I Structures: These are the structures which if damaged, would render

the submarine completely incapable of carrying out any operation or remain

afloat, and would also pose threat to the safety of the personnel. The complete

primary structure of the pressure hull (the shell and the stiffeners) is Class I

structure. Strictest NDT requirements are followed for certification of the

quality of these structures. The pressure hull is also pre-tested to its design

pressure by creating vacuum inside it, before other structural outfits are
carried out on it.

Class II Structures: These structures if damaged or undergo complete failure

would only hinder a part of the submarines capability of carrying out its

mission. Though damage to Class II structures does not render the submarine

inactive, it would affect a system or a part of a system that carries out a vital

function in the submarine. Such damages are often repairable on board or by

dry-docking the submarine. Class II structures also dictated by stringent NDT

standards. Examples of these are ballast tanks, trim tanks, regulating and

compensating tanks, pressure hull penetrations.

Class III Structures: Damage to Class III structures would pose no threat ot

have negligible effect on the sea worthiness of the submarine. Such damages

can be repaired while the submarine is in operation. Example of Class III

structures are knee brackets, equipment supports, etc.

To conclude, the design and analysis of submarine structures is a process that

is way more complex than that of ship structures due to the improbabilities of

shock loads coming into effect. Every submarine design company conducts

extensive finite element analyses for a combination of load cases that the

structure could be subject to. What leaves scope of research in this field is,

submarines are not tested projects like many surface ships. Each design is new

depending on the navy and other inter-related requirements of the project, and

this leaves the designers with a lot of scope to improve on the next.

Understanding Design Of Container Ships

The very first cargo ships were built to carry cargo in bulk. Even in most general cargo
ships, wooden containers or boxes were used to stow unit cargo. But, with the inclusion
of wider types of cargo, containerisations was deemed suitable for compact, fragile, and
cargo requiring special care during transit. Hence, was felt the need to design special
types of ships that could not only be loaded with these containers, but were also able to
maintain the safe conditions of the contents of the containers.

In this article, we will discuss the design aspects of container ships. It is important to
understand, from this article, how the design of a particular type of ship is dictated by
the type of cargo, the ports on route, the functionality of the ship, and also the economic
trends in the market. Also, before understanding container ships design, it is advised
that you have a basic knowledge of fundamental ship terminologies, and those related
to hull geometry (e.g. Block coefficient, Midship area coefficient, etc.)

Container Ships Design And Construction

There are different categories of container ships, based on different ways in which they
can be categorised. The most widely operating types are as follows:

Based on overall sizing-

Based on volumetric capacity (In older days, container ships were sized based
on their volume)

Based on TEU (This is the modern day sizing parameter of a container ship. The
TEU of a container ship is the number of twenty foot equivalent containers that
can be carried by the ship.)

Based on Length, Beam, Depth, and Tonnage-

Panamax

Post- Panamax

Suezmax

Post- Suezmax

Malacamax

Based on mode of handling-

 Box container ship This is the most common type of container ship design.
They can be loaded only with marine containers, and cargo handling is carried
out by quay side cranes that belong to the port authorities. Such ships always
ply only on major container ports that are equipped with cranes.

RORO ship On roll on / roll off type of container ships, containers are rolled on
and off the ships using heavy lift vehicles and fork lift trucks. These type of
ships, in some cases, carry both vehicles and containers in different decks.

LILO ship Lift on / Lift off ships are equipped with their on cranes which are
used to load the containers on and off the ship. These ships always ply only in
smaller container terminals that are not equipped with container handling
cranes, like the bigger terminals.

Based on Range of Service-

Mother Ships These are the larger ships, often above 10000 TEU capacity,
that ply only between the major container terminals of a nation. These ships
cannot enter smaller ports due to their large draft and overall size.

Feeder Vessels Feeder vessels operate between the major and minor
container terminals, carrying containers to and from the mother ships. Often,
these vessels are LILO type, because smaller ports are not equipped with quay-
side cranes.

Container Ship Design The Hull Geometry:

The first and the most prominent design aspect of any type of ship is the geometry of its
hull. Before we understand why hulls of container ships have attained their
characteristic shape, we should first notice the geometry itself. A visual comparison of
the hull of a container ship with that of a bulk carrier or an oil tanker would clearly imply
that a container ships hull has a finer formthan the other two. In other words, the
forward and aft sections of a container ship are streamlined, and not fuller like that of a
bulk carrier or oil tanker. Why?

Representation Image Credits: Muhammad Mahdi Karim/wikimedia.org

Image for Representation Purpose Only; Credits: wikimedia.org

To answer that, we will need to first understand another aspect of the container industry.
Goods shipped in containers are often of high value, and high priority. For example, if a
marine diesel engine for a ship being constructed in a shipyard in India is to be shipped
in from Germany, the shipment would be made in a container, and is a high priority
shipment because the installation of the engine into the engine room is a step in the
construction process that would determine the possibility of delays in the later stages of
construction. Also, the equipment needs to be delivered without any impact or damage.
Thus, container ships are tightly time bound ships. They have a very low turnaround
time, that is, the time they spend at a port for loading and unloading has to be minimum
in order to be able to call the next port without delay. It is due to this reason, container
ships fall in the category of high speed ships. In order to achieve a high speed, the
resistance of the hull needs to be minimized, which is obtained by a fine form hull. In
other words, container ship hulls have low coefficient of buoyancy, ranging from 0.6 to
0.7.

Another notable geometrical characteristic of container ships is the high prismatic

coefficient of the hull-form. That is, the hull section for most part of the length of the ship
is almost rectangular. This is done in order to accommodate maximum number of
containers below the deck.

Midship Section Of Container Ships:

One of the most important structural drawings that are prepared during the design of a
container ship is that of the midship section. The midship section of a ship is prepared
with a lot of design and functional considerations in mind, which include the type of
cargo, stowage methods to be used by the ship, capacity of the ship, etc. In fact, a ship
type is often identified by its midship section.

For a typical container ship design, the midship section is shown in the following figure.
What is however important, is to understand the drawing from a designers point of view.
Some common features of the midship section of a container ship are discussed below:

1. All container ships are double bottomed, so as to allow for the double bottom
spaces to be used as tanks.

2. Container ships are also longitudinally framed, because the variable loading
conditions often result in large hogging and sagging moments, which result in
high longitudinal bending stresses.

3. The shape of the midship section is almost box-like. In the words of a designer, it
has high midship area coefficient, ranging from 0.75 to 0.85

4. The bilge strake is the angular plate that joins the inner side shell and the tank top
plating. Since the presence of this plate would prevent the stowage of containers
at the corner of the section, the length of this strake is kept to a minimum. In most
recent cases, however, container ships are not provided with bilge strakes at all, in
order to ensure maximum stowage capacity.

5. The most important structural feature of a container ship is the torsion box, which
we will discuss in detail in one of the following sections.
6. Container ships are usually equipped with no hatches. That is, the ship has no
continuous main deck running full breadth all along the ship. This open box-like
structure (relate with the midship section figure), enables easy stowage of
containers from the tank top to the highest level above main deck level. The only
decks are within the double hull, which are more like stringers running full length,
and provide passage way along the length of the ship.
Fig. Midship section of a double hull container ship.

Torsion Box In Double Hulled Containerships:

Let us start by recalling the shape of a water bucket. You would have noticed that the
rim of every water bucket is always twisted outward. Why do you think this is done?

Try cutting off the rim of the bucket, or for that matter, cut off the rim of a paper cup and
try holding it with some liquid in it. You would notice that the paper cup would not resist
the torsion. It would twist and eventually rupture. This happens because the entire
structure of a bucket or a paper cup or any open box has a very low polar moment of
inertia. This results in giving it a very low torsional strength. Thus, in order to strengthen
open box like structures against torsion, additional material is added to their rims. In
other words, one simply increases the polar moment of inertia of the cross section of the
structure. But how is this related to a container ship?

We know that the hull of a container ship is an open box like structure. When a ship is at
sea, it is subjected to various wave loads. In one of the load cases, when the direction
of the waves is at approximately 45 degrees to the velocity of the ship, port side of the
forward section and the starboard side of the aft section would experience a wave crest
at the same time, and vice versa. This results in a type of periodic loading which causes
the hull to twist. This effect is called torsion, and is shown in the following figure.
Fig. Torsion in a container ship moving in quarter seas.

Imagine the effect of cutting the strengthened rim off the paper cup. The same effect
when extrapolated to that of a container ship, would result in devastating failures of the
hull structure due to torsion. In order to prevent this, the topmost edges of the port and
starboard sides of a container ships are strengthened with high scantling web sections,
creating a box like structure at every frame. This is called torsion box. A torsion box runs
along the entire length of the shipfrom the aft peak bulkhead to the forward collision
bulkhead.

The following figure shows the torsion box of the double hull container ship. Note that
the width of the web plate in the torsion box is higher than the web plate used around
the passage way below it. Also, the webs at passageways are at a spacing of three to
four frame spaces, but the webs of a torsion box would be present at every frame.
Fig. Torsion box in a double hulled container ship.

Classification societies have laid down separate set of rules for the design of torsion box
for container ships. Today, the hull girder is modelled on an FEM platform and its
torsional response is analysed for different sea states. The torsion box needs to be
redesigned if the torsional stresses on the hull girder are above the safe limits. The
inspection of torsion box is always treated as a high priority in annual structural surveys,
as it plays a significant role in determining the strength of the hull structure.
Stowage of Containers:

The stowage of containers on a container ship is another aspect that the designer has
to deal with. Though it may come across as something insignificant, improper stowage
has resulted in most of the accidents related to container ships.

Containers are always stowed with the longer dimension along forward to aft.
This is because, the ship is more prone to rolling motions than pithing or yawing.
Stowage of containers in this orientation ensures less space for the cargo to
shift within the container, ensuring more safety against impact damage of the
cargo.

Below the uppermost deck, the containers are restrained against lateral or
longitudinal motion by cell guides. These are basically angle sections that also
help as guides for containers when they are loaded onto the ship. However,
these do not form a part of the primary structure, that is, they do not take up the
hull stresses.

Above the uppermost deck, containers are stowed and their motion is restricted
by means of lashings. Twist locks fitted between the containers prevent vertical
motion, and lashing prevent the longitudinal and transverse motions. The
lashings are usually deployed from lashing bridges that are at height intervals of
one or two tiers of containers. The lashing rods are secured at their ends by
turnbuckles which maintain the tension in the lashings.
Credits: Danny Cornelissen/wikipedia.org

The container loading plan is provided along with the design, and it specifies the
positions of different containers on the ship, at different load cases. This plan
takes into consideration the fact that the number of containers and the weight of
cargo in each would differ on each voyage. And the stowage would also have to
take into consideration, the port at which each container has to be unloaded.
So, if a ship calls at three ports A, B, and C, and if all containers are loaded at
 A, then a container to be unloaded at port B would not preferably be stowed
under a container to be unloaded at port C. But the complicity of the problem
lies here what if most of the containers for Port B are heavier than the
containers for Port C? Heavier containers cannot be stowed above the lighter
ones, as it would raise the centre of gravity of the vessel, reducing the stability
margin.

This complicity of container ship design is therefore solved by means of special

computer programs specially designed to generate container loading plans for a
particular loading case, which keeps in mind, the series of ports a vessel needs to call,
and also the strength and stability aspects of the ship. Another factor that is always
taken care of in the plan is, the visibility from the bridge. The containers loaded above
the deck and forward of the navigation bridge are to be loaded such that the line of sight
from the bridge is not affected. That is why, if you take note of a loaded container ship,
the stack of containers forward of the bridge reduces in height as one moves to the
forward-most stack. This, however, reduces the total amount of containers that can be
carried by the ship. Hence, many ultra large container ships (e.g. Maersk Triple E class)
have their superstructures shifted to the midship, in order to be able to accommodate
containers to full height aft of the superstructure.

The study of design of container ships does not stop at this. There are reefer
ships which are specially designed to carry refrigerated cargo in refrigerated containers.
They are equipped with cooling systems connected to each container, which is a
different study in itself. Also, recent trends in the market have encouraged the use
of slow steaming, which has resulted in most container shipping companies to carry out
extensive nose jobs and alteration of propellers on their ships. Though this might seem
to be in contrast with the high speed requirement of container ships, these ships still
operate at higher speeds than oil tankers and bulkers. Larger diameter and low RPM
propellers have seen to offer more propulsive efficiency. The optimisation of container
ships for current industry requirements is something that is dynamic in nature, and this
requires ship designers to be aware not only of newer possibilities of design, but also to
be able to predict the trends of the industry a few years ahead of time.
Understanding Design Of Bulk Carriers

One of the oldest types of ships plying at the seas are the ones that carry
unpackaged bulk cargo like coal, grains, iron ore, sulphur, etc. The design of
bulk carriers depends on a lot of factors. Over the time, the type of cargo
carried by bulk carriers have increased, and economic forces have caused a
growth in the number, types, and size of such ships. Today, SOLAS
(International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea) define a bulk carrier as a
ship constructed with a single deck, top side tanks and hopper side tanks in
cargo spaces and intended to primarily carry dry cargo in bulk; an ore
carrier; or a combination carrier.

Though the term bulk carrier encompasses all the ships that carry cargo in
bulk, solid and liquid, both. But the ones that carry liquid cargo in bulk are
further categorised as oil carriers and liquefied gas carriers. Hence, the term
bulk carrier is generally used to refer to ships that carry dry cargo in bulk. In
this article, we will look at all the different types of dry bulk carriers based on
their size, type of cargo, and structural arrangements. We will study the
general arrangement of a typical bulk carrier, and its unique design features.
The article will support each design feature with the reason behind it, which
is something a ship designer should be very well versed with.
Types of Bulk Carriers:

Dry bulk carriers are categorised on different aspects like size, type of cargo,
and structural properties. While considering design of bulk carrier, it is
important for a designer to know them well because a client would use these
terminologies in the technical contract to specify the size, type of cargo. It is
based on these inputs that the final particulars are fixed after various
iterations and feasibility studies.

According to Size:

Handysize: 10,000 DWT to 30,000 DWT

Handymax: 35,000 DWT to 60,000 DWT

Panamax: 60,000 DWT to 80,000 DWT

Capesize: 80,000 DWT and over.

Handysize and Handymax size bulkers comprise of around 70 percent of the
total dry bulker fleet. This size of bulk carriers are seeing the maximum
growth rate in todays market, as shipping companies prefer smaller sizes
due to many restrictions put on ships of larger size. Ships of these size are
also able to access most of the ports and canals, which increases their scope
of trade-making abilities.

According to Structural Properties:

Single Bottom Bulk Carrier: These type of bulk carrier ships do not
have a double bottom, and the only barrier between the sea and the
cargo is the outer bottom plate. Bulk carriers under 120 m length do
not require a double bottom as per structural requirements, but today,
ship designers still prefer to avoid single bottoms in order to prevent
contact of cargo with sea water in case of structural damages.

Double Bottom-Single Hull Bulk Carrier: These ships have a single

hull, but are provided with a double bottom or a tank top throughout
its length (from aft of the forward collision bulkhead to the aft peak
bulkhead). The double bottom spaces are used for storage of ballast
and duct keel for passage of pipelines.

Double Hull Bulk Carrier: The use of double hull in bulk carrier
designs have increased rapidly over the last ten years. The wing tanks
at the sides are an added advantage, and provide more marginal
ballast, and better control on the stability of the ship.

Based on the type of cargo carried and the size, there are some commercial
terms used for nomenclature of bulk carriers, as discussed below:

OBO Carriers: Ore-Bulk-Oil Carriers have holds such arranged that they can
carry ore, solid dry bulk, and oil in the same voyage, without interference
between each cargo type. We will discuss the design of these bulk carriers in
a later stage of this article.

O/O Carriers: Ore and Oil carriers can carry a combination of ore and oil in
the same voyage. These vessels need to comply with special codes that are
to be followed for containment and transportation of oil at sea.

VLOC: Very Large Ore Carrier.

VLBC: Very Large Bulk Carrier.

ULOC: Ultra Large Ore Carrier.

ULBC: Ultra Large Bulk Carrier.

We will now look into the design of bulk carriers which include the hullform,
general arrangement of different types of bulk carriers based on their
functionality, structural design and arrangement of bulk carriers and how
they vary with the type of cargo. One unique feature we will look into, is the
various types of loading sequences followed in order to maintain the
structural loads within limits, and how these functional factors are
incorporated in the design process.

Design Aspects of Bulk Carriers:

Hullform:

The characteristic feature of a bulk carriers hull geometry is its high

coefficient of buoyancy. In other words, it has a full-form, which means when
compared to finer form ships like container ships or naval warships, the
volume of hull at the forward and aft sections is higher in case of a bulk
carrier.

Hull of a bulk carrier in lightship condition. (Source: wikipedia)

The aforementioned is very clearly notable in figure above. As can be seen, a
bulk carrier has a long parallel mid body extended over most part of its
length forward and abaft midship. This is to enable maximum volume within
the hull for maximizing the usable cargo carrying volume within the holds.
The blunt shape of the bow is actually a result of the long parallel mid body.
The coefficient of buoyancy of bulk carriers range from 0.7 to 0.8.

Though bulk carriers fall under the category of Type A according to

International Load Line Convention for Ships, they have low freeboard in
loaded condition, that is, these are ships with high loaded draft. This makes it
important for the ship designer to calculate the ballast capacity accordingly
so that the ballast draft achieved in fully ballasted condition is not
significantly different from the fully loaded draft. Attaining an optimised draft
in all loading conditions is necessary because maximum hydrodynamic
efficiency is achieved at these drafts. The ballast capacity of bulk carriers are
usually high so as to achieve propeller immersion.

All bulk carriers today have a transom stern and a bulb shaped aft below the
waterline which allows undisturbed streamlined flow onto the propeller disc
and maximises the propeller efficiency. The design speed of most bulkers
range from 12 to 18 knots.

General Arrangement:

The following figures show the general arrangement (Profile view, Plan view,
and Midship Plan) of a bulk carrier. A common dry bulk carrier has a clear
main deck with the machinery room and superstructure. Hatches with
unrestricted access to holds are designed on the main deck with steel hatch
covers to facilitate easy loading and discharge of cargo.
General Arrangement Plan of a typical bulk carrier. (Source of Profile and Plan
view: Wikimedia Common
Most bulk carriers have deck mounted cranes that have 360 degree access
and can load and discharge cargo from the holds immediately forward and
aft. We will look into the ballast spaces when we study the midship section of
bulk carriers. The just forward of the forward collision bulkhead is used for
chain locker. The fore peak tank in the bulbous bow is used to control and
maintain the trim of the vessel and to ensure complete propeller immersion.

Usually, cylindrical type bulbous bows are used for bulk carriers. That is
because most of the volume in these bulbs is concentrated at the center of
the bulb, hence providing optimum efficiency at both, fully loaded and 100
percent ballast conditions.

Structural Design:

Midship Section:

Single Hull Double Bottom Bulk Carrier: The drawing that makes for a
unique identification for a ships type, functionality, and structural
arrangement is the midship section drawing. In order to be able to design a
midship section, a designer should be able to read a midship section drawing
and understand why each component is present where it is, and how is the
scantling of each component decided. We will now look into the midship
sections of different types of bulk carriers and discuss the functional aspects
along with.

Figure below shows the midship section of a typical single hull bulk carrier
with a double bottom. Ducted keels are generally preferred in such ships as
they provide enough space for passage of pipelines. Some designers also
prefer to call it a pipe tunnel. But its structural purpose is to transmit the
weight of the ship to the keel blocks when dry-docked. The thickness of the
duct keel plates is higher than the adjacent plating by at least 5 mm.

Bulk carriers are longitudinally stiffened, that is the stiffeners on the plates
run in longitudinal direction. This is because the loads coming onto a bulk
carrier (which we will discuss at a later stage) cause longitudinal bending
moments. Hence failure of the hull girder due to longitudinal bending
becomes more probable.
Midship Section of a Typical Single hull Double bottom Bulk Carrier (Port Side
only)

The tank top plating and and outer bottom plating are held together by
vertical plate structure called the plate floor. Note here that though the term
uses the word floor, it is actually a vertical structure. The circular
perforations on the plate floor are provided for reducing the weight of the
structure. They are called lightening holes. The oval perforations are
manholes that provide human access for maintenance operations.

The bottom corner of the section is provided with angular tanks running
along the length of the ship. These are called hopper tanks, and the angular
plating that covers them is called hopper tank plate or hopper tank sloping
bulkhead. These are also stiffened longitudinally by steel profiles. The most
common profile used in stiffening hull girder plates are bulb and L sections.
Bulb sections are more preferable as they have more moment of inertia for
the same cross sectional area as compared to L sections. Hopper tanks are
used for storage of water ballast.

The hopper tank section is stiffened by a heavy web as shown above. These
web sections are provided at frames having plate floors, and these are
repeated after every three to four frames. The stiffeners at the bilge and the
hopper plate are welded to the web frame. The web plate is further stiffened
by flat bar stiffeners to prevent distortion.

The topside corner is also provided with a sloping bulkhead, and the space is
used for either storing another type of cargo, or for storage of water ballast.
These tanks are called upper wing tanks. The main purpose of providing the
wing tank sloping bulkhead is however different. Bulk cargo when stored
always forms a slope on the surface. The angle of this slope is called angle of
repose. If the angle of the surface of the heap increases, the material shifts
until the angle of repose is attained. In order to prevent the angle of the
surface from exceeding the angle of repost, the wing tank sloping bulkhead
is provided at such an angle so that the above phenomenon is prevented.
Hence, in case of bulk carriers carrying more than a single type of cargo in
multiple voyages, the angle of the topside sloping bulkhead is determined by
the cargo having the minimum angle of repose. This prevents cargo shifting
in the transverse direction, and does not result in listing during transit.

The side shell plate is stiffened transversely instead of longitudinally, by a

side frame which is usually an L section. The side frame is connected to the
hopper tank plating and wing tank plating by brackets. The brackets are also
flanged at free ends, and are provided for proper stress flow from the plates
to the web frames.

Sheer strake is the plate that connects the deck plating and the side shell.
The thickness of sheer strakes is usually at least 3 mm more than the deck
plate or side shell (whichever is more). This is because a lot of stress
concentration occurs in this region. Hence higher plate thickness is required
to keep the stress levels within design limits.

A hatch coaming is provided around the hatch opening. The height and
thickness of the hatch opening above the main deck is determined by the
rules prescribed by classification societies. The coaming is usually supported
by brackets that maintain stress flow from the coaming to the deck plate.

Double Hull Bulk Carrier: Many companies prefer double hull designs
today, not only because of the increased safety of cargo containment, but
also due to increased stability of these designs. Figure 4 shows the midship
section of a double hull or double skin bulk carrier.
The space within the outer and inner skin is strengthened by transverse
frames and longitudinal stiffeners running along the ships length. Stringers
(Shown as Stringers 1, 2 and 3 in the figure) are used to decrease the span
and depth of the transverse frames. They are also used to divide the double
hull space into multiple wing tanks.

Midship Section of a double hull bulk carrier.

Since the wing tanks at various heights are used as ballast spaces, these
designs do not require hopper tanks, therefore increasing the space for cargo
containment. However, topside sloping tanks are provided to prevent cargo
shifting. The left side of the above figure shows an ordinary frame without
plate floors. At intervals of every three to four such frames, web frames
(right half of Figure 4) are provided with plate floors or solid floors. Pipe ducts
are provided within the duct keel and upper most part of the double hull
space for carrying oils and ballast water.
Ore Bulk Oil (OBO) and Ore Oil Carriers: Hybrid bulk carrier designs have
been developed to carry oil, dry bulk cargo, and ores in a single voyage. The
midship section of an Ore/Oil carrier is shown in Figure 5. The ship is
transversely divided into sections, where the section at the center is used to
carry ore, and the tanks at the sides and bottom is used to carry oil. If you,
however, look at the arrangement of the ore hold, you would notice it is
positioned at the top. Why do you think this is done?

It is because, most ore carriers carry iron ore, which has high density
compared to most other dry bulk cargo. Due to this, the weight to volume
ratio of ore is much higher than other dry bulk cargo. Hence, placing the ore
hold at a lower position would lower the vertical center of gravity of the ship
to such an extent that the ship would become too stable or stif. This would
cause the ship to experience rapid rolling motions, causing cargo shift and
motion sickness to the crew.

Figure 6 shows the midship section of an ore carrier. The notable feature of
an ore carrier is its high double bottom. Now that we have discussed why the
ore holds in ore/oil carriers are placed at higher vertical levels, it would be
easy for you to understand the reason behind providing high double bottoms
for these ships.
Midship section of an Ore-Oil (O/O) Carrier.
Midship Section of an ore Carrier.

Alternate Hold Loading:

Alternate hold loading is a common technique practiced by bulk carriers in

case of iron ore transportation or in cases when the amount of cargo to be
transported is not sufficient to fill all the cargo holds to their full capacity.
Such a loading arrangement is shown in Figure 7.

The advantage of this loading system is that it enables equal distribution of

cargo weight in the forward and aft holds of the ship, hence preventing any
unwanted trim due to longitudinally concentrated cargo. It also allows the
cargo holds to be either fully empty or filled to full capacity so as to prevent
any shifting of cargo due to ship motions.
The only disadvantage is that alternate loading pattern leads to increased
shear forces at the transverse bulkheads. In order to prevent the shear
forces from exceeding safe limits of the bulkhead material, suitable alternate
ballasting is done in the wing tanks of the empty holds. Ships that are
designed for alternate hold loading are also provided with increased
bulkhead plating thicknesses to maintain shear stresses below ultimate
levels.

Bulkheads:

All bulk carriers are provided with transverse watertight bulkheads between
holds that divide the ship into watertight compartments. The secondary
purpose of these bulkheads is to provide additional transverse strength to
the ship structure.

The most common type of bulkhead used today is the corrugated transverse
bulkhead, as illustrated in Figure 8. Corrugations eliminate the need for the
bulkhead plating to be additionally stiffened, and also have a higher strength
to weight ratio than typical stiffened bulkhead panels. The base of the
bulkhead is provided with a sloping plate called the shredder plate (shown in
Figure 9), and the corrugated bulkhead is mounted on a bulkhead stool which
transfers the weight onto the solid plate floors below. The shredder plate
prevents accumulation of cargo at the base of the corrugations.
Transverse and Plan view of Watertight Corrugated Transverse Bulkhead.
Elevation and Plan View of a Corrugated Bulkhead.
Types of Hatch Covers:

There are different types of watertight hatch covers used in bulk carriers,
and a general knowledge of functionality and usability of each type is
necessary for a designer to make the right choice of hatch cover for a
particular bulk carrier.

Fore and Aft Single Pull Hatch Cover: These are the most common
type of hatch covers used in small scale bulkers. They consist of a
series of plates comprising the hatch cover. The plates at the center of
the hatch opening (leading plate) is driven by a chain pulley or by
hydraulic motors, such that the cover plates behind the leading plate
are vertically stowed open.

Folding Hatch Cover: These hatch covers consist of a series of cover

plates that can be lifted into folded condition by on board deck cranes,
or the leading plate can be pushed back by hydraulic actuators and
the remaining plates are hence folded into vertical position. These are
provided on bulk carriers with less deck space or in cases when the
spacing between two holds is minimum. Figure 10 shows a folding
hatch cover being opened.

Piggy Back Hatch Cover: Piggy back hatch covers allow horizontal
stowage of the hatch cover forward and aft of the hatch opening.
These are provided in longer bulk carriers, where spacing between
holds are sufficient. It consists of a panel driven by motor that enables
the bottom panel to roll in a piggy-back style with the dumb panel
stowed on top of it. Figure 11 shows the schematic diagram of a piggy
back hatch cover.
Piggy back hatch cover on a bulk carrier.

Recent development in bulk carrier designs have focused on improvement of

hull geometry to attain better hydrodynamic characteristics. Many design
firms have developed models of single hull and double skin bulk carriers
keeping in mind advanced cargo containment and waste treatment facilities.
The International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) have now
developed Common Structural Rules for design of bulk carriers, that are
being followed by all classification societies to design the structure of single
hull and double hull bulkers. Advancement in design of bulkers are now more
focused on size optimization and achieving maximum cargo carrying
capacity under given space constraints, which gives a lot of scope not only
for naval architects but also for structural engineers and fluid dynamic
specialists.

Understanding Design Of Oil Tanker Ships

Tankers have been one of the oldest types of merchant ships; the need for these
vessels arising due to heterogeneous distribution of natural oil reserves and liquid
chemicals around the globe. The most common types of tankers operating at sea are oil
tankers. While it may seem that oil tankers generally carry oil, the fact has quite more to
it, if understood in detail. Which brings us to the need to understand that since there are
different grades of oil (depending on the levels of purification), oil tankers have been
designed separately and specifically to carry different oil types.

It is important to have a brief look into the history of oil tankers, especially to understand
the dynamics of the oil market and relate its influence on the sizes of oil tankers used in
different eras. The size of oil tankers had seen a rapid increase in the mid-seventies due
to abundance in oil trade, and as a result, for the first time, tankers of deadweight in the
ranges of 100000-200000 lakh metric tonnes were constructed in Japan to be able to
carry more quantity of oil in a single voyage, and hence reduce the freight costs for
more profits. But in the late nineties, due to the skyrocketing of oil prices, the quantity of
oil being traded by sea had considerably reduced, hence almost putting an end to
building of ULCC (Ultra Large Crude Carrier) and VLCC (Very Large Crude Carrier).
Fig 1. ULCC (Image credits : Wikipedia)

These tanker ships can be categorised into different types, based on two criteria Size
and Type of cargo.

Based on size, oil tankers have been categorised into the following types:

1. Small Range (Product) Tanker: 10,000 to 60,000 tons DWT.

2. Panamax Tanker: 60,000 to 78,000 tons DWT.

3. Aframax (Average Freight Rate Assessment) Tanker: 80,000 to 1,20,000 tons

DWT.
 4. Suezmax Tanker: 1,20,000 to 2,00,000 tons DWT.

5. VLCC (Very Large Crude Carrier): 2,00,000 to 3,20,000 DWT.

6. ULCC (Ultra Large Crude Carrier): 3,20,000 to 5,50,000 DWT.

The classification of oil tankers based on type of cargo is not a clear and fixed
classification, because these are terms used by different nations and organizations
based on their ease of nomenclature. Some of the most commonly used types of
tankers are listed below. We will also understand, how different types of tankers are
designed to carry a specific type of cargo.

Product Tankers: These tankers are designed to carry hydrocarbon products like
kerosene, gasoline, paraffin, etc., chemical products like ammonia, monomers, etc.,
wines, molasses, etc. Though, now, chemical tankers, LPG and LNG carriers are
classified differently due to significant uniqueness in their designs as compared to
petroleum product tankers. Product tankers are usually short range coastal tankers,
hence are smaller in capacity. They carry products from processing plants to distribution
units.
Image Credits: BoH/wikimedia.org

Crude Oil Carriers: Crude oil carriers are designed to transport crude oil from rigs to
processing units (refineries). Since the amount of crude oil extracted from offshore
drilling platforms is considerably larger than the amount of products extracted from it,
crude oil tankers are required to be of sizes larger than product tankers. Sizes like that
of VLCCs and ULCCs are only used for crude oil tankers, and these are usually ships
that ply on long range voyages.

Chemical Tankers: Chemical products like ammonia, palm oil, vegetable oils,
monomers, caustic soda, methanol, etc. These ships have considerable uniqueness in
their design, owing to the special requirements depending on the type of cargo. We will
discuss these aspects in a later part of this article when we discuss design of different
tankers. Chemical tankers are usually categorised into three types:
Type 1: These tankers are designed to carry products that are associated with severe
environmental and safety related hazards. Such products require maximum prevention
of spill.

Type 2: They are also designed for hazardous products, but the extent of severity for
these products is lesser as compared to Type 1.

Type 3: These are designed to carry chemical cargo that requires moderate standards
of containment and pose moderate environmental and safety hazards.

2. LNG and LPG Carriers: These ships actually fall under the category of liquefied gas
carriers, and a large number of them are in service to carry liquefied gases in bulk. The
number of ships that carry Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is however, much more than
the number of ships carrying Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG). We shall look into some of
their design aspects in another article to understand what makes them very unique from
other types of tankers.

With an overview of the different types of tankers and each of their functionality, we will
now look into the important design aspects of each of them. It is important for you to
keep in mind from now, to observe how every design decision that is made, is directly or
indirectly related to a functional aspect of the ship. We will relate every design aspect
with the inter-related functional or market-based reason that governs it.

Design Aspects of Oil Tankers

Hullform:

The most notable feature of any ship is the geometry and form of its hull. The design of
an oil tanker is a weight-based design, which means, the dimensions of an oil tanker
would be governed by the weight of cargo to be carried. (The other type of design is
volume-based design, where the dimensions of the ship are determined by the volume
of cargo spaces required in the vessel. For example, container ships.) Since the weight
of oil to be carried in a single voyage is to be maximised, it is preferable to have
maximum spaces for cargo oil tanks. Also, oil tankers ply at very low speeds since the
cargo is not perishable. Both the aforementioned factors come together to determine
the full-form shape of an oil tanker. In other words, an oil tanker would have higher
Coefficient of Buoyancy as compared to ships of finer hullform (e.g. container ships).
Figure 2: Hullforms of oil tanker (full-form) and container ship (fine-form).

Note, in Figure 2, the fullness of the hullform of an oil tanker at the forward part,
compared to that of a container ship. Unlike a streamlined fine hullform, this shape
caters well to low speeds and maximum cargo capacity. However, the blunt forward
shape gives rise to eddy and wave-breaking at the forward part, resulting in increased
wave-breaking and eddy-making resistance.

General Arrangement:

The most important design drawing that is to be studied in order to identify the design of
a ship, is its General Arrangement Drawing. Figure 3 illustrates the profile view of an oil
tankers general arrangement. It basically shows the arrangement of all the spaces
within the ship, and gives a frame-by-frame location of every space, bulkheads, and
other primary structures.

Figure 3: General Arrangement (Profile view of a product oil tanker)

Some of the design details of an oil tanker will be well understood by referring to the
profile view. The cargo oil tanks (C.O.Ts) are usually equally sized, and the dimensions
of each are decided by the designer in the initial stage of design, depending on the total
weight of oil to be carried by the ship. The access to each COT is separate, and is
provided by means of rung ladders or hoist-able steps from the main deck.
The main deck of an oil tanker is usually mounted with a network of pipelines that are
used to load and unload cargo oil to and from the ship. Flexible hoses are attached to
the pipelines for completion of the process.

Guess Why: Bulk carriers have deck-mounted cranes to load and unload cargo.
Some container ships also have deck cranes for loading, unloading and stowage of
containers. But, in-spite of carrying liquid cargo, why do most oil-tankers have at least
one deck crane. Why? Try to reason it out, till we find the answer at some later point in
the article.

The engine room and superstructure, as usual, are located at the aft. But, one notable
feature in oil tankers, that is not found in other types of ships is the pump room, that is
usually located just forward of the engine room. The pump room houses all the pumps
required for cargo oil loading and discharge.

Bulbous Bow:

Today, all tankers are equipped with a bulbous bow, so as to increase the power
efficiency of the ship. Though these are slow speed ships, a bulbous bow reduces the
wave making resistance considerably. However, the shape and geometry of the bulb
differs significantly from those of high speed ships. We will understand how and why.
Figure 4: Three types of bulb shapes (Looking Aft)

There are three basic bulb shapes, when looked from forward to aft of the ship, as
shown in Figure 4. The Delta type bulb has more volume concentrated at the lower half,
than the upper half. This property makes it advantageous to be used in ships that have
frequent changes in waterline, as more concentration of bulb volume at the lower
portion ensures bulb immersion for a larger range of waterlines and loading conditions.

The O-type bulb has maximum volume concentrated at the center. This is used for most
ships that require a cylindrical bow shape, for example- bulk carriers.

The Nabla type bulb is almost shaped like that of a tear-drop, with more volume
concentrated at the top. This shape of bulb is preferred in ships that are to be equipped
with exceptional sea-keeping abilities, for example warships.

Which of the three above types do you think is most preferred for an oil tanker? In order
to answer that, we will need to look into the functional aspects of an oil tanker. Most
tankers carry cargo only on one leg of their voyage, and the other leg is usually made
on ballast. The ballast waterline of ships is different from the fully loaded waterline,
though the difference is less. But, this frequent alteration in waterline requires the
bulbous bow to be immersed at all loading conditions. Hence, as quite apparent now,
tankers are equipped with delta-type bulbous bow. Bulbous bow in a tanker is also
advantageous because it acts as a ballast space to control the trim of the vessel in light
conditions, thus reducing bow slamming.

Structural Design:

The structural design of oil tankers vary according to the type and size of the tanker. To
understand them, we will study their midship sections in detail.

Small Coastal / Single Hull Tankers:

Most product tankers and coastal tankers are small in size, and are single hull designs,
that is, they do not have a double bottom. However, recent MARPOL (Marine Pollution)
Rules require tankers over 120 m length to be double hulled irrespective of the type of
cargo.

Figure 4: Three types of bulb shapes (Looking Aft)

A trunk is a raised structure that runs along the length of these ships, and provides
space for access to the cargo oil tanks. The bottom shell, deck plating, and trunk plating
are longitudinally framed to add to the longitudinal strength of the ship. The side shells
are transversely framed, and the reason behind that is a very interesting design aspect:

If the side shells were longitudinally framed, then cargo oil can accumulate on the space
between the stiffeners and the side-shell even after the oil is pumped out (because
pumps do not discharge the entire volume of oil, and some amount of oil always
remains in the inaccessible corners of the tanks). This phenomenon is shown in Figure
6 below, and it has two major effects: One, it leads to contamination of cargo. Two,
prolonged accumulation leads to corrosion of the stiffeners.
Figure 6: Accumulation of cargo oil on side-shell longitudinal stiffeners.

The stringer on the side-shell is usually added to reduce the depth of the transverse
frame, which would otherwise be much higher and reduce the useful volume of the
cargo oil tank.

Brackets are used to create a path for flow of stress from the side shell stiffener to the
deck longitudinals and bottom shell longitudinals. A deep web frame (shown at the right
half of Figure 5) is usually placed at every three or four frame spaces. It is a continuous
structure that runs along the deck plating, side shell plating, bottom plating and
centerline bulkhead. Horizontal stringers run through these deep webs, and help in
reducing the depth of the webs to save cargo space. The span of each longitudinal
stiffener is equal to that of three or four frame spaces, that is, both ends of each
longitudinal stiffener (on deck plating and bottom plating) is welded to subsequent web
frames.

Double Hull Tankers:

All oil tankers of length above 120 m are required to be double hulled, as per MARPOL
rules. Panamax, Aframax, Suezmax, VLCC and ULCC tankers are all double-hulled.
The primary reason for providing two hulls is to prevent the contact of cargo oil with the
external environment in case of any structural damage to the hull.
Figure 7: Midship section of a double hull tanker.
The above figure is the midship section of a double hull tanker. The right half of the
drawing shows an ordinary frame, where the outer and inner hull plates are
longitudinally framed. The centre tank is used for storage of cargo oil, and the wing
tanks or segregated ballast tanks (SBTs) are used for carrying sea water ballast. The
SBTs are epoxy coated so as to prevent corrosion. Do observe that the longitudinal
stiffeners on the wing tank longitudinal bulkhead are placed towards the wing tank, and
not the centre cargo oil tank. Why? In order to prevent oil accumulation on them. The
double bottom spaces are also used for water ballast, and the stiffeners on the inner
bottom plating are always towards the double bottom space.

A deep transverse web frame (left half of the above figure) is given at every three to four
frame spaces in order to provide transverse strength to the ship. The longitudinal
stiffeners are welded to these web frames. Stringers are provided on these transverse
webs to provide further strengthening.
Today, irrespective of the classification society certifying the design of a tanker, the
structural design of double hull tankers is done according to The Harmonised Common
Structural Rules (CSR) for Tankers, by IACS.

5. Power and Propulsion:

Since tankers are low speed vessels (average maximum cruising speed is 15.5 knots),
and are not restricted by space constraints, they can afford to be run by large slow
speed marine diesel engines. These engines occupy more space than high speed
marine diesel engines, but provided more shaft efficiency, and gearbox losses are
eradicated since the RPM of the engine is same as that of the propeller. Usually, large
diameter and low RPM propellers are used for more propulsive efficiency.

6. Systems On-board:

Oil tankers have a number of systems that are unique to its operation. We will discuss
the most important ones in brief.

Cargo Oil Heating System: Ships carrying crude oil are equipped with this
system, as crude oil is heavy and becomes very sluggish and thick in cold
environments, which can block the pumps and pipelines during discharge. So,
cargo oil heating system is used to maintain the suitable temperatures and
viscosity of cargo oil in holds.

Cargo Tank Venting System: Did you know that cargo oil tanks are never
pressed full so as to allow space for oil vapour? But, at the same time, these
vapours, being highly inflammable, are not allowed to accumulate in the cargo
tanks. Proper venting systems allow the vapours to escape from enclosed
spaces.

Overflow Control System: This system uses a level and pressure cascade
control to ensure that the level of oil in the tank does not exceed the design
 head. High level alarms and spill valves are connected to the system in order to
take correct action in case of anomaly.

Inert Gas System: The space between the free surface of the cargo oil and the
top plating of the tank is to be kept inert, in order to prevent access of oxygen,
so that even in case of any accumulation of oil vapour, a situation of fire is
avoided. This is done by continuous supply and regulation of inert gas in cargo
oil tanks. The space above the oil surface is ensured to be completely occupied
by inert gas. The most common gases used for this purpose are Argon and
Carbon-dioxide.

Fire Fighting System: The fire-fighting systems on board an oil tanker is the
most vital for the ships safety, and is designed as per the MARPOL rules. Fire
hoses, extinguishers and sprinklers are distributed along the ships length and
breadth for access to all points. CO 2 bottle room just above the engine room to
allow CO2 flooding in the engine room during engine room fire.

Understanding The Design of Liquefied Gas Carriers

In our previous article we described design of different types of tankers. In

this article we will understand types and design of liquified gas
carrier vessels.

Ships that are designed to carry liquefied gas have become more significant
and increased in number in the recent years, with the increasing need for
alternative fuel.

The two main types of liquefied gas carriers are

1. LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) Carriers, and

2. LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) Carriers.

To understand the design characteristics of these two types of ships, we first
need to know a few notable details about the composition and properties of
LPG and LNG.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG):

Petroleum hydrocarbon products such as Propane and Butane, and mixtures

of both have been categorised by the oil industry as LPG. It is widely used in
domestic and industrial purposes today. The most important property of LPG
is that it is suitable for being pressurised into liquid form and transported.
But there are conditions related to pressure and temperature that need to be
maintained for the above to be carried out without posing threat to life,
environment, and cargo. At least one of the following conditions need to be
complied with, for transportation of LPG:

The gas should be pressurised at ambient temperature.

The gas should be fully refrigerated at its boiling point. Boiling point of
LPG rangers from -30 degree Celsius to -48 degree celsius. This
condition is called fully-refrigerated condition.

The gas must be semi-refrigerated to a reduced temperature and

pressurised.

We will see, at a later stage, how the above conditions affect the design of
different types of LPG tankers.

Other gases such as ammonia, ethylene and propylene are also transported
in liquefied form in LPG carriers. Ethylene, however, has a lower boiling point
(-140 degree celsius) than other LPGs. Hence it must be carried in semi-
refrigerated or fully-refrigerated conditions.
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG):

Natural gas from which impurities like sulphur and carbon-dioxide have been
removed, is called Liquefied Natural Gas. After removal of impurities, it is
cooled to its boiling point (-165 degree Celsius), at or almost at atmospheric
pressure. Note here, that unlike LPG, LNG is cooled to low temperatures but
not pressurised much above atmospheric pressure. This is what makes the
design of LNG carriers slightly different from LPG carriers. LNG, at this
condition is transported as liquid methane.

Design of Different Types of Gas Carriers:

In this article, we will understand the general arrangement, and other design
details of gas carriers as and when we look into the different types of vessels
based on their functionality and type of cargo being carried. The most
important feature of gas carriers is the cargo containment system. It is
according to this criteria that LPG carriers are categorised into types.

Integral Tanks:

These are the tanks that form a primary structural part of the ship and are
influenced by the loads coming onto the hull structure. They are mainly used
for cases when LPG is to be carried at conditions close to atmospheric
condition, for example Butane. That is because, in this case, there are no
requirements for expansion or contraction of the tank structure.

Independent Tanks:

These tanks are self-supporting in nature, and they do not form an integral
part of the hull structure. Hence, they do not contribute to the overall
strength of the hull girder. According to IGC Code, Chapter 4, independent
tanks are categorised into three types:

Type A Tanks: These tanks are designed using the traditional method of
ship structural design. LPG at near-atmospheric conditions or LNG can be
carried in these tanks. The design pressure of Type A tanks is less than 700
mbar. The following figures show the general arrangement of a liquid
methane carrier with Type A tanks.

Figure 1: General Arrangement of Methane Carrier with Type A Tanks.

The general arrangement of an LPG ship is almost same as that of an oil

carrier, with the cargo tanks spread over a certain length forward and abaft
the midship, the machinery and superstructure at the aft. A forecastle is
fitted at the bow so as to prevent green waters on deck. Ballast water cannot
be carried in the cargo tanks, hence spaces for ballast are provided by
incorporating double hull spaces (note the double hull in the midship
section), bilge and upper wing tanks.

The most notable and distinguishing feature of Type A tanks is that the IGC
Code specifies that Type A tanks must have a secondary barrier to contain
any leakage for at least 15 days. The secondary barrier must be a complete
barrier of such capacity that it is sufficient to contain the entire tank volume
at any heel angle. Often, this secondary barrier comprises of the spaces in
the ships hull as shown in the figure below.

Figure 2: Secondary Barrier for Type A Tank.

One important question that could arise, here, is that the tank in the midship
section view seems to be an integral part of the hull. Why then, is this type
of tanks categorised under Independent Tanks? To find the answer we need
to have a closer look at how the tank is installed in the hull.
Figure 3: Integration of Type-A tank with hull structure.

The above figure shows how the aluminum tank structure is not integrated to
the inner hull of the methane carrier by means of any metal contact. The
inner hull plating and aluminum tank plating are separated by layers
consisting of timber, glass fibre, and balsa panels for insulation from external
temperatures. The balsa panels are held together by plywood on both faces
which are sealed using PVC foam seals. An inert space of 2 or 3 mm
separates the inner glass fibre layer from the aluminum tank plate. This
space is provided for insulation and also allows expansion and contraction of
the tank structure. This type of non-welded integration makes this tank
structurally independent in nature.

Type B Tanks: The concept behind the design of such tanks is to have
such a structure in which a crack can be detected long before the actual
failure. This allows a time margin before the actual failure occurs. The
methods used for design of such tanks include determination of stress levels
at various temperatures and pressures by first principle analyses,
determination of fatigue life of tank structure, and study of crack propagation
characteristics. This enhanced design of such tanks requires on a partial
barrier, that we will look into, soon.

The most common arrangement of Type B tank is Kvaerner-Moss Spherical

Tank, as shown below in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Kvaerner-Moss Spherical Tank

The tank structure is spherical in shape, and it is so positioned in the ships

hull that only half or a greater portion of the sphere is under the main deck
level. The outer surface of the tank plating is provided with external
insulation, and the portion of the tank above the main deck level is protected
by a weather protective layer. A vertical tubular support is led from the top of
the tank to the bottom, which houses the piping and the access rungs.

As evident from the layout, any leakage in the tank would cause the spill to
accumulate on the drip tray below the tank. The drip pan and the equatorial
region of the tank are equipped with temperature sensors to detect the
presence of LNG. This acts as a partial secondary barrier for the tank.

LNG is usually carried in this type of tanks. A flexible foundation allows free
expansion and contraction according to thermal conditions, and such
dimensional changes do not interact with the primary hull structure, as
shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Expansion and Contraction of Spherical Tanks.

The following are the advantages of Kvaerner-Moss Spherical tanks:

It enables space between the inner and outer hull (see Figure 4.) and
this can be used for ballast and provided protection to cargo in case of
side-ward collision damages.

The spherical shape allows even distribution of stress, therefore

reducing the risk of fracture or failure.

Since Leak before Failure concept is used in the design, it presumes

and ensures that the primary barrier (tank shell) will fail progressively
and not catastrophically. This allows crack generation to occur before
it propagates and causes ultimate failure.

Type C Tanks: These tanks are designed as cryogenic pressure vessels,

using conventional pressure vessel codes, and the dominant design criteria is
the vapour pressure. The design pressure for these tanks is in ranges above
2000 mbar. The most common shapes for these tanks are cylindrical and bi-
lobe. Though Type C tanks are used in both, LPG and LNG carriers, it is the
dominant design in LNG carriers.

The following figures show the arrangements of cylindrical and bilobe tank
arrangements in midship view. The cylinders can be either vertically or
horizontally mounted, depending on the dimensions and spatial constraints
of the ship. Note, in Figure 6, that the space between the two cylinders is
rendered useless. Due to this, the use of cylindrical tanks is a poor use of the
hull volume. In order to circumvent this, the pressure vessels are made to
intersect, or bilobe tanks are used (Figure 7).
Figure 6: Horizontal Cylinder Tanks in LNG carrier.
Figure 7: Bilobe tank arrangement in LNG carrier.

These types of tanks do not require a secondary barrier. Rather, to detect the
leakage of cargo from the tanks, the hold space (refer to Figure 6) is filled
with inert gas or dry air. Sensors placed in the hold space can detect the
change in composition of the inert gas or dry air due to fuel vapour, and
leakages can hence be detected and prevented. Bilobe tanks at the forward
end of the ship are tapered at the end.

Membrane Tanks:
Unlike independent tanks, membrane tanks are non-self-supporting
structures. Their primary barrier consists of a thin layer of membrane (0.7 to
1.5 mm thick). The membrane is supported to the inner hull structure
through an insulation that can range upto 10 mm thickness as per IMO IGC
Code. Due to their non-self-supporting nature, the inner hull bears the loads
imparted onto the tank. This way, the expansions and contractions due to
thermal fluctuations are compensated by not allowing the stress to be taken
up by the membrane itself. Membrane tanks are primarily used for LNG
cargo.

Often, there are two layers (primary and secondary) of insulation and
membranes placed alternatively. The most common types of membtane
tanks are the ones designed and developed by two French companies
Technigaz and Gaz Transport. The Tehnigaz system makes use of a stainless
steel system that is constructed with corrugated sheets in such a way that
one sheet is free to expand or contract independent of the adjacent sheet.
The Gaz Transport system uses Invar as the primary and secondary
membranes. Invar has low coefficient of thermal expansion, which makes
corrugations unnecessary. The insulation is usually made of materials like
Reinforced Polyurethane. In GTT membrane tanks, the primary membrane is
made of Corrugated SUS 304, and the secondary membrane is made of
Glued Triplex. Figure 8 illustrates the anatomy of twin-membrane tanks.
Figure 8: Parts of a membrane tank.
Figure 9: Interior (Primary membrane) of a Membrane tank on an LNG carrier.
(Source: Wikipedia)

Some of the advantages of membrane tanks are as follows:

They are generally of smaller gross tonnage, that is the space occupied
within the hull is lower for a given cargo volume.

Due to the above reason, maximum space in the hold can be used for
cargo containment.

Since the height of tanks above the main deck is significantly lesser
compared to the cases of Moss tanks, membrane tanks provide allow
 visibility from the navigational bridge. This also allows a lower
wheelhouse. This can be compared in Figures 10 and 11.

Figure 10: An LNG Carrier with Moss type tanks. (Source: Wikipedia)
Figure 11: A membrane type LNG carrier under construction in a shipyard.
Note the height of tanks above the main deck and the height of the
wheelhouse. (Source: Wikipedia)

LPG Containment Systems:

Unlike LNG, LPG cargo requires storage at conditions that are different from
atmospheric conditions. The LPG containment systems are classified into
three types, and each LPG carrier is designed according to any one of them.

Fully Pressurized Tanks:

Propane, Butane and Anhydrous ammonia are carried in fully pressurized

tanks. The capacity of these tanks is usually less than 2000 cubic meters.
They are usually uninsulated cylindrical pressure vessels that are arranged
partly below main deck level. Since these are Type C tanks, they often
prevent complete utilization of under deck volume.

Semi Pressurized or Semi Refrigerated Tanks:

Though the cargo carried by semi-pressurized ships are same as that of fully-
pressurized ships, the volume of semi-pressurized ships is about 5000 cubic
meters. These use Independent Type C tanks, and are constructed with
ordinary grades of steel. The outer surface of these tanks are insulated, and
refrigeration or reliquefication plants are installed on these ships to maintain
the working pressure of the cargo. The most ommon types of tanks used for
this purpose are cylindrical and bi-lobe type.

Fully Refrigerated Tanks:

Fully Refrigerated gas carriers have a capacity of 10,000 to 1,00,000 cubic
meters. The ships in the smaller size range are used to carry multiple types
of cargo, whereas the larger ones are designed for a single type of cargo to
be transported on a permanent route. The tanks used for this purpose is
usually Type A prismatic tanks that are sloped at the top end to reduce free
surface effect, and sloped at the bottom to suit the shape of the bilge
structure. They are usually divided longitudinally by a liquid-tight bulkhead,
in order to reduce free surface effects further. These tanks are constructed
with notch ductile steel, in order to be provided with maximum notch
toughness at temperatures as low as -48 degrees Celsius, at which cargo like
Propane is transported.

The number of gas carriers have increased drastically over the last ten years,
owing to the increasing need for alternative fuel. These are usually high
speed ships with fine hull-form, which makes it possible for extensive
research opportunities to improve on hull efficiencies in order to achieve
more power efficiency. A lot of research is also being carried out to design
advanced cargo containment systems and concepts of adjoining bunkering
systems are being developed by various countries that are opening
themselves to extensive use of natural gas. Today, not all shipyards are
equipped to design and build specialised ships like LPG and LNG carriers.
This leaves a wide scope for designers and shipbuilders to develop skills and
infrastructure to specialise in building these ships.

Effects Of Ice Accretion On Ship Stability

Ship stability is an important subject wherein extensive research is being carried out to
get better understanding of various factors that influence the stability of a ship at sea.
Some of these research topics include the study of initial and damaged stability of a
vessel. Now ,there are also important components when it comes to ship stability, they
are the static and dynamic stability.

Certain on-board operations, wave induced motions, wind effects, etc. come under
these two factors, for e.g. we analysed the effect of heavy lifting operations on ship
stability in the an earlier article. Remember we spoke about the stability being
influenced by the relative shifting of weights across the beam on the deck of the ship?
Well, this time we will get back to these principles again. Read on..

Image for representation purpose only

In modern times, with some major climatic changes, there are certain opportunities
opening up in the form of newer and shorter sea routes. For example in China, there
has been an emphasis on using the route across the Arctic Ocean to reach Europe and
the USA. This was given a thumbs-up after the exploration carried on by the Icebreaker
Xuelong. China has seen a very good opportunity to tap the potential of this route
formed as a result of the climate change. But it is not only the Arctic which is freezing
cold, sea routes also pass through North Atlantic or North Pacific regions. Remember
the assignment of freeboards on Plimsoll Lines? Enough said already, you should get a
picture already by now as we come to the topic accumulation of ice on ship.

Image Credits: Deck Cadet Archit Mahar

Ice formation can be deadly from the point of view of Ship Hydrostatics. Ice at sea
doesnt exist in the form of snowfall but in sleet and freezing fog only. Besides the ones
mentioned, ice can also can exist in the form of a layer accumulated along the ship
sides from the spray of the vessel in the fore region. This usually happens in regions
having sub-zero temperatures and that is why the above proposed sea route if
undertaken has its own risks as we will see now.

The accumulation of ice on the deck, the deck housing tops and other places of the ship
raise the CG of the vessel owing to the growing weight and location of loading. Also
knowing that the amount of spray will increase with increasing vessel draft, we must
note that the vessel stability is affected by the icing formed as a result of it. This also
reduces the freeboard obviously since more buoyant force has to be generated to
counter the effect.

Image for representation purpose only

The rise in CG raises the KG of the vessel and as we will see in the diagrams, this
affects the dynamic stability of the vessel. It is therefore important to take certain
allowances in design for this. The allowances can be either half or full depending on
the trade practice and are provided in the sample of GZ curves of the vessel. This
covers the normal range of ships loaded conditions.

Although there are regulations to decide the same, in general, any winter seasonal zone
is considered an area of potential ice accretion.

Now, let us consider two more things here. One is the symmetry of loading of ice, the
other being the rate at which it occurs. Speaking of the latter first, we already mentioned
that in all probability ice accretion invariably reduces the metacentric height and the GZ
values. Certain guidelines exist to aid in calculation of the final centre of mass of this
ice-ship system. The KG values are also accordingly calculated. Below is a reference to
an experiment where there has been some simulated ice accretion and loading was
done to achieve the conditions a certain height of KG. However this is an experimental
and the phenomenon is a practical situation wherein the ice accretion is almost always
asymmetrical.
Modified GZ Curve: The Area and Range of Positive Stability Are Reduced By the Shifts
Due to Ice Build Up (Reference: (Management of Merchant Ship Stability, Trim and
Strength: I.C.Clarke)

Now the two common things coming out from both graphs besides the negative slop
initially and lowering of GZ are:

There is something called Deck Edge Immersion which decreases, causing water
to enter the deck at a smaller angle of heel than original

The vanishing angle of stability which is an indicator of overall range of stability is

also reduced by a significant margin

Now, getting to the rate of ice formation, we have a plethora of variables predicting a
possible scenario. The wind, its direction with reference to the ship, air temperature and
of course, the sea temperature. It is reasonable to believe that the ships form also plays
an important part. Thicker pieces of ice will slide off the ships structure, provided the
roughness of the surface, corrugations, external bracket frames and especially any form
of gap on deck, be it something like a crack, add to the accretion as opposed to a
smooth and continuous surface.

At times, this rate of accumulation of ice may equal the rate of loss of existing ice cover!
Ice Nonograms (as they are called) are diagrams used to estimate this rate of ice
accumulation as functions of wind speed and surrounding air temperature.

Having known a bit about the effects of ice accretion on stability of the ship, which do
you think is at a greater loss? A smaller ship with a large surface area for its size or a
larger vessel with a far greater vanishing point of stability?

Understanding Ship Stability During Dry Dock

Commercial ships have to go for dry docking at regular intervals of time. During dry
docking, the components of a ship exposed to the harsh environment of the seas is
subjected to inspection and maintenance. This process is carried out regularly
throughout the life time of a ship, depending on the construction and type of the
vessel (There are special conditions for dry docking in event of inspection from
classification societies, ship brought after a collision or even before a ship is sold by her
owner, among others.)

The parts of the ship below the waterline are exposed to the harsh and corrosive
underwater environment of the oceans. Ships hulls corrode, catch up bio fouling agents
or can have some water tightness compromised in certain regions from a long voyage.
This is why dry docking is necessary to ensure that the ship remains optimally functional
throughout her life time.

Ships have deadweights running into tens of thousands of tonnes and the hydraulic lift
becomes tricky to implement here, though not entirely impossible.

But why should we worry about the simple mechanical advantage offered by hydraulic
lifts when a huge basin bigger than a ship can serve the purpose of lifting the vessel?
Image for representation purpose only

Here arises another special situation of ship stability being compromised during the
process of dry docking. The ship structure may get damaged at localised locations or
even on a global level if the procedure is not carried out properly.

Speaking in terms of stability, what happens actually during a docking procedure is that
the effective centre of buoyancy of the ship gives up the role of being the support of the
vessels weight to the ships bottom reaction force. This happens gradually and this is
where actual care has to be taken.
Remember the four pillars of ship stability?

The GM, BM, KB and KG vary in such situation, so that the transverse KM (KB+BM) will
become zero. You know why? It is because there is no displaced volume to provide
buoyant forces.

Cut to the GM, which is given by the difference between KM and KG, KG is an inherent
property of the ship geometry and cannot be zero. Hence, a negative GM results in a
loss of positive stability and so the ship must be supported before it topples.

Remember trim by aft being a common feature in ships when moving in water? Think
about this now when the vessel will start resting on the blocks along the entire length,
it will first rest at the stern. The rest of the ship may get pivoted about this point. Now, if
the vessel is able to maintain a positive GM, it wont heel to either side, allowing a
comfortable settlement.

This is rather difficult in ships with a slender form without a flat bottom. So here comes
an advantage in design where it might be feasible not to design very large slender form
of ships as carrying out manoeuvres would be a problem. Such ships would require side
supports and the bilge blocks in addition to the usual support.

Modern day dry docks provide side rams (operated hydraulically) as opposed to
wedging with wooden shores and terraces in earlier constructions.

Now, you might ask, how much loss of the GM is acceptable? For this, dry docks use a
graphical plot between the transverse metacentric height and the reaction provided by
the blocks in supporting the vessel. What is also calculated is the docking trim
(difference in forward and aft drafts) and the reaction (called the upthrust) from the
blocks. The graph quite understandably has a slope KM/, which represents the loss of
KM (and so the GM also) per unit tonne of upthrust equivalent added.
Graph plotted for loss of GM (transverse) as a function of upthrust (reaction).
(Management of Merchant Ship Stability, Trim and Strength: I.C.Clarke)

Another feature of a dry dock which affects your ships stability is what is called
declivity as mentioned in the graph above. In simple terms, this declivity is the slope
expressed in terms of multiples of unit metre rise per 100 metres. It is desirable for
vessels like tugs and fishing trawlers with a rise of keel to be repaired in a dock with
some declivity as they run with good propeller immersion because of the deep draft aft
of these vessels.

Floating Dry docks

Now we come to the other type of dry docks, the ones which float. Floating dry docks
have their own stability issues stemming from the fact that they have to float and bear
the load of the vessel under repair at the same time. The dock has to ensure that it
maintains positive stability when lifting the ship clear of water.
Management of dock stability and vessel positioning using trim to land the ship.
(Management of Merchant Ship Stability, Trim and Strength: I.C.Clarke)

Here, a special manoeuvre is carried out where the dry dock matches the difference in
forward and aft draft as soon as the vessel touches down at the stern, by ballasting its
tanks.

So how does it maintain its own positive stability? This is where comes a restriction on
the weight of the vessel that can be lifted clear of water on a floating dry dock. But,
keeping that aside, we do not have the problem of a vessel heeling and loosing position
on the block before the ship touches down properly on the blocks since the dry dock
self-adjusts the trim like we discussed just now.

After reading this were sure you will have some idea about how a ship might get
vulnerable and topple while being supported on a dry dock, as apparently it doesnt
seem to be such a problem at first.

Understanding Heavy Lifting Operations And Vessel Stability

Take a look at pictures of a vessel used to lift heavy weight (ranging from ships to
offshore installations), if you have never been on a ship or seen one in real. Observe
those huge cranes on the ships which carry out a series of careful manoeuvres during
heavy lift operations, which are very common these days.

It is hard to imagine heavy lifting such as offshore installation, cargo operations (or for
that reason, any commercial vessel having some payload) etc. without such cranes.
Credits: Hall, Bill /wikipedia.org

With such huge power wielded by these cranes or lifting equipment, certain stability and
safety issues needs to be considered in their design and operation. There are
contractual issues to be looked into too as well, but we will concentrate on something
more central to the topic, i.e. the stability of the ship during such an operation.

Several lifting operations simultaneously take place on a single ship and therefore it is
not possible to work with the cargo handling without proper assessment of the risks
involved. They are the so called Project cargoes (which require disassembly for
transport and are again reassembled before delivery). Heavy lift ships and major
commercial operations have to customarily adhere to the accepted regulations for the
Safety of Life at Sea.

Let us see how heavy lift operations affect a ships stability.

Figure 1: Schematic showing the shift in CG with location of load away from ship
centreline.
When the crane or the derrick of your ship carries a load on either side of the centreline
of the vessel at a certain height from the deck, there is a tendency of the ship to heel in
that direction (as a rule of the thumb). Something similar thing happens as in the case of
a simple pendulum where its weight is free to swing. The weight shifts the centre of
gravity, and the CG of the ship being at a different position has to be previously
accounted for so that it does not violate the original intact stability of the ship!

Figure 2: The Swing Analogy in Hydrostatics gives a mathematical model to the

phenomenon

This term swing as we will use henceforth, has an interesting feature. It happens so that
when this cargo hangs at a certain height, such that the length of the pendulum is
minimised by loading it close to the crane head thereby killing the swing (reducing the
swinging motion of the weight is necessary to prevent damage to the nearby
structures) and improving the stability. This is because the weight always acts, as a rule,
at the point of suspension or the pivot, and thus, the stability of the vessel is not affected
any further.

Image Credits: U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Meranda
L. Keller

Let us say, at a port, our ship is loading a very heavy weight, almost comparable to a
fraction of the ships own weight. The derrick/crane lifting the weight from the port is
initially upright. In other words, the centre of gravity is on the plane of the centreline of
the ship. When the loading is in progress, (that is the cranes boom is now outboard),
the ship lists in that direction. This list must be kept as small as possible so as to keep it
under control. If you look closely, the derrick has to first raise the head and swing it in
order to move the cargo across into the position in the hold. This means at first,
transverse shift (port to starboard) in the centre of gravity is less while the vertical rise is
prominent. This becomes critical especially when the lift is quite inboard almost next to
the centreline (because if the lifting is inboard, then it can be visualised as the ships
centre of gravity to be rising), here the vessel tends to become upright very quickly, so
that by virtue of its pendulum like motion, it will swing to the other side!

Figure 3: Illustration of the effect of the violent up righting motion which might cause a
swing to the other side.

Such motion can have implications of its own as the vessel will lose control and heel to
the opposite side. Also, it is not always the CG which is the main culprit here, when your
vessel sinks partly, the metacentre of the vessel wont remain the same either.

Finally what would matter would be the metacentric height GM.

A negative metacentric height causes a situation of unstable equilibrium, which is
responsible for generating a capsizing movement (Not Good!). Although this doesnt
persist for the entire range of heel, as the submerged portion on the heeling side
generates enough buoyant force to counter the moment and eventually the GM
becomes zero again. Beyond this, the vessel recovers positive stability. If a vessel has
an inherent negative stability, the ship will find stability at a certain angle of loll.

Figure 4: The angle of Loll for a typical vessel plotting GZ for various values of
inclination. Taken simply, the GZ gives the indication of vessel stability and should
necessarily be postive like the GM

It is important be able to differentiate between a list and a loss in stability, as a vessel

cannot be simply levelled by ballasting the higher side. Why?
Imagine your ship has a list towards the port. So your starboard side is higher. A normal
person would assume, that ballasting on the starboard side would reduce the list. But
that is wrong. Why? Because, since the starboard side is already higher than the port,
adding weight on the higher side would raise the centre of gravity, therefore reducing
the metacentric height GM. As a result, you are losing more stability. Ballasting should
be done on the lower side (in this case, the port side). Initially the ship heels slightly
towards the port, but when the GM increases, the ship is more stable. When sufficient
righting moment is achieved, then the weight can be balanced on both the sides to bring
the ship back to upright position.

Speaking of heavy lifts, lets think of a fishing vessel with some catch in it. Now, if this
vessel recovers a sizeable catch comparable to its own weight (unfortunately, which is
not known beforehand) and is about to swing the catch inboard, a highly overweight
cargo would cause enough instability to swing beyond to the other side causing an
immediate opposite list. This roll might continue dangerously with reduced stability and
vessel will be prone to flooding from an open hatch. (Warning: your wet fish cargo is
good at sliding across the deck during rolling motions; enough care must be taken to
prevent cargo shift).
Figure 5: Simplified schematic of a ship with shifting cargo. (G Moves in the direction of
derrick head)

Now, for the bigger picture, finally. What we told you above is a special case with a
smaller vessel. Now, remember somewhere in the beginning where we told you about
offshore heavy lifting vessels? We are talking in terms of lifting weights of the scale of
10,000 tonnes! Many of these vessels have specialised water ballast systems for the
purpose as it is not as simple as retrieving the fish catch in smaller amounts. These sort
of operations (especially with oil rig installations) require high degrees of accuracy as
per stability criteria. This is expressed in terms of the tolerances which would usually be
in the range of a few metres. A vessel this capable is normally equipped with Dynamic
Positioning (DP) Systems. The entire ship operates based on the working of an on
board mainframe computer system in conjunction with thrusters, propulsion units and
control surfaces (by having a numerical model of the ship interacting with the external
live forces taken into account).
Figure 6: Example of a moonpool arrangement for heavy lifting operations

Another facility that only some vessels can have are the moonpool arrangements where
the lifting operation is done through an opening running parallel along the depth of the
vessel. Here, the crane operation is done while keeping the ships centre of gravity
close to the centre line and so the heel motions are limited.

Some things which require repeated checks before the operation are:

For a lift from a position A to B (say), the GM positions for both the positions need
to be estimated for acceptable values by keeping in accordance with a stability
booklet. The list should be kept with as this doesnt adversely affect the stability

Since the ships stability is reduced when it comes to having a reduced

metacentric height, it doesnt help in anyway to have slack tanks with free
 surfaces which also reduce GM. Therefore it would be sensible to press up
these tanks for lessening the effect

Also, you should take care that your vessel does not ground at the jetty at the
expected angles of list. The cranes should not be raised more than what is
needed