Analysis Calculus.370

Equations of Lines
1. The slope of a line through the points and is given by .
2. Point-Slope Form
The line through the point with slope m has the equation .
3. Slope-Intercept Form
The line with slope m and y-intercept b has equation .
4. Two lines with slopes and are
parallel iff
perpendicular iff .
Ex 1 Find an equation of the line which passes through the point and has slope
3.
Sol Using the Point-Slope Form, we obtain the equation or,
simplifying, or .
If instead we use the Slope-Intercept Form, we get the equation . To
determine b, we substitute and to obtain , so that .
Ex 2 Find an equation of the line which passes through the point and is
parallel to the line .

Sol To find the slope of the line , solve for y to get the
equation ; so this line has slope . Since the line we are seeking is
parallel to this line, its slope is also , so its equation is
or or .
Pr 1 Find an equation of the line which passes through the point and has y-
intercept 5.
Pr 2 Find an equation of the line which passes through the points and .
Pr 3 Find an equation of the line which passes through the points and .
Pr 4 Find an equation of the line which passes through the point and is
perpendicular to the line .
Pr 5 Find an equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line segment between the
points and .
Pr 6 Find the slope-intercept form of the equation of the line which passes through the
point and which is parallel to the line through the points and .
Pr 7 Find an equation of the tangent line to the circle at the point .
Pr 8 Find the point of intersection of the lines with equations
and .
Solution
Sol 1 Using the slope-intercept form, where when ,
so and therefore . Therefore the line has equation
Sol 2 The slope of the line is given by , so its equation is given
by or .
Sol 3 Since the two points have the same x-coordinate, the line passing through these
points is vertical; so its equation is simply .
Sol 4 Solving the equation for y gives , so its slope is given
by and therefore a perpendicular line has slope given by .
Using the point-slope form, we get the equation ; and
simplifying gives .
Sol 5 The perpendicular bisector will pass through the midpoint of the line segment,
which is given by . The slope of the line segment is
given by , so the slope of the perpendicular bisector will
be . Therefore the perpendicular bisector has the
equation or .
Sol 6 The line through the two given points has slope , so
the line we want will also have slope since the two lines are parallel. Thus its
equation is given by or .
Sol 7 The tangent line at the point will be perpendicular to the line segment
from the center to the point . Since this line segment has slope
, the tangent line has the slope . Since the
tangent line passes through the point , its equation is
or .
Sol 8 Multiplying the first equation by 2 gives , and then subtracting the
second equation from the first gives or . Then
substituting back into the first equation gives so .
Therefore is the point of intersection of the lines.
Rectangular Coordinates
1. Distance Formula
The distance between the points and is given
by .
2. Midpoint Formula
The midpoint of the line segment between the points and is given
by .
3. Standard Equation of a Circle
The circle with center and radius has the equation .

Ex 1 Find the center and radius of the circle with standard
equation .
Sol Completing the square on the x terms and the y terms
gives or , so the
center of the circle is the point , and its radius is .
Ex 2 Use the distance formula to find an equation of the perpendicular bisector of the
line segment between the points and .
Sol The point is on the perpendicular bisector iff it is equidistant from the two
points, so the perpendicular bisector is defined by the equation
. Squaring both sides
gives , and then multiplying out both sides
yields ; so the perpendicular
bisector has equation or .
Pr A Find an equation of the circle with center at the origin which passes through the
point .
Pr B Find an equation of the circle which has the midpoint of the line segment
from to as its center and has radius .
Pr 1 Find the distance from the point to the midpoint of the line segment
between and .
Pr 2 Find an equation of the circle with center which is tangent to the x-axis.
Pr 3 Find an equation of the circle with center which passes through the
point .
Pr 4 Find an equation of the circle with center which is tangent to the

line .
Pr 5 Find an equation of the circle which has the line segment from
to as a diameter.
Pr 6 Use the distance formula to determine if the point is inside, outside, or on
the circle with equation .
Pr 7 Find the point on the circle with equation which is
closest to the point .
Pr 8 Calculate the distance from the point to the line .
Rectangular Coordinates
Sol A The circle has an equation of the form or
where is the distance from to the origin; so
and the circle has the
equation .
Sol B The midpoint of the line segment AB is given
by , so the circle has the
equation .
Sol 1 The midpoint of the line segment AB is given
by , so the distance from P to M is equal to
Sol 2 The radius of the circle is the distance from C to the x-axis, so .
Therefore the circle has equation .
Sol 3 The circle has an equation of the form , where the

radius is the distance from C to P. Instead of using the distance formula, though, we
can substitute the coordinates of P into the equation to
get or .
Sol 4 The radius of the circle is the distance from C to the line ,
so . Therefore the circle has equation .
Sol 5 The center C of the circle is the midpoint of the line segment between P and Q,
so . Therefore the circle has an equation of the
form , where is the distance from C to P (or Q). Instead of

finding first, though, we can substitute the coordinates of P into this equation to
get or .
Sol 6 First we can find the center and radius of the circle
by completing the square:
gives , so the circle has center and radius . The
distance from P to C is given by .
Since , the point P is inside the circle.
Sol 7 The center of the circle is the point , and the slope of the line through P
and C is given by . Therefore the line through P and C
has the equation or , and the point on the circle

closest to P will be one of the points of intersection of this line with the circle.
Substituting into the equation of the circle
gives , so
or . Then , so and
or . Since the x-coordinate of P is 1, the point on the circle closest to P
has and ; so it is the point .

Sol 8 First we will find an equation of the line through P which is perpendicular to the
given line. Solving for gives , so the given line has
slope and therefore a line perpendicular to this line will have
slope .
Thus the line through P perpendicular to the given line has
equation or . These two lines will intersect at a

point Q which is the point on the given line closest to P, and we can find the
coordinates of Q by substituting into the equation and

then solving:
gives o
r , so and
. Therefore Q is the
point ,
and the distance from P to the line is the distance from P to Q, which is given by
.
Inequalities I
When solving inequalities, keep the following facts in mind:
if
if
or
Ex 1 Solve the inequality .

Sol Subtracting 1 from each term gives , and then dividing by 3
gives . Therefore the solution is given by .
Sol Writing the inequality without absolute values gives , and adding 4
to every term gives . Therefore is the solution.
Pr A Solve the inequality .
Pr B Solve the inequality .
Pr C Solve the double inequality .
Pr D Solve the double inequality .
Pr 1 Solve the inequality .

Inequalities I
Sol A Subtracting and 9 from both sides gives , and then multiplying
by gives or . Therefore is the solution.
Sol B Multiplying both sides out gives , and then
subtracting from both sides gives . Therefore , so the solution is
given by .
Sol C Solving gives or , and solving
gives or . Taking the values of satisfying both inequalities
gives , so is the solution.
Sol D Solving gives or , and solving
gives or . Taking the values of satisfying both inequalities
gives , so is the solution.
Sol 1 iff iff iff , so the
solution is .
Sol 2 iff iff iff
iff , so the solution is .
Sol 3 iff iff iff , so is the solution.

Sol 4 iff iff iff or , so the solution
is .
Sol 5 iff iff iff and iff , so the
solution is .
Sol 6 can be broken up into the following two cases: a) If ,
then gives or ; so .
b) If , then gives or ; so .
Combining the solutions for the two cases gives that is the solution.
Sol 7 iff iff iff
iff iff
or iff or iff or ,
so is the solution.
Functions - Domain and Range; Composition
Ex 1 Find the domain and range for .
Sol is defined for or , and solving this inequality
gives , so the domain is .

Since gives or , the graph of is the top half of
the circle ; so the range of f is the set of all y-coordinates of points on this
semicircle, which is the interval .
Ex 2 If and , find and .
Sol
, and .
Pr 1 Find the domain and range for .
Pr 4 Find the domain for .
Pr 5 If and , find and .
Pr 6 If , find functions f and g (different from h) such
that .
Pr 7 If , find a function f such that .

Functions - Domain and Range; Composition
Sol 1 f is defined for all values of x (since f is a polynomial), so the domain of f

is . Since the graph of f is a parabola which opens downward with vertex
at , the set of y-coordinates for the points on the graph of f consists of all y-
values with ; so the range of f is the interval .
Sol 2 f is defined where or , so the domain of f is the interval .
Since , for any x in the domain of f; so the range of

f is contained in . If
, (sinc
e ), so the range of f is actually equal to .
Sol 3 f is defined for or , so the domain of f is given

by . To find the range of f, we must determine for which y-values the
equation has a solution for x. Multiplying both sides of this equation

by gives or , so
. Therefore the equation has a

solution for x iff or , so the range of f is given by .
Sol 4 f is defined wherever (so the square root is defined) and
(so the fraction is defined). Solving the inequality or

gives , so the domain of f is .
Sol 5 ,
while .
Sol 6 We can let and , for example.
Sol 7 Since , and therefore

and .
Sol 8 is defined where , so gives . Taking the

nonnegative square root of both sides gives or . Therefore is
the domain of .
Sol 9 is defined where
, so factoring gives the inequality
Marking 0,5,3, and -3 on a number line and using the facts that all factors have odd
exponents and that ,
we get the following sign chart for :
Therefore the domain of is given by

Difference Quotients
Difference quotients are expressions which represent the slope of the line between two
general points on the graph of a function, such as
or
In simplifying a difference quotient, it is important to remember that is not

the same as . To find , substitute for in the expression
for .
Ex 1 Find and simplify
for .
Sol
.
Ex 2 Find and simplify
for .
Sol
.
Pr 1 Find and simplify
for .
for .
for .
for .

for .
for .
for .
for .
Difference Quotients
Sol 1
.
Sol 2
.
Sol 3
(multiplying by on the top and bottom)
Sol 4

.
Sol 5
Sol 6
Sol 7

.
Sol 8
.
Roots and Rational Exponents
Recall that can be defined as follows:
1. If is odd, then is the number such that .
2. If is even and , then is the number such that . (Notice
that is undefined if is even and .
We can define rational exponents in the following manner:
If is a fraction reduced to lowest terms, then
assuming that if is even.
Ex 1 Solve the equation .

Sol Squaring both sides gives , and then
subtracting from both sides gives . Then factoring
gives , so or . However, does not check in the

original equation, so is the only solution.
Ex 2 Solve the equation .
Sol a Adding 6 to both sides gives , and then factoring
gives , so either or and therefore or .
Sol b Adding to both sides gives , and then squaring both sides
gives ; so
or .
Pr 1 Simplify the expression .
Pr 2 Solve the equation .
Pr 4 Solve the following equations:
a) . b) .
Pr 5 Find all values of for which the equation is valid.
Pr 6 Rewrite the expression as a sum of terms with rational exponents.

Roots and Rational Exponents
Sol 1
Sol 2a gives , so factoring yields .
Therefore either or , but since is never negative;
so and therefore .
Sol 2b Squaring both sides of gives or ,
so and . Therefore or , but is

the only solution since does not check in the original equation.
Sol 3a gives , so factoring gives .
Then or , but since is never negative; so
and therefore .
Sol 3b gives , so squaring both sides
gives . Then
or . The answer does
not check in the original equation, though, so is the only answer.
Sol 4
a) Cubing both sides of gives , so taking the square root of both
sides gives .
b) Squaring both sides of gives , so taking the cube root of both

sides gives .
Sol 5 Squaring both sides of
gives , so subtracting from both sides

gives and so . Therefore this equation is valid only for .
Sol 6 .
Sol 7 Cubing both sides of gives ,
so or or .
Sol
8
or . However, does not check in the original equation, so is the only

solution.
gives , so and
therefore or . Squaring both sides of this
equation yields , so and . Since this

answer checks in the original equation, it is the only solution.
gives , so and
therefore . Squaring both sides of this equation
gives , so and therefore
. Factoring gives , so or .
However, does not check in the original equation, so is the only

solution.
Sol 11 Raising both sides of the equation to the 6th power
gives or .
Multiplying out both sides
gives ,
so and therefore
and .
Then , so either or . Completing the square
in the last equation gives or , so
and .
However, does not check in the original equation (since
when and therefore while ). Therefore
and are the only solutions.
Quadratic Functions
A quadratic function is a 2nd-degree polynomial function:
, where .
The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola, which opens up if and opens
down if .
The x-coordinate of the vertex of the parabola is given by , and the y-
coordinate can be found by substituting this value for into .
If the vertex of the parabola has coordinates , then the standard equation of the
parabola has the form .
The x-intercepts of the parabola, if there are any, are the solutions of the quadratic
equation .
Ex 1 Find the vertex of the parabola .
Sol We have that , and
then .
Ex 2 Find the minimum value of the function .
Sol The minimum value of this function is given by the y-coordinate of the vertex.
Since the x-coordinate of the vertex is given by , the

minimum value is given
by .
Pr 1 Find the vertex of the parabola .
Pr 2 Find the maximum value of the function .
Pr 3 Find a quadratic function which has 5 and 1 as the x-intercepts of its graph
and which has a minimum value of -12.
Pr 4 Find a parabola which has its vertex at the point and
which passes through the point .
Pr 5 Find the minimum value of the function , and find the values
of for which is a minimum.
Pr 6 Find the vertex of the parabola .

Pr 7 Find a quadratic function such that is its minimum value, and
such that .
Pr 8 Find an equation of the non-vertical line which intersects the parabola
only at the point .
Pr 9 Find the maximum value for the function .
Quadratic Functions
Sol 1 The x-coordinate is given by , and then the y-
coordinate is given by .
Sol 2 The x-coordinate of the vertex is given by ; so
(since ) the maximum value is given by
Sol 3 Since 5 and 1 are the x-intercepts of the graph, for some
number . Since the graph of is symmetric around the vertical line passing through
its vertex, the x-coordinate of the vertex is 3 (the average of 5 and 1). Therefore the
minimum value of is , so
and or .
Sol 4 Since the vertex is at , the parabola has an equation of the
form or . Since the parabola passes through the

point , substituting and gives , so and
, so .
Sol 5 Substituting in and replacing by gives the quadratic
function . Then the t-coordinate of the vertex of the graph of is
given by , so the minimum value of is given
by Therefore the minimum value of is also
9, and this value is attained when so .
Sol 6 Since the roles of and are interchanged, the y-coordinate of the vertex is
given by and the x-coordinate is given by
Sol 7 Since is the minimum value of , the graph of has an equation of
the form or with . Since ,
substituting and gives and therefore .
Therefore , so
or .
Sol 8 Since the line is non-vertical and passes through the point , it has an
equation of the form or . Since the line intersects
the parabola exactly once, the equation

or has exactly one solution. Therefore the
discriminant is equal to 0, so
,so the line has equation
or .
Sol 9 (If the horizontal line intersects the graph of only once, then will
correspond to the maximum value or minimum value of .) Setting
gives , so and therefore . This equation

will have exactly one solution if the discriminant is zero, so
Therefore has a maximum value of 3, since
has no solution.
Inverse Functions
A function is one-to-one (1-1) if it does not assign the same value to two different
elements of its domain:
If , then .
If f is a 1-1 function, then it has an inverse function defined by

iff , for all in the range of f.
The domain of is the range of , and the range of is the domain of .

To find a formula for , we can
1. Set .
2. Solve for in terms of , if possible.
3. Set .
[Another common way to do this is to
1. Set , and then interchange and .
2. Solve for in terms of , if possible.
3. Set .]
Ex 1 Show whether or not the function is one-to-one.
Sol , so is a 1-1
function.
Ex 2 Show whether or not the function is one-to-one.
Sol Setting , for example, and solving gives that ; so is

not a 1-1 function.
Ex 3 If , find a formula for
Sol Let . Then , so or .
Thus , so .
Pr 1 If , find a formula for .
Pr 3 If , find a formula for and find the domain for .
Pr 5 Show whether or not the function has an inverse.
Pr 6 Let for . Find a formula for and find the domain
for .
Pr 7 If for , find .
Pr 8 If , find a formula for and find the domain for .
Inverse Functions
Sol 1 Let . Then , so and
therefore .
Sol 2 Let . Then , so and .
Thus .
Sol 3 Let , so and . Then ,
so . The domain of is the same as the range of , so it is the

interval
since the graph of f is the top half of the parabola .
Sol 4 Let . Then
, so
Sol 5 Setting , for example, and then solving for gives ;

so is not 1-1 and therefore does not have an inverse.
Sol 6 Let ; then , so adding 4 to both sides
gives and therefore . Taking square roots of both
sides, using the fact that so , gives and
so . Therefore . The domain of is the range
of , which is the interval since for .
Sol 7 To find , we must solve the equation for :
sinc
e . Therefore .
Sol 8 Let .
Then
,
so .
The domain of is the same as the range of . Since for
, for . Furthermore, if , then and
therefore ; so the domain of is ,the range

of .
Setting Up Functions
In the following problems, we will be asked to set up a function of one variable to

describe a certain quantity. In order to do this, we can
1. First set up a function of two variables for the desired quantity, using a picture if
applicable.
2. Use the information given in the problem to find an equation relating the two
variables in step 1, and then solve for one of the variables in terms of the other.
3. Substitute back into the function found in step 1 to get a function of just one
variable.
Ex 1 A rectangle with base and height has a perimeter of 120 ft.
Express the area A of the rectangle as a function of .
Sol
1. We know that for a rectangle.
2. , so and therefore .
3. Substituting back gives .

Ex 2 A right triangle has base and height . If the area of the triangle is 5 square
inches, express the perimeter of the triangle as a function of .
Sol
1. Using the Pythagorean Theorem, we know that .
2. Since , and .
3. Substituting back gives
Pr 1 A rectangle has base and height . If the area of the rectangle is 50 square
meters, express the perimeter of the rectangle as a function of .
Pr 2 A rectangular pasture has base and height , and the bottom side of the pasture
is bounded by a river. If the other 3 sides of the pasture are bounded by 220 feet of
fencing, express the area of the rectangle as a function of .
Pr 3 A rectangle with base and height is inscribed in a circle of radius 5 inches.

Express the area of the rectangle as a function of .
Pr 4 A rectangle has its base on the x-axis and its top two vertices on the graph
of . If the top right vertex has coordinates , Express the area of the
rectangle as a function of .
Pr 5 A right triangle has vertices at the origin and at the points and
(with and positive). If the hypotenuse of the triangle passes through the
point , express the area of the triangle as a function of .
Pr 6 An athletic field has the shape of a rectangular region with semicircular regions
at each end. (See the diagram below.)
If the perimeter of the field is 400 meters, express the area of the field as a function of
the radius of the semicircles.
Pr 7 A rectangular page in a book has margins of 1.5 inch at the top and the bottom
and 1 inch on the right and the left. If the printed material on the page is a rectangle
with base and height , and its area is 50 square inches, express the area of the page
as a function of .
Pr 8 A rectangular box has a square base and a volume of 80 cubic inches. If the side
of the base has length and the height of the box is , express the surface area of the
box as a function of .
Pr 9 A rectangular box has a square base and a volume of 60 cubic inches. If the side
of the base has length and the height of the box is , and the material for the top
and bottom costs 10 cents per square inch and the material for the other four sides
costs 8 cents per square inch, express the cost of the box as a function of .
Pr 10 A right circular cylinder with height and base radius has a volume of
cubic inches. Express the total surface area of the cylinder as a function of . (Recall
that the area of the side of the cylinder is given by .)
Pr 11 A right circular cylinder with height and base radius has a volume of
cubic inches. If the material for the top and the bottom of the cylinder costs 12 cents
per square inch, and the material for the side of the cylinder costs 9 cents per square
inch, express the cost of the cylinder as a function of .
Pr 12 A right circular cylinder with height and base radius has a total surface area
of square inches. Express the volume of the cylinder as a function of r.
Pr 13 A ladder reaches over a fence 6 feet high to a wall 4 feet behind the fence.
Express the length of the ladder as a function of the distance from the base of the
ladder to the fence.
Pr 14 A hiker in the desert is 4 miles from a straight road, and he wants to walk to a
town 10 miles down the road from the point on the road closest to him. (See the
diagram below.)
If he can walk 5 mph along the road and 3 mph off the road, express the time it will
take him to reach the town as a function of the distance .
Setting Up Functions
Sol 1
1. The perimeter is given by .
2. , so .
Sol 2
1. The area is given by .
2. The fencing satisfies , so .
Sol 3
1. The area is given by .

2. A diagonal of the rectangle will be a diameter of the circle, so its length is 10.
Then by the Pythagorean Theorem, so and
since .
Sol 4
1. The area of the rectangle is given by .
2. Since the upper right vertex is on the given parabola, we have that .
Sol 5
1. The area of the triangle is given by .
2. The slope of the hypotenuse is given by
so solving for gives
so
Sol 6
1. Since the two semicircular regions can be combined to give a circular region, the
area of the field is given by .
2. Since the perimeter is 400 meters, so

and .
Sol 7
1. The area of the page is given by .
2 We have that and , and that the area of the printed material is
given by , so .
Sol 8
1. Since the top and bottom each have area given by and the other 4 sides each
have area given by , the total surface area is given by .
2. Since the volume is 80 cubic inches, and therefore .

.
Sol 9
1. The cost of the top and bottom is given by , and the cost of the other 4 sides
is given by , so the total cost is expressed by .
2. Since the volume is 60 cubic inches, and therefore .
Sol 10
1. Since the top and the bottom each have area , the total surface area is given
by .
2. The volume of the cylinder is the area of the base multiplied by the height, so
and .
Sol 11
1. The cost of the top and bottom is given by , and the cost of the side is
given by , so the total cost is given by .
2. The volume of the cylinder is the area of the base multiplied by the height, so
and .

Sol 12
1. We know that for the cylinder.
2. The total surface area is square inches, so and therefore
. Solving for gives and .
Sol 13
1. We know that , where
2. by the Pythagorean Theorem, so .
Using similar triangles, , so .

Sol 14
1. We have that , where is the time he walks off the road and is the
time he walks along the road.
2. Using the formula , we get that ; so
and .
Solving Polynomial and Rational Inequalities
To solve an inequality such as or where and are

polynomials,
1. Factor and completely over the real numbers.
2. Mark the zeros of and on a number line.
3. Determine the sign of on each of the resulting intervals.

4. Select the intervals corresponding to the sign of the original inequality. (If the
inequality is not a strict inequality, include the zeros of in the solution.)
In determining the sign of on each interval, we can use the following:
If is the highest power of which is a factor of or , then
A. the sign of changes at if is odd; and
B. the sign of does not change at if is even.
Sol Factoring gives ; so marking off 3 and -1 on a number line and

using the facts that and that the exponents of and are both
odd, we get the sign chart shown below:
Therefore the solution is given by .
Ex 2 Solve the inequality
Sol Factoring gives

Marking off 6,-4,10, and -2 on a number line and using the facts
that and that the exponents of all the factors are odd, we
get the sign chart shown below:
Since the inequality is not strict, we can include the zeros of the numerator; so the
solution is given by .
Pr 3 Solve the inequality

Pr 8 Find all values of for which .
Pr 9 Find all values of for which
Solving Polynomial and Rational Inequalities
Sol 1 Factoring gives or . Marking 0,3, and -2 on

a number line, and using that
and that all the exponents are odd, we get the sign chart shown
below:
Sol 2 Factoring gives or . Marking 0,3, and -2

on a number line, and using that
and that the sign changes at 3 and -2 but does not change at 0, we
get the sign chart shown below:
Sol 3 Factoring gives
and marking 4,1,2, and -2 on a number line, and using that
and that all the exponents are odd, we get the sign chart shown
below:
and marking 5/2,-2, 4, and -3 on a number line, and using that
and that all the exponents are odd, we get the sign
chart shown below:
or
Marking -3,-2,-1,1,2, and 3 on a number line, and using the facts that
and that all the exponents are odd, we get the following sign
chart:
Sol 6 Since for all , and therefore for all ; so
multiplying by gives the equivalent inequality .
Factoring yields or ; so marking on

a number line and using that
when and all the exponents are odd, we get the following
sign chart:
Sol 7 Factoring gives the inequality
or
Marking off -2,0,1/3,1,3/2, and 4, and using the facts that
and the sign changes at 3/2,1,-2, and 1/3 and

does not change at 0 or at 4, we get the following sign chart:
Sol 8 Subtracting from both sides gives , so or .
Marking -4,0,and 4 on a number line, and using that
and that all the exponents are odd, we get the following sign
chart:
Therefore is the solution.
Sol 9 Subtracting from both sides gives
so
Therefore
so
or
Marking 2,4, and -1 on a number line, and using the facts that
and that all the exponents are odd, we get the following sign chart:
Therefore is the solution.
Algebraic Simplification
In the following examples and problems, the term "simplify" indicates to eliminate
compound fractions, factor as much as possible, put terms over a common
denominator when feasible, and avoid negative exponents.
Ex 1 Simplify the expression
Sol
Ex 2 Simplify the expression
Sol
Pr A Simplify the expression .
Pr B Simplify the expression
Pr C Simplify the expression by eliminating the radicals in the numerator.
Pr 1 Simplify the expression
.
Algebraic Simplification
Sol 1
.
Sol 2
Sol 3
.
Sol 4
Sol 5
.
Sol 6
(multiplying the top and bottom by )
Sol 7
.
Sol 8
. Properties of Logarithms and Exponents
Laws of Logarithms
1.
2.
3.
Laws of Exponents
1.
2.
3.
Ex 1 Simplify the expression .
Sol .
Ex 2 Simplify the expression .
Sol
.
Pr A Find all solutions of .
Pr B Simplify the expression
Pr C Use properties of logarithms to rewrite as the

logarithm of a single expression.
Pr 3 If and , find .
Pr 4 Use properties of logarithms to rewrite
as the logarithm of a single expression.

Pr 8 If and , find .
Properties of Logarithms and Exponents
Sol A Cubing both sides of gives , and then taking the square
root of both sides gives .
Sol B
Sol C .
Sol 1
.
Sol 2
.
Sol 3
Sol 4
.
Sol 5
Sol 6 .
Sol 7 since .
Sol 8 Since and , and . Then ,

so .
Translations and Reflections
Translations
Given an equation in x and y, the following changes in the equation result in the
indicated changes in the graph (where ):
Replacing Translation
x by x-h h units to the right
x by x+h h units to the left
y by y-h h units up
y by y+h h units down
Reflections
Given an equation in x and y, the following changes in the equation result in the
indicated changes in the graph:
Replacing Reflection
x by -x in the y-axis
y by -y in the x-axis
x by -x and y by -y in the origin
x by y and y by x in the line y=x
Ex 1 Find an equation of the curve which results by translating the graph of 5

units to the right and 3 units down.
Sol Replacing by and by gives or .
Ex 2 Explain how to obtain the graph of from the graph of using

translations and reflections.
Sol a First shift the graph of 2 units to the left to get , and then
reflect in the y-axis to get .
Sol b First reflect the graph in the y-axis to get , and then shift the graph 2
units to the right to get .
Pr A Find an equation of the graph whic is obtained by reflecting the graph of

in the line .
Pr B Find an equation of the graph which results from reflecting the graph
of in the x-axis, and then shifting the resulting graph 3 units up.
Pr C Find an equation of the graph which is obtained by reflecting the graph

of in the y-axis, and then shifting the resulting graph 4 units to the right.
Pr 1 Find an equation of the graph which results from translating the graph
of 5 units to the left and 4 units up.
Pr 2 Find an equation of the graph which results from reflecting the graph of
in the y-axis, and then shifting the graph 3 units to the left.
Pr 3 Find an equation of the graph which results from shifting the graph of 3
units to the left, and then reflecting in the y-axis.
Pr 4 Explain how to obtain the graph of from the graph of

using translations and reflections.
Pr 5 Find an equation of the graph which is obtained by reflecting the graph
of in the line , and then shifting the resulting graph 4 units down.
Pr 6 Find an equation of the graph which is obtained by shifting the graph
of 4 units down, and then reflecting the resulting graph in the line .
Pr 7 Find an equation of the graph which is obtained by reflecting the graph
of in the line , then shifting the resulting graph 3 units to the right, and
then shifting the graph which results 4 units up.
Pr 8 Explain how to obtain the graph of from the graph of using

translations and reflections.
Translations and Reflections
Sol A Interchanging and gives the equation or equivalently .
Sol B Replacing by gives or , and then replacing
by gives or .
Sol C Replacing by gives , and then replacing by
gives or .
Sol 1 Replacing by and by gives .
Sol 2 Replacing by gives , and then replacing by
gives or .
Sol 3 Replacing by gives , and then replacing by
gives or .
Sol 4 Shift 5 units to the left to get , and then reflect in the y-axis to
get or . Then reflect in the x-axis to get
or , and then shift 9 units up to get
or . (This is not the only solution.)
Sol 5 Interchanging and gives , and then replacing by
gives .
Sol 6 Replacing by gives or , and then
interchanging and gives .

Sol 7 Interchanging and gives the equation , and then replacing
by gives or . Next replacing by gives the
equation .
Sol 8 Since , we can shift 3 units to the right to get ,
reflect in the x-axis to get or , and then shift 1 unit up to
get or . (This is not the only solution.)
Trig Functions of Angles
a) Recall that the sine function is positive in Quadrants I and II, the cosine function is
positive in Quadrants I and IV, and the tangent function is positive in Quadrants I and
III.
b) In addition, the reference angle for is
1. , if .
2. , if .
3. , if .
4. , if .
c) If is an angle in standard position, and is a point on the terminal side of

(other than the origin), then
and
where
Ex 1 Find .
Sol The reference angle for is . Since the sine is negative in
Quadrant IV, .
Ex 2 Find .
Sol The reference angle for is . Since the cosine is negative in
Quadrant III, .
Pr 1 Find .
Pr 2 Find .
Pr 3 Find .
Pr 4 Find .
Pr 5 Find .
Pr 6 Find .
Pr 7 Find .
Pr 8 Find .
Pr 9 If is an angle in standard position with the point on its terminal side,

find and .
Pr 10 Find .
Pr 11 Find .
Trig Functions of Angles
Sol 1 The reference angle for is . Since the sine is positive in
Quadrant II, .
Sol 2 The reference angle for is . Since the cosine is negative in
Quadrant III, .
Sol 3 The reference angle for is . Since the tangent is negative in
Quadrant II, .
Sol 4 The reference angle for is . Since the cosine is positive in
Quadrant IV, .
Sol 5 The reference angle for is . Since and the
cosine is negative in Quadrant III,
and .
tangent is negative in Quadrant II,
and .
Sol 7 The reference angle for is . Since the tangent is positive in
Quadrant III, .
sine is negative in Quadrant IV,
and .
Sol 9 Since ,
and .
Sol 10 Since , subtracting off a multiple of
gives ; so . Since the
reference angle for is , and since the sine is positive in Quadrant
II, .
Sol 11 Since , subtracting off a multiple of
gives ; so . Since the
reference angle for is , and since the cosine is positive in
Quadrant IV, .
Basic Trigonometric Identities
1.
2.
3.
4.
Pythagorean Identities
1.
2.
3.
Ex 1 Find if and is in Quadrant II.
Sol , so
since if is in Quadrant II. Then
Ex 2 Find if and is in Quadrant III.
Sol Since , an
d and therefore
since for in Quadrant III.
Pr A Find if and .
Pr B Find if and .
Pr C Find if and .
Pr 1 Find if and .
Pr 2 Find if and .
Pr 3 Find if and .
Pr 7 Simplify the expression for with .
Pr 8 Simplify the expression for with .
Pr 9 Use trig identities to change to .

Basic Trigonometric Identities
Sol A , so
since if is in Quadrant IV.
Sol B , so
since if is in Quadrant III.
Sol C , so
since if is in Quadrant IV. Therefore
.
Sol 1 , so since
for . Therefore .
Sol 2 , so
since if . Then , so
.
Sol 3 Since , and
so . Therefore
since for .
Sol 4
, which can also be written as .
Sol 5 .
Sol 6 .
Sol 7
since for .
Sol 8
since for .
Sol 9 .
Sol 10 .
Sol 11
Sol 12
Sol 13 .
Sol 14
Trigonometry: Addition Formulas
The addition formulas for the sine and cosine are given by
The addition formulas for the tangent are given by
Ex 1 Find using an addition formula.

Sol
Ex 2 Find using an addition formula.
Sol
Pr 1 Find using an addition formula.
Pr 4 Use an addition formula to simplify .
Pr 5 Use an addition formula to simplify .
Pr 7 Use the addition formulas to simplify the expression
Pr 8 Find the smallest positive angle between the lines with equations
and .
Go to Solutions.
Trigonometry: Addition Formulas
Sol 1
.
Sol 2
.
Sol 3
Sol 4 .
Sol 5 .
Sol 6
.
Sol 7
Sol 8 Let be the angle between the first line and the positive x-axis, and let be
the angle between the second line and the positive x-axis. Then the angle between the
two lines is given by , and and ; so
, so .
Trigonometry: Double-Angle and Half-Angle Formulas
Double-Angle Formulas
2 mm 2 mm
Half-Angle Formulas
, so
, so
Ex 1 Find using a half-angle formula.
Sol
Ex 2 Find if and is in Quadrant II.
Sol We have that , so

since in Quadrant II. Therefore
Pr A Simplify the expression .
Pr 1 Find if .
Pr 2 Find if and .
Pr 3 Use a half-angle formula to find .
Pr 5 Use half-angle formulas to rewrite without using powers of trig

functions.
Pr 6 Use half-angle formulas to rewrite without using powers of trig functions.
Pr 7 Find if and .
Pr 8 Find if and .
Trigonometry: Double-Angle and Half-Angle Formulas
Sol A .
Sol 1 .
Sol 2 , so
since with and .
Therefore .
Sol 3
Sol 4
.
Sol 5
Sol 6
Sol 7 , so
since for . Then
Sol 8 , so
since for .
Since , , so
.
Trigonometric Equations
Ex 1 Solve the equation for .
Sol a) or b) , so
a) or or b) .
Ex 2 Find all solutions of the equation .
Sol gives ; and for (where is any integer)

and
for (where is any integer).
Combining these solutions gives that , where k is any integer.
Pr A Find all solutions of the equation .
Pr B Solve the equation for .
Pr C Solve the equation for .

Pr 1 Solve the equation for .
Pr 4 Find all solutions of the equation .
Trigonometric Equations
Sol A Dividing both sides of the equation by gives or .
Since and the tangent has period , for any integer .
Sol B Dividing both sides of the equation by gives
or . Since and the tangent has period , the solutions
are and .
Sol C Rewriting as gives
or . Factoring yields , so either or
.
If , then or .
If , then or .
Therefore the solutions are .
Sol 1 Factoring gives , so or .
Therefore or , or .
Sol 2 Factoring gives , so
or . If , then or ; and if , then .
Sol 3 Squaring both sides of gives .
Since , we have that ; so and

therefore or . If , then the original equation
gives or ; so .
if , then the original equation gives ; so .
Therefore and are the solutions.
Sol 4 gives , so and

therefore or .
If , then , where is any integer.
If , then , where is any integer.

Sol 5 Substituting for in the equation
gives or , so
. Factoring gives , so
or .
If , then or ;
and if , then .
Therefore the solutions are , ,and .
Sol 6 Since ,substituting for gives
or . Factoring yields , so
or .
If , or .
If , then .
Therefore the solutions are , ,and .
Sol 7 gives , so .
Therefore or , so either
or
.
Dividing by 3 to find , we obtain the solutions
and
Sol 8 Since , we get the
equation ; so and therefore
Then or , so either
or
Dividing by 2 to find , we obtain the solutions
and
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
1. If , then or is the angle in whose sine is
equal to : .
2. If , then or is the angle in whose tangent
is equal to : .
3. If , then or is the angle in whose cosine is equal
to : .
Ex 1 Find and .
Sol since and , and
since and .
Ex 2 Find .
Sol Let , so . From the right triangle shown
below, , so .
Pr A Find the following, or explain why they are undefined:
a) and b) .
Pr B Find the following, or explain why they are undefined:
a) and b) .
Pr 1 Find a) and b) .
Pr 4 Find .
Pr 5 Find .
Pr 6 Find .
Pr 7 Find .
Pr 8 Find .
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Sol A a) (since ).
b) is undefined, since 5/3 is not in .
Sol B a) (since for any ).
b) , so since the tangent has period ,
and is in ; so .
Sol 1 a) , since and .
b) , since and .
Sol 2 a) , since and .

b) , since
and .
Sol 3 a) since and .
b) since and .
Sol 4 Let , so From the right triangle shown below,
; so .
Sol 5 Let , so . From the right triangle shown
below, ; so .
Sol 6 Let , so .
Then
Sol 7 Let , so . Then and using the
right triangle below, so .
Sol 8 Since ,
where ; so .
Polar Coordinates
We have the following relationships between polar coordinates and rectangular
coordinates:
Ex 1 Find a set of polar coordinates for the point with rectangular
coordinates .
Sol , so we can take .
Since , we can take . Therefore is a set

of polar coordinates for this point.
Ex 2 Find rectangular coordinates for the point which has polar coordinates .
Sol an
d , so the point has rectangular
coordinates .
Pr A Find a polar equation for the circle with rectangular equation .
Pr B Find the standard form of the rectangular equation of the circle with polar
equation .
Pr C Find two sets of polar coordinates for the point with rectangular
coordinates .
Pr 1 Find a set of polar coordinates for the point with rectangular
coordinates .
Pr 2 Find a set of polar coordinates for the point with rectangular
coordinates .
Pr 3 Find rectangular coordinates for the point which has polar coordinates .
Pr 4 Find a polar equation for the line with equation in rectangular coordinates.
Pr 5 Find a polar equation for the line with equation in rectangular coordinates.
Pr 6 Find a polar equation for the circle with equation in rectangular

coordinates.
Pr 7 Find a rectangular equation for the cardioid with polar equation .
Pr 8 Find the points of intersection of the curves with polar equations
and .
Polar Coordinates
Sol A gives the polar equation , so taking square roots
gives . Therefore is a polar equation for the circle (since
and represent the same circle).
Sol B Multiplying both sides of by gives , so .

To put this equation in standard form, we can subtract from both sides to
get and then complete the square to obtain
or .
Sol C Taking gives , so is one set of polar coordinates for the point.
Taking gives , so is another set of polar coordinates for the point.
(More generally, we can take and to be any odd multiple of , or

and to be any even multiple of .
Sol 1 , so we can take .
Since and is in Quadrant IV, we can
take . Therefore is a set of polar coordinates for the

point.
Sol 2 , so we can take .
Since and is in Quadrant III, we can take .
Therefore is a set of polar coordinates for the point.
Sol 3
and , so the point has rectangular
coordinates .
Sol 4 gives , so and therefore .
Sol 5 gives , so and therefore .

Sol 6 gives or , so
and therefore .
Sol 7 Multiplying both sides of by gives
or . Then or , so squaring both
sides gives , and thus .
Sol 8 Setting the two expressions for equal to each other gives ,
so and . Therefore we can take or , and then
the corresponding value of is given by . Therefore the curves
intersect at the points with polar coordinates and , and they also
intersect at the origin by inspection.
Graphing Rational Functions
If is a rational function given by where and are

polynomials, we can use the following information to sketch the graph of :
I) Asymptotes
A) Vertical Asymptotes
To find the vertical asymptotes, we can first cancel any common factors in
and and then take the vertical lines corresponding to the zeros of the
denominator:
The line is a vertical asymptote for the graph of whenever
and .
The y-coordinates of points on the graph of get arbitrarily large (in absolute value)
as the graph approaches a vertical asymptote, and
the graph never crosses a vertical asymptote.
B) Horizontal Asymptotes
We can find the horizontal asymptotes by investigating the behavior of as gets

arbitrarily large (with either a plus sign or a minus sign):
1. If , then the line (the x-axis) is the horizontal

asymptote for the graph of .
2. If , and and are the coefficients of the highest powers

of appearing in and , respectively, then the line is the horizontal
asymptote for the graph of .
3. If , then there is no horizontal asymptote for the graph of .
The graph of will approach the horizontal asymptote (when there is one) as gets
arbitrarily large (with either a plus sign or a minus sign).
To determine if the graph crosses a horizontal asymptote with equation ,
we need to solve the equation .

C) Slanted Asymptotes
If , then the graph of has a slanted asymptote; and we can

find the slanted asymptote by dividing by :
If
where , then the line is the slanted asymptote.
To determine if the graph crosses a slanted asymptote, we need to solve
the equation or, equivalently, the equation .
Notice that if is a rational function, then its graph cannot have
a) two horizontal asymptotes or
b) both a horizontal asymptote and a slanted asymptote.
II) Intercepts
The intercepts correspond to the points where the graph intersects the two coordinate
axes:
A) To find the y-intercept, set and solve for ; so the y-intercept is given
by .
B) To find the x-intercepts, set and solve for ; so the x-intercepts are the
values of for which (and ).
III) Sign Chart for
The sign of indicates where the graph is above or below the x-axis:
A) Where , the graph of is above the x-axis.
B) Where , the graph of is below the x-axis.
(In calculus, you will use sign charts for the first derivative and the second
derivative to get more detailed information about the graph of .)
Ex 1 If ,
find the asymptotes and intercepts for the graph of , and then use this information
and a sign chart for to sketch the graph of .
Sol 1) Since is a non-constant polynomial, there are no asymptotes for its graph.
(Here and .)
2) a) , so the y-intercept is -3.
b) for , , or ; so the x-intercepts are -1,1, and 3.
3) Using the facts that and that the sign of changes at -1 and 3 and does
not change at 1, we get the following sign chart for :
The following is a sketch of the graph of :
Ex 2 If
1) Find the asymptotes for the graph of .
2) Find the intercepts for the graph.
3) Make a sign chart for .

4) Determine if the graph of crosses its horizontal asymptote, and if the graph has
symmetry around the origin or the y-axis.
5) Use the above information to sketch the graph of .
Sol
1) a) , so the vertical asymptotes are the lines

and .
b) Since and have the same degree, the horizontal asymptote is the
line .
2) a) , so the y-intercept is 2/9.
b) for or , so the x-intercepts are -1 and 1.
3) Using the facts that and all the exponents are odd, we get the following
sign chart for :
4) a) Setting and solving gives , so

or . Therefore there is no solution, so the graph of does not cross the
horizontal asymptote.
b) Since , is an even function and therefore its graph is symmetric

around the y-axis.
5) Using this information, we get the following graph:

Ex 3 If
4) Determine if the graph of crosses its horizontal asymptote, and if the graph has
symmetry around the origin or the y-axis.
Sol
1) a) Since , the vertical asymptotes are the lines
and .
b)Since , the horizontal asymptote is the line (the x-axis).
2) a) , so the y-intercept is 0.
b) when , so the x-intercept is 0.
3) Using the facts that and that the exponents are all odd, we get the
following sign chart for :
4) a) Setting and solving gives , so the graph intersects the horizontal

asymptote at .
b) Since , is an odd function and therefore its graph is symmetric

about the origin.
5) Using the above information, we get the following graph:

---------------------------------------
For each of the following functions,
4) Determine if the graph of crosses its horizontal asymptote or slanted asymptote

(if there is one), and if the graph has symmetry around the origin or the y-axis.
---------------------------------------
Pr 1
Pr 2
Pr 3
Pr 4
Pr 5
Pr 6
Pr 7
Pr 8
Pr 9
Pr 10
Pr 11
Pr 12
Graphing Rational Functions
Sol 1
1) Since is a non-constant polynomial, there are no asymptotes for its graph.

b) , so
iff or and the x-intercepts are -3,3,-1, and 1.
3) Using the facts that and that all the exponents are odd, we get the
4) Since , is an even function and therefore its graph is symmetric

around the y-axis.
5) Using the above information, we get the following graph:
Sol 2
1) a) The vertical asymptote is the line .

b) Since and have the same degree and they both have leading coefficient
1, the horizontal asymptote is the line or .
2) a) , so the y-intercept is -1.
b) , so the only x-intercept is -2.
3) Using the facts that and that all the exponents are odd, we get the
4) a) Setting and solving gives , so and .

Therefore there is no solution, so the graph of does not cross the horizontal
asymptote.
b) is neither even nor odd, so the graph is not symmetric about the y-axis or the
origin.
5) Using the information found above, we get the following graph:

Sol 3 [Compare this example to the previous example.]
1) a) Since for , the only vertical asymptote

is the line .
b) Since and have the same degree and they both have leading coefficient
1, the horizontal asymptote is the line or .
2) a) a) , so the y-intercept is -1.
b) Since for , ; so the only x-

intercept is -2.
3) Since and both exponents are odd (and is undefined at -1),

4) a) Solving gives or or . Since
is undefined at -1, though, its graph does not cross the horizontal asymptote.
origin.
5) Using the above information, we get the graph shown below:
Sol 4

and .
b) Since , the horizontal asymptote is the line (the x-
axis).
b) , so the only x-intercept is 4.
3) Since and all the exponents are odd,
4) a) Setting and solving gives , so the graph intersects the horizontal

asymptote at the point .
origin.

Sol 5

and .
line or .
3) Using the facts that and the sign of changes at 4 and at -4 but
does not change at 0,
4) a) Setting gives , so
and . Therefore there is no solution, so the graph of does not cross its
horizontal asymptote.
b) Since , is an even function and therefore its graph is symmetric

about the y-axis.
5) Using the information we have found, we get the following graph:

Sol 6
1) a) , so the only vertical asymptote is the

line (the y-axis).
b) Since , there is no horizontal asymptote; but

since , there is a slanted asymptote:
Dividing by gives the original equation ,
so the line is the slanted asymptote.
2) a) Since is undefined, there is no y-intercept.
b) or , so the
x-intercepts are 1 and 3.
3) Since , using the facts that and all the exponents
are odd gives the following sign chart for :
4) a) Setting and solving gives or or .

Therefore there is no solution, so the graph of does not intersect its slanted
asymptote.
origin.
Sol 7
1) a) Since ,
the line is the only vertical asymptote.

Dividing by gives the original equation ,
2) a) , so the y-intercept is -1/2.
b) , so
; and therefore the only x-intercept is 1.
3) Using the facts that and the sign of changes at 2 but does not
change at 1, we get the following sign chart for :
4) a) Setting and solving gives , so and so .

Therefore there is no solution, so the graph of does not intersect the slanted
asymptote.
origin.

Sol 8
1) a) , so the only vertical asymptote is the line .

Dividing by gives , so the line is the

slanted asymptote.
b) or , so the x-intercepts are -2

and 3.
3) Using the facts that and all the exponents are odd,
4) a) Setting gives , so and so .

Therefore there is no solution, so the graph of does not intersect the slanted
asymptote.
origin.
Sol 9
1) a) Since for , the only vertical asymptote

is the line .
b) Since and have the same degree, the horizontal asymptote is given
by or .
2) a) , so the y-intercept is -1/3.
b) , so the only x-intercept is -1.
3) Since and both exponents are odd (and is undefined at 1),
4) a) Setting gives , so and . However, is

undefined at 1, so the graph of does not intersect the horizontal asymptote.
origin.
5) From the information above, we get the following graph:

Sol 10

and .
line or .
b) or , so the x-intercepts are 4

and -2.
3) Using the facts that and that all the exponents are odd,
4) a) Setting gives , so gives

or . Therefore the graph of crosses the horizontal asymptote at the
point .
origin.

Sol 11
1) a) , so the vertical asymptotes are

and .

Dividing by gives ,
3) Using the facts that and that the sign of changes at -1, 2, and 4,
4) a) Setting gives , so and

therefore so . Since , the graph of
intersects the slanted asymptote at the point .
origin.

Sol 12
1) a) Since , the vertical asymptotes are the

lines and .
b) Since and have the same degree, the horizontal asymptote is given
by or .
2) a) , so the y-intercept is 3/5.
b) or , so the x-intercepts are -3

and 1.
3) Since and all the exponents are odd,
4) a) Setting gives ,
so and or .
Therefore the graph of intersects the horizontal asymptote at the point .
origin.

Exponential Growth and Decay
The formula for exponential growth and decay is given by

where is the initial amount (the amount when )
since , and
the constant is the growth constant (if ) or the decay constant (if ).
An example of exponential growth is given by continuous compounding of interest. In

this case, the constant is the principal (the initial amount), and the constant is the
annual interest rate.
Notice that in exponential growth or decay, the proportional amount of change in two
time intervals of the same length is the same:
If and are two time intervals of length , then
and
, so
Ex 1 A bacterial culture is growing exponentially, and its mass increases from 2 mg to

5 mg in 30 hours. Find the mass of the culture after 25 hours.
Sol Since , we get that .

Since when , ; so . Taking natural logarithms on both
sides yields , so .
Substituting back in the formula for
gives ;
so when , mg.
Ex 2 A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 450 years. Find how long it will take a
sample of the isotope to decrease from 6 mg to 2 mg.
Sol Since , we get that .
Since the half-life is 450 years, when ; so
and . Taking natural logarithms on both sides
gives , so .
Substituting back in the formula for
gives ;
so setting gives
or .
Taking natural logarithms on both sides gives
, so and therefore
In the following problems, leave your answers in exact form:
Pr 1 A bacterial culture which is growing exponentially increases from 5 g to 7 g in

11 hours. How long does it take the culture to double its mass?
Pr 2 A sample of a radioactive isotope decreases from 5 mg to 4 mg in 24 years. Find

the half-life of the isotope.
Pr 3 The population of a town increases from 15,000 to 25,000 in 10 years. Assuming

that the population is growing exponentially, how long does it take the population to
increase by 40% ?
Pr 4 A bank account earns interest at an annual rate of 5% compounded continuously.

How long will it take the amount of money in the account to triple?
Pr 5 Suppose Rex has learned a list of 500 vocabulary words, and that the number of
words he remembers after weeks decreases exponentially. If he remembers 450
words after 3 weeks, how long does it take for the number of words he remembers to
decrease by 40% ?
Pr 6 Assume that the number of people infected by a newly discovered virus is

growing exponentially. If the number of people infected increases from 300 to 600 in
5 weeks, how much additional time will it take before 4800 people are infected?
Pr 7 Suppose that the number of grasshoppers in a town is growing exponentially. If

there were 8,000 grasshoppers initially and 18,000 grasshoppers after 30 days, find
the number of grasshoppers in the town after 15 days.
Pr 8 Suppose that the number of bugs in a rainforest is growing exponentially. If there

were 2880 bugs after 3 weeks and 5120 bugs after 5 weeks, how many bugs were
there initially?
Pr 9 The populations of two states are growing exponentially. If state A currently has
a population of 9 million and state B currently has a population of 11 million, and if
the populations of the two states increase annually by 3% and 2%, respectively, when
will their populations be equal?
Exponential Growth and Decay
Sol 1 Since , we have that .
Since when , ; so . Taking natural logarithms of both
sides gives , so .
Substituting back in the formula for gives
, so
, so and
Sol 2 Since , we have that .
Since when , ; so . Taking natural logarithms of both
sides gives ; so .
Substituting back in the formula for gives

.
To find the half-life, we can set and solve for :
, so and
Sol 3 We know that , so .
Since when , we have that
and therefore .
Taking natural logarithms on both sides yields
, so and therefore
When the population has increased by 40%, it will be equal

to ; so
.
Taking natural logarithms gives
, so and hence
Sol 4 Since , . To find the time required for the amount to

triple, we can set and then solve for :
, so
years.
Sol 5 Here , so .
Since when , we have that , so
Thus .
The number of words remembered has decreased by 40%

when , so
and taking natural logarithms on both sides gives

. Therefore we get that
Sol 6 Since the number of people infected doubles every 5 weeks, and since ,
the number of people infected will increase by a factor of 8 [that is, double 3 times]
in weeks.
Sol 7 Let be the number of grasshoppers in the town (in thousands) after t days.
Then we know that
since the proportional amount of change in any 15-day time period is the same, so
and therefore
thousand grasshoppers.
Sol 8A Since when and when , we have that
and .
Dividing the second equation by the first gives

so . Taking the square root of both sides gives
, so substituting back in the first equation gives
, so
bugs.
Sol 8B Making a time-shift, let correspond to the time when there were 2880
bugs.
Then where , so ; and when .
Therefore , so .
Taking square roots of both sides gives , so substituting back in the formula
for gives
Since we shifted the time by 3 weeks, the initial number of bugs is given by
Sol 9 For state A, we have that (in millions) where
when ; so letting in the formula for gives
.
For state B, we have that (in millions) where
when ; so letting in the formula for gives
Setting the expressions for the populations of the two states equal to each other and
solving for , we get
and

Analysis Calculus.370

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Equations of Lines

1. The slope of a line through the points and is given by .

The line with slope m and y-intercept b has equation .

4. Two lines with slopes and are

Sol Using the Point-Slope Form, we obtain the equation or,

If instead we use the Slope-Intercept Form, we get the equation . To

determine b, we substitute and to obtain , so that .

parallel to the line .

parallel to this line, its slope is also , so its equation is

perpendicular to the line .

Pr 7 Find an equation of the tangent line to the circle at the point .

Pr 8 Find the point of intersection of the lines with equations

so and therefore . Therefore the line has equation

Sol 2 The slope of the line is given by , so its equation is given

Sol 4 Solving the equation for y gives , so its slope is given

by and therefore a perpendicular line has slope given by .

Using the point-slope form, we get the equation ; and

which is given by . The slope of the line segment is

given by , so the slope of the perpendicular bisector will

be . Therefore the perpendicular bisector has the

, the tangent line has the slope . Since the

tangent line passes through the point , its equation is

second equation from the first gives or . Then

substituting back into the first equation gives so .

Therefore is the point of intersection of the lines.

The distance between the points and is given

3. Standard Equation of a Circle

The circle with center and radius has the equation .

Sol Completing the square on the x terms and the y terms

center of the circle is the point , and its radius is .

line segment between the points and .

. Squaring both sides

gives , and then multiplying out both sides

yields ; so the perpendicular

bisector has equation or .

from to as its center and has radius .

Pr 4 Find an equation of the circle with center which is tangent to the

Pr 6 Use the distance formula to determine if the point is inside, outside, or on

the circle with equation .

Pr 7 Find the point on the circle with equation which is

closest to the point .

Pr 8 Calculate the distance from the point to the line .

Sol A The circle has an equation of the form or

where is the distance from to the origin; so

and the circle has the

by , so the circle has the

Sol 1 The midpoint of the line segment AB is given

by , so the distance from P to M is equal to

Therefore the circle has equation .

Sol 3 The circle has an equation of the form , where the

so . Therefore the circle has equation .

so . Therefore the circle has an equation of the

form , where is the distance from C to P (or Q). Instead of

by completing the square:

gives , so the circle has center and radius . The

distance from P to C is given by .

Since , the point P is inside the circle.

and C is given by . Therefore the line through P and C

has the equation or , and the point on the circle

Substituting into the equation of the circle

or . Since the x-coordinate of P is 1, the point on the circle closest to P

has and ; so it is the point .

given line. Solving for gives , so the given line has