15

CHAPTER 3

The Cost of Fouling

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In Chapter 1 some of the factors that contribute to the cost of fouling were
mentioned. It is the purpose of this chapter to give more detail in respect of these
costs.
Attempts have been made to make estimates of the overall costs of fouling in
terms of particular processes or in particular countries. In a very extensive study
of refinery fouling costs published in 1981 [van Nostrand et al 1981] a typical
figure was given as being of the order of $107 US per annum for a refinery
processing 105 barrels of crude oil per day. Allowing for inflation this figure would
be something like $2 - 3 x 107 in 1993. These authors also report the advantages
of using antifoulant chemicals. For instance on the crude unit the use of an
additive reduces the annual cost attributable to fouling by almost 50%, even taking
into account the cost of the antifoulant.
About the same time it was suggested [Thackery 1979] that the overall cost of
fouling to industry in the UK was in the range s - 5 x 108 per annum. Translating
this into costs for 1993 the probable range would be s - 14 x 18 s. An overall cost
of fouling for the US published a few years ago [Garrett-Price et al 1985] was $8 -
10 x 109 per annum. The corresponding figures for 1993 would be in the range
$ 1 5 - 20 x 109 per annum. A recent study [Chaudagne 1992] for French industry

recorded an overall cost of fouling in France to be around 1 x 10 ~~French Francs

per annum. Pilavachi and Isdale [1992] conclude over the European Community
as a whole the cost of heat exchanger fouling at the time of writing, was of the
order of 10 x 109 ECU and of this total 20 - 30% was due to the cost of additional
energy. It is clear from these limited data that fouling costs are substantial and any
reduction in these costs would be a welcome contribution to profitability and
competitiveness.

3.2 INCREASED CAPITAL INVESTMENT

In order to make allowance for potential fouling the area for a given heat
transfer is larger than for clean conditions as described in Chapter 2. For the
liquid/liquid exchanger discussed in Chapter 2 it was shown that the required area
for the given fouling conditions was 1.43 times that for clean conditions. Although
the cost of heat exchangers is not strictly pro rata in relation to area it will be
appreciated that for a large complex containing several heat exchangers the
16 Fouling of Heat Exchangers

additional capital cost for all the exchangers will represent a considerable sum of
money.
In addition to the actual size of the heat exchanger other increased capital costs
are likely. For instance where it is anticipated that a particular heat exchanger is
likely to suffer severe or difficult fouling, provision for off-line cleaning will be
required. The location of the heat exchanger for easy access for cleaning may
require additional pipe work and larger pumps compared with a similar heat
exchanger operating with little or no fouling placed at a more convenient location.
Furthermore if the problem of fouling is thought to be excessive it might be
necessary to install a standby exchanger, with all the associated pipe work
foundations and supports, so that one heat exchanger can be operated while the
other is being cleaned and serviced. Under these circumstances the additional
capital cost is likely to more than double and with allowances for heavy deposits
the final cost could be 4 - 8 times the cost of the corresponding exchanger running
in a clean condition.
Additional capital costs for injection equipment will also be involved if it is
thought necessary to dose one or both streams with additives to reduce the fouling
problem. Consideration of on-line cleaning (see Chapter 15) such as the Taprogge
system for cooling water, will also involve additional capital. It has to be said
however, that on-line cleaning can be very effective and that the additional capital
cost can often be justified in terms of reduced operating costs.
It is important that as the design of a particular heat exchanger evolves to
compensate for the problem of fouling, each additional increment in capital cost is
examined carefully in order that it may be justified. The indiscriminate use of
fouling resistances for instance, can lead to high capital costs, specially where
exotic and expensive materials of construction are required. Furthermore the way
in which the additional area is accommodated, can affect the rate of fouling. For
instance if the additional area results say, in reduced velocities, the fouling rate may
be higher than anticipated (see Chapter 13) and the value of the additional area
may be largely offset by the effects of heavy deposits.

3.3 ADDITIONAL OPERATING COSTS

A number of contributory operating cost factors that result from the

accumulation of unwanted deposits on heat exchanger surfaces can be identified.
The function of a heat exchanger as the name implies, is to transfer heat energy
between streams. The prime reason for this is to conserve heat which is usually a
costly component of any process. Reduced efficiency has to be compensated in
some way in the process. If heat is not recovered the shortfall will have to be made
up perhaps by the consumption of more primary fuel such as oil, coal or gas. In
other operations it is necessary to raise the temperature of a particular stream to
facilitate a chemical reaction, for example hydrocracking in refinery operations to
produce lower molecular weight products. In power stations the efficiency of the
steam condensers at the outlet from the turbines has a direct effect on the cost of
 The Cost of Fouling 17

the electricity produced (see Chapter 16). If the cooling of power station
condensers is inefficient it will mean that not all the pressure energy available in the
steam passing through the turbines may be utilised.
Apart from the problem of reduced energy efficiency other problems may
accrue. For example if the temperature of the feed to a chemical reactor is lower
than the optimum called for in the design, the yield from the reactor may be
reduced. The quality of the product may not be acceptable and additional
processing may be required to improve the specification of the product.
In the operation of a distillation column where the feed preheater exchanges
heat between the bottom product and the feed, inefficient heat exchange will mean
additional heat requirements in the reboiler. In turn this represents a greater "boil
up" rate in the column between the reboiler and the feed inlet that could affect the
efficiency of the stripping section of the column due to droplet entrainment and
channelling. Such conditions may affect product quality or throughput may have
to be reduced to maintain product specification. These effects represent a reduced
return on investment in terms of the distillation column. Moreover because the
heat removed from the bottom product is reduced additional cooling may be
required (at further cost) before the bottom product is pumped to storage.
Additional cooling requirements will put an extra load on the cold utility and may
adversely affect its operating cost.
The presence of deposits on the surface of heat exchangers restricts the flow
area. As a consequence for a given throughput the velocity of flow increases. In
approximate terms.

Ap a u 2 (3.1)

where Ap is the loss of pressure through the exchanger

and u is the fluid velocity

so that even small changes in velocity can represent substantial increases in Ap.
Fouling deposits are usually rough in comparison with standard heat exchanger
surfaces. The roughness increases the friction experienced by the fluid flowing
across the surface so that for a given velocity Ap is greater than in the clean
condition. The larger the Ap the higher the pumping energy required and hence a
greater pumping cost. A more extensive discussion of pressure drop is given in
Chapter 5.
The presence of fouling on the surface of heat exchangers may be the cause of
additional maintenance costs. The more obvious result of course, is the need to
clean the heat exchanger to return it to efficient operation. Not only will this
involve labour costs but it may require large quantities of cleaning chemicals and
there may be effluent problems to be overcome that add to the cost. If the cleaning
agents are hazardous or toxic, elaborate safety precautions with attendant costs,
18 Fouling of Heat Exchangers

may be required. Cleaning of heat exchangers is discussed in more detail in

Chapter 15.
Additional maintenance costs may derive from the higher pressure drop across
the exchanger due to the presence of the deposit. The higher inlet pressure may
cause failure of joints and place a heavier load on the associated pump. It is
possible that the presence of the deposit will accelerate corrosion of the heat
exchanger. In turn this may lead to earlier replacement of the whole exchanger or
at least, heat exchanger components. Failure of heat exchanger joints may lead to
hazardous conditions due say to leaking flammable or toxic substances.
The presence of a deposit on the "cold side" of high temperature heat
exchangers such as might be found in steam raising plant, may give rise to high
metal temperatures that can increase corrosion or even loss of integrity of the
metal with costly consequences.
The frequent need to dismantle and clean a heat exchanger can affect the
continued integrity of the equipment, i.e. components in shell and tube exchangers
such as baffles and tubes may be damaged or the gaskets and plates in plate heat
exchangers may become faulty. The damage may also aggravate the fouling
problem by causing restrictions to flow and upsetting the required temperature
distribution.

3.4 LOSS OF PRODUCTION

The effects of fouling on the throughput of heat exchangers due to restrictions

to flow and inefficient heat transfer, have already been mentioned. The need to
restore flow and heat exchanger efficiency will necessitate cleaning. On a planned
basis the interruptions to production may be minimised but even so if the remainder
of the plant is operating correctly then this will constitute a loss of output that, if
the remainder of the equipment is running to capacity still represents a loss of
profit and a reduced contribution to the overall costs of the particular site. The
consequences of enforced shutdown due to the effects of fouling are of course
much more expensive in terms of output. Much depends on a recognition of the
potential fouling at the design stage so that a proper allowance is made to
accommodate a satisfactory cleaning cycle. When the seriousness of a fouling
problem goes unrecognised during design then unscheduled or even emergency
shutdown, may be necessary. For example, in the particular fouling situation
illustrated by Fig. 1.1, three heat exchangers were designed and installed. It was
anticipated that two would be operating while the other was being cleaned on a six
month cycle. Under this arrangement production would have been maintained at a
satisfactory and continuous level. In the event the heat exchangers required
cleaning every 10- 14 days! The problem became so difficult that at certain times
all three exchangers were out of operation with severe penalties in terms of cost
and loss of production.
 The Cost of Fouling 19

Production time lost through the need to clean a heat exchanger can never be
recovered and it could in certain situations, mean the difference between profit and
loss.

3.5 THE COST OF REMEDIAL ACTION

The use of additives to eliminate or reduce the effects of fouling has already
been mentioned. An example of the effectiveness of an antifoulant on the preheat
stream of a crude oil distillation unit has been described [van Nostrand et al 1981 ].
These data show that considerable mitigation of the fouling can be achieved by this
method. Fig. 3.1 demonstrates the fall off in heat duty with and without
antifouling additives. At the time of publication (1981) the annual cost of these
chemicals was $1.55 x 105 for a crude unit handling 100,000 barrels per day.

170

_ , , No f o u l i n g .
148
L~
~. 127

"v 106
_ Wifhouf onfifoulanf
"- 85

, I ~ 1 ..... I I, i I I t ,
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Nonfhs on s f r e o m

FIGURE 3.1. The reduction of heat duty with and without antifoulant

Treatment of cooling water to combat corrosion, scale formation and biofouling

can be achieved by a suitable programme. The cost may be high and for a modest
cooling water system the cost may run into tens of thousands of pounds.
If the fouling problem cannot be relieved by the use of additives it may be
necessary to make modifications to the plant. Modification to allow on-line
cleaning of a heat exchanger can represent a considerable capital investment.
Before capital can be committed in this way, some assessment of the effectiveness
of the modification must be made. In some examples of severe fouling problems
the decision is straightforward, and a pay back time of less than a year could be
anticipated. In other examples the decision is more complex and the financial risks
involved in making the modification will have to be addressed.
20 Fouling of Heat Exchangers

3.6 FINANCIAL INCENTIVES

The opportunities and financial incentive to tackle the problem of fouling were
illustrated by a comprehensive investigation into the cost of condenser fouling for a
hypothetical 600 MW coal fired power station [Curlett and Impagliazzo 1981].
The study not only considered cooling water velocity and temperature, but also the
design of the condenser and materials of construction and the load on the
respective turbine. Turbine design also had an effect. Changes in wet bulb
temperature as they affect the performance of the cooling water system were also
taken into account.
Among the interesting conclusions drawn from the study, the authors found that
the magnitude of the effect of condenser tube fouling on unit output is sensitive to:
1. Wet bulb temperature. The effect at the summer peak load was twice the
yearly average for every degree of fouling investigated, for the particular power
station location (Dallas, Texas).

2. The characteristics of the turbine.

Simplified annual cost data [1987 prices] taken from Curlett and Impagliazzo
[ 1981] are presented on Figs. 3.2 and 3.3 for a lightly and heavily loaded turbine
respectively at different condenser fouling resistances. The data are calculated for
summer conditions and a water velocity through the tubes of 1.83 m/s. The base
fouling resistance is 3.5 x 10.5 m~K/W for which the condenser was designed. Any
fouling above this value will represent a cost penalty either in terms of output
(capability) or additional fuel costs.

IA 30
c) Total cost
../3 penalty
G;
O
.s 20
cJ t
O Capability
penalty
O X
L.J
"10
G; 10 Fuel cost
penalty
cl
a;
L,
c~
I I, I i
0 I0 20 30 ,~0 50
m2KIW x 105

FIGURE 3.2. Change in costs with fouling for a 600 MW power station with a lightly loaded turbine
 The Cost of Fouling 21

FIGURE 3.3. Change in costs with fouling for 600 MW power station with a heavily loaded turbine

These data show that for a lightly loaded turbine where the extent of the fouling
resistance is 5 times higher than the design figure, the annual total cost penalty is
$8.4 rn and $4.7 rn for lightly and heavily loaded turbines respectively. The
magnitude of these figures are indicative of the degree of effort justified to reduce
tube fouling on an existing condenser.

3.7 CONCLUDING COMMENTS ON THE COST OF FOULING

A number of contributions to the cost of fouling have been identified, however

some of the costs will remain hidden. Although the cost of cleaning and loss of
production may be recognised and properly assessed, some of the associated costs
may not be attributed directly to the fouling problem. For instance the cost of
additional maintenance of ancillary equipment such as pumps and pipework, will
usually be lost in the overall maintenance charges. The additional energy used to
accommodate the increased pressure drop or the shortfall in heat recovery that
requires an additional energy input, are unlikely to be recognised. Furthermore
because the fouling process is dynamic, i.e. the fouling effects generally increase
with time, the effect on the associated services, e.g. hot and cold utilities may not
be apparent for a considerable time.

REFERENCES

Chaudagne, D., 1992, Fouling costs in the field of heat exchange equipment in the
French Market, in: Bohnet, M., Bott, T.R., Karabelas, A.J., Pilavachi, P.A.,
S6m6ria, R. and Vidil, R. eds. Fouling Mechanisms - Theoretical and
Practical Aspects. Editions Europ6ennes Thermique et Industrie, Paris.
22 Fouling of Heat Exchangers

Cudett, P.L. and Impagliazzo, A.M., 1981, The impact of condenser tube fouling
on power plant design and enconomics, in: Chenoweth, J.M. and
Impagliazzo, A.M. eds. Fouling in Heat Exchange Equipment. HTD, Vol.
17, ASME.
Garrett-Price, B.A. et al, 1985, Fouling of Heat Exchangers, Characteristics,
Costs, Prevention, Control, Removal. Noyes Publications, New Jersey.
van Nostrand, W.L., Leach, S.H. and Haluska, J.L., 1981, in: Somerscales, E.F.C.
and Knudsen, J.G. eds. Fouling of Heat Transfer Equipment. Hemisphere
Publishing Corp. Washington.
Thackery, P.A., 1979, The cost of fouling in heat exchanger plant, in: Fouling -
Science or Art? Inst. Corrosion Science and Technology and Inst. Chem.
Engineers, Guildford.