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Haseeb Khawaja | [Course Title] |

Difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer
Thermodynamics is the branch of science that studies energy and its
manifestations, and provides a framework for converting from one type to
the other (i.e. the laws of thermodynamics).

Heat transfer, on the other hand, deals with only one type of energy (heat)
and how it is transferred from one body to another.

There is a very fundamental difference between thermodynamics and heat

transfer, and I will try my best to give you an idea. The central idea of
thermodynamics is entropy, and we will use that in understanding the
difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer. I will try to keep this
one short.

For example: thermodynamics stablishes that the internal energy of a body

must increase by the amount of heat you provide it. No more, no less. Heat
transfer describes the mechanisms that explain how heat will propagate
from the heater to the body (and within the body itself) and how long the
process takes.

The first law of thermodynamics for a closed system takes on the following
form on a rate basis:

Q=W + dU/dt

The conventional signs for terms are applicable.

If boundary-work is the only work occurring, i.e., if W=p*dv/dt

Then, Q=p*dv/dt + dU/dt

If the heat transfer occurring in this equation were reversible, then we can
write:

T dS/dt = p dv/dt + dU/dt

This seems to suggest that Q can be evaluated independently from TdS.

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However, it cannot be evaluated using TdS, because real heat transfer
processes are all irreversible and S is not defined as a function
of T for irreversible processes.

Since Q cannot be determined from TdS, how can it be determined? If U(t)

is known, then we could find Q from Q=mcdT/dt. But if I wanted to
substitute a temperature in the internal energy term, which temperature
should I take, since temperature now varies with space? Real heat transfer
processes strictly occur due to appreciable temperature gradients within
the medium. Recall that thermodynamics deals only with properties that
are uniform. And the gradients we now encounter mean that the problem
is no longer a uniform problem. Thermodynamics cannot answer this.

The answer is that a new set of physical principles must be introduced

to predict Q. These principles are transport laws which are not a part of
thermodynamics. Transport laws define systems in which properties vary
with space and time. These laws include Fouriers law, Newtons law of
cooling and Stefan-Boltzmann law.

Heat Transfer and modes of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer

There are three basic ways in which heat is transferred. In fluids, heat is
often transferred by convection, in which the motion of the fluid itself
carries heat from one place to another. Another way to transfer heat is by
conduction, which does not involve any motion of a substance, but rather is
a transfer of energy within a substance (or between substances in contact).
The third way to transfer energy is by radiation, which involves absorbing or
giving off electromagnetic waves.

Convection

Heat transfer in fluids generally takes place via convection. Convection

currents are set up in the fluid because the hotter part of the fluid is not as
dense as the cooler part, so there is an upward buoyant force on the hotter

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fluid, making it rise while the cooler, denser, fluid sinks. Birds and gliders
make use of upward convection currents to rise, and we also rely on
convection to remove ground-level pollution.

Forced convection, where the fluid does not flow of its own accord but is
pushed, is often used for heating (e.g., forced-air furnaces) or cooling (e.g.,
fans, automobile cooling systems).

Conduction

When heat is transferred via conduction, the substance itself does not flow;
rather, heat is transferred internally, by vibrations of atoms and molecules.
Electrons can also carry heat, which is the reason metals are generally very
good conductors of heat. Metals have many free electrons, which move
around randomly; these can transfer heat from one part of the metal to
another.

Copper, a good thermal conductor, which is why some pots and pans have
copper bases, has a thermal conductivity of 390 J / (s m C). Styrofoam, on
the other hand, a good insulator, has a thermal conductivity of 0.01 J / (s m
C)

Radiation

The third way to transfer heat, in addition to convection and conduction, is

by radiation, in which energy is transferred in the form of electromagnetic
waves.

Note that the radiation we're talking about here, in regard to heat transfer,
is not the same thing as the dangerous radiation associated with nuclear
bombs, etc. That radiation comes in the form of very high energy
electromagnetic waves, as well as nuclear particles. The radiation
associated with heat transfer is entirely electromagnetic waves, with a
relatively low (and therefore relatively safe) energy.

Everything around us takes in energy from radiation, and gives it off in the
form of radiation. When everything is at the same temperature, the amount

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of energy received is equal to the amount given off. Because there is no net
change in energy, no temperature changes occur. When things are at
different temperatures, however, the hotter objects give off more energy in
the form of radiation than they take in; the reverse is true for the colder
objects.

Fouriers law of heat conduction

The law of heat conduction, also known as Fourier's law, states that the
time rate of heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative
gradient in the temperature and to the area, at right angles to that gradient,
through which the heat flows.

Q = -kA(dT/dx)

Where,

Q is the heat flow rate by conduction (W)

k is the thermal conductivity of body material (Wm 1K1)
A is the cross-sectional area normal to direction of heat flow (m2) and
dT/dx is the temperature gradient (Km1).

Negative sign in Fouriers equation indicates that the heat flow is in

the direction of negative gradient temperature and that serves to
make heat flow positive.

Thermal conductivity k is one of the transport properties. Other are

the viscosity associated with the transport of momentum, diffusion
coefficient associated with the transport of mass.

Thermal conductivity k provides an indication of the rate at which

heat energy is transferred through a medium by conduction process.

Assumptions of Fourier equation:

Steady state heat conduction.

One directional heat flow.

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 Bounding surfaces are isothermal in character that is constant and
uniform temperatures are maintained at the two faces.

Isotropic and homogeneous material and thermal conductivity k is

constant.

Constant temperature gradient and linear temperature profile.

No internal heat generation.

Features of Fourier equation:

Fourier equation is valid for all matter solid, liquid or gas.

The vector expression indicating that heat flow rate is normal to an

isotherm and is in the direction of decreasing temperature.

It cannot be derived from first principle.

It helps to define the transport property k.

Stefan Boltzmans law

Heat transfer through radiation takes place in form of electromagnetic
waves mainly in the infrared region. Radiation emitted by a body is a
consequence of thermal agitation of its composing molecules. Radiation
heat transfer can be described by reference to the 'black body'.

The Black Body

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The black body is defined as a body that absorbs all radiation that falls on its
surface. Actual black bodies don't exist in nature - though its characteristics
are approximated by a hole in a box filled with highly absorptive material.
The emission spectrum of such a black body was first fully described by Max
Planck.

A black body is a hypothetical body that completely absorbs all wavelengths

of thermal radiation incident on it. Such bodies do not reflect light, and
therefore appear black if their temperatures are low enough so as not to be
self-luminous. All blackbodies heated to a given temperature emit thermal
radiation.

The radiation energy per unit time from a blackbody is proportional to the
fourth power of the absolute temperature and can be expressed
with Stefan-Boltzmann Law as

q = T4 A (1)

where

q = heat transfer per unit time (W)

= 5.6703 10-8 (W/m2K4) - The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant

T = absolute temperature in Kelvin (K)

A = area of the emitting body (m2)

The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant in Imperial Units

= 5.6703 10-8 (W/m2K4)

= 1.714 10-9 ( Btu/(h f2 oR4) )

= 1.19 10-11 ( Btu/(h in2 oR4) )

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