UNIT 5 — OBSERVING TECHNIQUES AND SPACE EXPLORATION

OBSERVING THE UNIVERSE

Telescopes are the instruments most commonly used to observe the Universe.
Astronomers use telescopes to observe the Moon and the planets in more detail, and
to observe very faint stars and galaxies. The larger the objective lens or mirror of the
telescope, the more light it collects, and the fainter the objects it can see. The
largest ground-based telescopes (eg the 10 m Keck telescope) can image objects
down to magnitude 30.
There are two main types of telescopes.

1 Refracting telescopes
These are telescopes that form an image by the refraction of light through a lens
at the front of the telescope. This is called the objective lens. The lens should
be made of high quality glass to minimise chromatic aberration (where the edges
of the image appear to be fringed with the spectrum of colours). The lens also
needs to be coated with a special film to stop the light being reflected, so more
of the light passes through and gets to the eyepiece.

Figure 5.1: A ray diagram for a refracting telescope

This is the ray diagram for a refracting telescope. It shows where the rays of
light go to produce an image.

Figure 5.2: A refracting telescope inside a dome (NASA)

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 It is difficult to make large optically perfect lenses and also difficult to support
their weight. Therefore, all professional telescopes are now reflecting
telescopes.

2 Reflecting telescopes
These are telescopes that form an image by the reflection of light by a primary
concave mirror. This mirror is located at the back of the telescope. The light
reaches the mirror from the open end of the telescope and a smaller secondary
mirror is used to focus the light and reflect it to the eyepiece.

Figure 5.3: The Faulkes Telescope North (Hawaii) is a reflecting telescope

(Faulkes Telescope)

Reflectors have an advantage as they are free from chromatic aberration. They
are usually made from low expansion glass or a ceramic material that is coated
with aluminium. They can be made larger than refractors as the mirror can be
supported at the back, whereas refractors can only be supported around the rim
of the lens. Also many small mirrors can be linked together to form a larger
telescope or an array.
There are two types of reflecting telescope, with slightly different set-ups.

a Newtonian reflecting telescope

This is the simplest form of reflecting telescope, first built by Isaac Newton
in 1668. The light is collected by a primary concave mirror and then
reflected from a secondary mirror into an eyepiece.

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 Figure 5.4: A ray diagram for a Newtonian reflecting telescope

This diagram shows the path of the rays of light in the Newtonian reflecting
telescope.

b Cassegrain reflecting Telescope

In this telescope the light is received by the primary mirror and reflected to
the secondary mirror. It is then reflected back towards the primary mirror,
but passes through a hole in it to the eyepiece. In this telescope the
secondary mirror is convex. This type of set-up tends to cancel out any
aberrations (defects in the image) and it is used by both professional and
amateur astronomers. It was devised by a French priest called Cassegrain in
1672.

Figure 5.5: A ray diagram for a Cassegrain reflecting telescope

This diagram shows the path of the rays of light in the Cassegrain reflecting
telescope.

Magnification
The magnification of a telescope depends on the primary mirror or lens and the
position of the eyepiece mirror or lens. It can be calculated using the following
equation:
focal length of objective lens
magnificat ion =
focal length of eyepiece lens

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The units for the focal length of the objective lens must be the same as the units for
the focal length of the eyepiece lens, eg both in mm.
However, often in observations it is the amount of light entering the telescope that is
more important. The bigger the aperture (the opening at the end of the telescope)
the more light can enter it, thus giving a better image. This is particularly important
when looking at faint objects like far away stars or planets.
Telescopes can be used with different mounts. Altazimuth mounts are used by most
professional astronomers and the mount allows the telescope to move in both
horizontal and vertical axis. By using an equatorial mount the telescope has one of
its axes parallel to the Earth’s axis. The telescopes other axis is at right angles to the
Earth’s axis. It is then easier for the telescope to follow the rotation of the Earth and
the object will stay in the field of view.

Siting of telescopes and observatories

This is about knowing the best place to put an observatory or telescope to get the
best images of the Universe.
An observatory is where a telescope is usually put to view the Universe. It is a
protective ‘house’ where the telescope is fixed. Many amateur astronomers do not
have access to observatories as they are mostly used by professional astronomers.

Figure 5.6: Roque de los Muchachos Observatory, Canary Islands (NASA)

Inside the dome of the observatory is a telescope. When it is dark, and a suitable
night for viewing, the roof panel can be slid back and the telescope will be open to
the sky.
Some observatory domes move around (spin) to allow different parts of the sky to be
observed.

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The best conditions to site an observatory are:
1 away from cities or towns, as the street lighting and car headlamps make it
difficult to see the stars.
2 at higher altitudes (up a hill or mountain), as there is less atmosphere to affect
the image. The light from stars can be refracted by the Earth’s atmosphere. This
can make objects appear to be in a different place in the sky. Telescopes above
cloud level give a clearer view.
3 at mid latitudes, as the weather is generally better, and there will be more fine
days with less cloud.
An example of an observatory in a good location is Mauna Kea in Hawaii. It is located
4205 m above sea level. This is a good location as the air is dry and good for infrared
astronomy. It is very near to the equator so there are more cloudless nights for
better viewing of the sky. The island has a lighting ordinance (law) that means there
are very few lights on at night. This ensures that as much of the sky can be viewed as
possible.
A large problem facing astronomers is that the Earth’s atmosphere causes the light
from stars and other celestial objects to be distorted, as it is differentially refracted
through air masses with different temperatures. This causes the stars to scintillate
(twinkle) and the surface of planets appears to boil; an effect termed ‘seeing’.
Seeing improves with altitude and is perfect above the atmosphere; one of the
advantages of telescopes in space (eg the Hubble Space Telescope – for further
information on this see page 107).
Photography can be used to enhance the image viewed. Star trails and arcs around
the poles show that the Earth rotates. Photographs of meteor trails and comets, and
other fainter objects, can give more detail of the objects viewed.

Radio astronomy
This is the study of radio emissions reaching the Earth from space. They can be
detected at wavelengths from many metres down to about 2 cm, at sea level without
interference from pollution (light etc). For observations of radio waves of less than 1
millimetre it is necessary to observe them from high mountains to avoid atmospheric
absorption of the radio waves. The main problem with radio astronomy is
interference from Earth communications. Therefore, international agreements have
set aside certain wavebands (frequencies) for use in radio astronomy.
Radio emissions were first detected from the Milky Way. They were produced by the
motion of high-speed electrons in our Galaxy’s magnetic field. Radio waves are more
likely to be found in far off galaxies and quasars and this type of radiation also led to
the discovery of the cosmic background radiation.
Radio astronomy can be divided into two main areas of study.

1 Radar (radio) astronomy

This is the use of radar techniques in astronomy. Radio waves are transmitted
and they are reflected by objects and an echo is received on Earth or by an
orbiting satellite. These can be timed and then give us a distance for that
particular object from Earth. Radar reflections were received from Venus in
1961, at NASA and Jodrell Bank, UK. The resulting measurements provided an

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 accurate new value of solar parallax and this gave us the scale of the Solar
System (how big it is). The most common use is radar altimetry in which the
surface of a planet (eg Venus and Mars) is mapped by an orbiter.

2 Passive radio astronomy

This is waiting for radio waves from stars, galaxies and quasars to reach us on
Earth. This gives us valuable information about the nature of the universe. It is
also how the Search for Extra Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI) is trying to find
intelligent life in the Universe. It is hoped that intelligent life forms will send out
radio waves that we can detect and we will then be able to identify that there is
other life out there.
It is possible for everyone who owns a computer to be involved in the SETI
project, by visiting their website and downloading the software. Your computer
will search for radio waves when you are not using it, like a screen saver, and
you will be able to see the results. The SETI project will then be using more
computers so has more chance of finding something significant.

Radio telescopes
These are instruments used to collect and record radio waves from space.
In Britain the main radio telescope is the Lovell radio telescope at Jodrell Bank,
Cheshire, Britain.

Figure 5.7: The Lovell telescope, Jodrell Bank, Cheshire, UK (NASA)

A radio telescope is a large dish (primary reflector) with a secondary reflector

‘sticking out’ from its centre. The surface of the dish has to be smooth to reflect the
radio waves.
The smoother the dish, the shorter the wavelengths that it can detect. They can be
much bigger than optical telescopes as they can be better supported and are made
from tougher material. This allows more radio waves to be collected.
The resolution of the radio telescope is determined by the size of the dish. So the
larger the dish the higher the resolution. However, to provide higher resolution many

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dishes are linked together to form an array (a radio interferometer). This gives the
array a resolution of 10 to 100 times that of the largest optical telescopes on Earth.
The sensitivity (the smallest wavelength it can detect) is still that of each individual
dish. The largest radio telescope in the world is the Very Large Array, in New Mexico,
USA.

Figure 5.8: The Very Large Array, New Mexico, USA (NASA)

When the radio waves are detected at the receiver they are converted to electrical
signals. These signals are amplified and sent to the main control room (computer).
To form a picture of a radio source the telescope must be scanned to and fro and the
signals processed by a computer.

Figure 5.9: A ray diagram for a radio telescope

Infra-Red (IR) astronomy

This is observing objects in the Universe that give out IR waves. Due to the
atmosphere of the Earth this is only possible through an atmospheric window. These
are narrow spaces in the electromagnetic spectrum at wavelengths where IR
radiation occurs. The radiation can pass through the atmosphere at these points. To
avoid the atmosphere altogether the observations are usually made from high
altitude aircraft and satellites.

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IR sources in the Universe include galaxies, quasars and anything that gives out heat
(almost all things). IR astronomy has allowed us to see closer to the centre of our
own Galaxy and it is the key to helping us understand the energy output of galaxies
and quasars. It also tells us the chemical composition of planets and moons.
Molecules in the atmospheres of planets and moons absorb IR and give us detailed IR
absorption spectra. This tells us their composition and temperature. IR astronomy
has established that there is water ice and CO2 ice on Mars, water ice on Jupiter,
Saturn and Uranus and also methane ice on Triton and Pluto. Another important area
of IR astronomy is the study of star formation regions, since these are shrouded in
warm dust.
A good example of an IR telescope is the Spitzer Space telescope, which took figure
5.10.

Figure 5.10: An IR photograph of a new-born star HH46, from the Spitzer Space
telescope (NASA)

Ultra-Violet (UV) astronomy

This is observing objects in the Universe that give out UV waves. UV waves do not
penetrate the Earth’s atmosphere, as it is protected by the ozone layer (a little gets
through to tan us but not enough for astronomical purposes). Therefore, observations
have to be made from rockets and satellites. UV astronomy has only discovered a few
new sources of UV waves, unlike radio, IR and X-rays. However, its main use is in
spectroscopy. Many atoms and ions in space have their strongest spectral lines in the
UV range. UV studies have been significant in the study of the composition of stars of
types O and B (very hot) and of interstellar gas. UV is also used to study planets,
atmospheres and the gas in comets. Furthermore, it is important in the study of
luminous galaxies and quasars, which contain hot stars and large amounts of gas.

Figure 5.11: A UV photograph of the Sun (NASA)

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X-ray astronomy
This is observing objects in the Universe that give out X-rays. The Earth’s atmosphere
stops all X-rays reaching the surface so this type of astronomy has to be carried out
from rockets and satellites. For astronomy purposes X-rays are usually described
according to the energy associated with X-ray photons. This type of astronomy has
discovered X-ray binary stars, the X-ray emissions of the Sun (from the corona) and
supernova remnants, and active galaxies and quasars. It has also been discovered
that most types of stars emit X-rays.
A good example of an X-ray telescope is the XXM-Newton space telescope, which took
figure 5.12 (for further information see page 106).

Figure 5.12: An X-ray photograph of quasar 3C 273, from XXM-Newton (ESA)

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EXPLORING THE UNIVERSE

Observing different objects

The following objects are either viewed from Earth or are often seen in the night sky.

• Stars they vary in colour (though these colours are difficult to see)
and twinkle due to the Earth’s atmosphere.
• Meteors these streak across the sky as they burn up in the Earth’s
atmosphere (also known as ‘shooting stars’).
• Satellites these move slowly across the sky and do not twinkle. They are
lit up due to sunlight being reflected off them. The light may
cut out when it is passing into the Earth’s shadow and no light
from the Sun can reach it. Most satellites pass over from north
to south or south to north.
• Aircraft these move quite fast and are usually obvious by their flashing
lights.
• Comets these can be identified by their bright tails. It is not always
possible to view both tails. Over a period of days the comet will
change position with respect to the starry background.

Spacecraft
Spacecraft include any vehicle that can travel into space, whether it is manned or
unmanned. Spacecraft consist of a rocket, which is used to power them into space,
and a science module, which carries the equipment to carry out scientific
experiments, and sometimes a habitation module if it is a manned mission.
Habitation modules carry all the food, water, oxygen and other equipment required
by the astronauts to live in space.

Figure 5.13: Launch of the space shuttle Discovery, in 1998 (NASA)

The rocket must exceed escape velocity, to escape the gravitational pull of the
Earth. For Earth the escape velocity is 11.2 km/s (this will not be examined).

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Space missions
There have been many missions to explore and investigate different parts of space.
Some of these are:

• Apollo (may be examined)

This was the USA space project that landed astronauts on the Moon. The
spacecraft had three main parts.
1 pressurised command module
2 service module
3 lunar module.
It was launched with a Saturn V rocket. After four preparatory manned flights
Apollo 11 landed on the Moon in 1969. Neil Armstrong and Buzz (Edwin) Aldrin
were the first men to set foot on the Moon. They brought back samples of rock
and dust. This and subsequent missions brought back more samples and left
instruments there to measure data about moonquakes, to examine samples of
the solar wind and to measure the amount of dust deposited on the surface.
There were six Apollo missions to land on the Moon. These were Apollo 11, 12,
14, 15, 16 and the last mission was Apollo 17 in 1972.

Figure 5.14: Launch of Apollo 11 (NASA)

• Cassini-Huygens (may be examined)

This is a joint unmanned spacecraft between the ESA and NASA. It was launched
in 1997 to Saturn. The spacecraft is in two parts and the Cassini part is orbiting
Saturn, while the Huygens part is to land on the Saturn moon Titan to find clues
of how life began on Earth. Titan has a very thick atmosphere and some

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 scientists think it is similar to the early atmosphere on Earth. Cassini reached
Saturn in June 2004 and Huygens dropped into the atmosphere of Titan in early
2005.

Figure 5.15: The Cassini spacecraft before launch (ESA)

• Galileo (may be examined)

This was an unmanned NASA spacecraft to Jupiter. It was launched in 1989. It
flew past the asteroids Gaspra and Ida in 1991 and 1993 respectively and
photographed them both. Galileo entered an orbit around Jupiter in 1995, after
dropping a probe that entered the atmosphere. The probe detected less water
vapour and fewer complex or organic compounds than expected. From 1995 to
1999 Galileo made more than 24 fly-bys of the Moons of Jupiter. It sent back
highly detailed views of these to Earth.

Figure 5.16: The probe that Galileo dropped to the surface of Jupiter (NASA)

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• Genesis (not examined)
This was launched in August 2001 and was a mission to collect samples of the Sun
by collecting some of the solar wind. Scientists thought that this would tell us
more about the origins of the Solar System as it would tell us about the
composition of the Sun. Genesis returned to Earth on 8th September. However,
the parachutes on the craft failed to open and it crashed into the Earth at
approximately 310 km/h. Some of the material was still intact, and is now being
processed by NASA.

Figure 5.17: The Genesis probe after its crash landing (NASA)

• Giotto (may be examined)

This was an unmanned mission by the European Space Agency (ESA) to
investigate Halley’s comet. It was launched on 2nd July 1985. It flew within
600 km of the comet’s nucleus on 14th March 1986. Giotto photographed the
comet’s nucleus and analysed the gas and dust given off. After this it was given a
new mission and trajectory: to fly past the comet Grigg-Skjellerup, which it did
on 10th July 1992. The camera was out of action due to impacts from Halley’s
comet dust. However, the other instruments were able to study the composition
of the second comet.

• ISS–International Space Station (not examined)

This is the largest and most complex international scientific project in history. It
has a mass of over 400 000 kg. It is over 100 m across and over 88 m long. It
orbits above the Earth at an altitude of over 400 km with an inclination of 51.6°,
and is visible from 85% of the Earth. The ISS has laboratory, habitation and
docking modules and has over 400 square meters of solar panels to power it.
Construction on the ISS started in 1998 and is still continuing today. Regular
space flights from different nations carry out construction and maintenance
work. The ISS is designed to carry out experiments and to investigate how
humans can survive in space.

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 Figure 5.18: The International Space Station (NASA)

• Magellan (may be examined)

This was a NASA unmanned spacecraft to Venus and was launched in 1989. It
went into orbit around Venus in 1990 and made a radar map of 98% of the
planet. It revealed impact craters, volcanic mountains and lava flows. In 1993 it
changed to a circular orbit which allowed us to map the gravitational field of
Venus. In 1994 the orbit was further lowered and Magellan burnt up in the
atmosphere.

Figure 5.19: An illustration of the Magellan spacecraft (ESA)

• Mars Exploration Rovers (not examined)

These are two NASA probes to Mars that were launched on 7th and 10th June
2003 and landed there early 2004. They are designed to search the surface and
analyse the rocks and soils for any clues to whether there was once water on
Mars. The probes are called Spirit and Opportunity and they are the biggest
rovers that NASA has sent to Mars.

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 Figure 5.20: Spirit rover digging into the Martian surface (NASA)

• Mars Express/Beagle 2 (not examined)

Beagle 2 was an ESA unmanned probe to Mars. It was carried there by the Mars
Express spacecraft and was supposed to land on Mars on 25th December 2003.
However, no communication from Beagle 2 was received on Earth or by the Mars
Express craft that was orbiting the planet. The objective of Beagle 2 was to
search for signs that life existed at one time on Mars and it was the first probe
designed to dig beneath the surface of Mars. Mars Express has sent back many
images of the surface of Mars.

• Messenger (not examined)

This is a NASA spacecraft travelling to Mercury. It was launched on 3rd August
2004 and will arrive at Mercury in January 2005. Messenger will travel to Mercury
using solar power and ‘celestial mechanics’ (using the gravity of the Earth and
Venus to accelerate it towards Mercury). It has been designed to study Mercury
and the forces that have shaped it to help us understand the evolution of the
terrestrial planets.

• Rosetta (not examined)

This is an ESA unmanned craft launched on 2nd March 2004. It is travelling to
rendezvous with comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. It will study the comet’s
nucleus and its environment for two years, and then land on the surface of the
comet to study it further. This will be the first craft to land on a comet.

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 Figure 5.21: An illustration of the Rosetta spacecraft (ESA)

• SMART-1 (not examined)

This is an ESA unmanned craft, using an ion propulsion system. It is also using
‘celestial mechanics’ to help save on fuel. It was launched on 27th September
2003. The target of SMART-1 is the Moon. It is going to investigate which
chemical elements are found on the lunar surface and whether there is any
water. It will also investigate the theory that the Moon was formed following the
violent collision of a smaller planet with Earth 4.5 thousand million years ago.

Figure 5.22: The SMART-1 spacecraft before launch (ESA)

• Voyager (may be examined)

These were two unmanned USA space probes. They were both launched in 1977
to study the outer planets. They photographed the planets and moons and sent
the data back to Earth.
Voyager 1 reached Jupiter in 1979 and provided information that Jupiter had
rings around it. It then travelled to Saturn, reaching it in 1980. Voyager 1 then
altered its course, travelled to Titan and then out of the Solar System.
Voyager 2 followed the same route towards Saturn but then stayed in the Solar
System. It proceeded to Uranus, reaching it in 1986. It then travelled to
Neptune, reaching there in 1989. It has now proceeded out of the Solar System.

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 Both Voyager craft are now trying to locate the Termination shock in the
Heliosphere (the boundary of the region influenced by the Sun).

Figure 5.23: The engraved record that was carried inside the Voyager spacecraft
(NASA)

• XMM-Newton (not examined)

This is an ESA space telescope working at X-ray wavelengths. It was launched on
10th December 1999. It is the biggest satellite ever built in Europe and has
helped scientists to investigate black holes, supernova, origins of powerful
gamma-ray bursts and the evolution of the Universe.

Figure 5.24: The XMM-Newton telescope (ESA)

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The Hubble Space Telescope
This is the largest astronomical telescope ever put into space. It is a Cassegrain
Reflector telescope. Its main primary mirror is 2.4 m in diameter. It was launched by
the space shuttle Discovery in 1990, into an orbit of 600 km from the Earth’s surface.
However, it was found to have a problem from spherical aberration (blurred images).
This was from a manufacturing error. Astronauts fitted corrective optics to the
telescope during a service mission in 1993.

Figure 5.25: The Hubble Space Telescope, in orbit around the Earth (NASA)

Its tools consist of:

• Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 — to take photographs
• Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement — mirrors to refocus light,
not an instrument but a correction
• Faint Object Spectrometer — to obtain spectra from very faint stars
• Faint Object Camera – to take photographs of very faint stars
• Imaging Spectrograph
• Near Infrared Camera
• Multi-object Spectrometer
• Advanced Camera — for surveys
• Cosmic Origins Spectrograph.
It contains lots of sensors to keep it in the correct position to observe whatever it
needs to. The sensors are powered by two 12 m solar arrays (lots of solar panels) and
it transmits data to Earth via a communications antenna.
The Hubble Space Telescope is a very useful telescope as it is not affected by the
usual problems of Earth bound observatory telescopes. There are no weather
problems or light pollution, and there is no refraction from the Earth’s atmosphere of
the light from the objects being viewed.
The Hubble Space Telescope will continue to operate without further servicing till
2006.

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Space flight — manned and unmanned
There are many reasons for choosing which type of space flight is the best for a
particular mission. Here are some of the benefits and limitations of both types of
space flight.

Manned
• Benefits
These can be complex missions, as fine manipulation of equipment can happen.
More complex experiments (eg on plants) can be carried out and the mission can
be changed after launch. Also astronauts gain prestige for their country.
• Limitations
The astronauts need food, air, water, etc. They require areas of the craft to live
in, which takes up room and makes the mission more expensive. Also the time in
space needs to be considered as the health of the astronauts suffers when they
are out of their normal gravitational field.
Some of the problems astronauts experience are loss of muscle strength,
cardiovascular problems, a reduction in bone density and sleep problems. They
need to exercise in space to try to overcome these problems and they also need
to readjust when returning to Earth.
Manned space flights are estimated to be 20 times more expensive than
unmanned ones.

Unmanned
• Benefits
The craft can be lighter. There is no need for food, water, air, etc. There will be
no harm to human life, and no concerns about the length of the space flight.
These types of flight are generally cheaper for these reasons.
• Limitations
The craft cannot be altered significantly once it is launched. All activities can
only be carried out by remote control on Earth. Therefore, it is a relatively
simple mission. Often it is unknown why the missions fail as no records can be
retrieved.

Figure 5.26: An astronaut taking an untethered space walk outside the Shuttle
Discovery (NASA)

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EXERCISE 5

Questions

1 Why are reflecting telescopes now favoured over refracting telescopes?

2 Explain why the size of the aperture of a telescope is a more significant factor in
observations than the magnification of the telescope.

3 When using telescopes what are the main problems facing astronomers in this
country?

4 What happens to the light from stellar objects as it enters our atmosphere and
how does this affect what astronomers see?

5 What are the main photographic techniques that astronomers can use?

6 What is the difference between radar astronomy and passive radio astronomy?

7 Give a use of passive radio astronomy.

8 Why are radio telescopes usually bigger than optical telescopes?

9 What is an array?

10 Explain the following techniques for observing:

a IR astronomy
b UV astronomy
c X-ray astronomy.

11 Which part of the Sun emits X-rays?

12 Describe how the following objects appear from Earth:

a satellites
b stars
c meteors
d aircraft
e comets.

13 Why may an artificial satellite seem to disappear, when we are observing it from
Earth?

14 What is the difference between a rocket and a spacecraft?

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15 Give the main mission objectives of the following space craft:
a Apollo
b Cassini-Huygens
c Galileo
d Genesis
e Giotto
f ISS
g Magellan
h Mars Exploration Rovers
i Mars Express/Beagle 2
j Messenger
k Rosetta
l SMART-1
m Voyager.

16 List the advantages and disadvantages of the Hubble Space Telescope.

17 List the benefits and limitations of manned and unmanned space flight.

18 What are the problems with exploring space outside our Solar System?

19 Outline some of the technical, ethical and financial issues associated with space
research.

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Research

1 Observe three different celestial objects using binoculars or a telescope and

make drawings, or take photographs, of them. This can become part of your
coursework. Note the following information:
a details of the instruments used to observe the objects
b the weather and viewing conditions
c the location from which you viewed the objects
d the direction from which you viewed the objects
e the date and time the objects were observed
f any other interesting observations.
WARNING: The Sun must NOT be viewed directly, either with or without optical
aids.
Please note: If the full Moon is observed directly using a telescope at high
magnification then, owing to its brightness, the student’s ability to make other
observations directly afterwards will be impaired.

2 Design a simple telescope using a variety of tubes, lenses and mirrors. Construct
and test the telescope in the night sky and estimate its power of magnification,
field of view, magnitude limit and angle of resolution. This can become part of
your coursework.

3 Draw ray diagrams for the following telescopes:

a refracting telescope
b Newtonian reflector
c Cassegrain reflector
d radio telescope.

4 Produce a timeline of all major events in the development of our knowledge of

the Universe.

5 Find photographs of the following:

a star trails
b polar arcs
c meteor trails
d comets
e artificial satellites.

6 Find out more information about the SETI programme (www.seti.org)

7 Find out how optical astronomy could be made similar to radio astronomy, by
using arrays of telescopes.

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8 Find information on the telescopes and facilities available at these
observatories:
a the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, UK (www.rog.nmm.ac.uk)
b Jodrell Bank, Cheshire, UK
c (www.jb.man.ac.uk)
d Mount Wilson Observatory, California, USA (www.mtwilson.edu)
e Mauna Kea Observatory, Hawaii, USA (www.ifa.hawaii.edu/mko)
f the Very Large Array, New Mexico, USA.
g (www.vla.nrao.edu)

9 Find pictures of the following manned and unmanned space craft:

a Apollo
b Cassini/Huygens
c Galileo
d Genesis
e Giotto
f ISS
g Magellan
h Mars Exploration Rovers
i Mars Express/Beagle 2
j Messenger
k Rosetta
l SMART-1
m Voyager.

10 Find more information about the Hubble Space Telescope, including why it went
wrong and why it is so important.

11 Find out about ‘celestial mechanics’ that are used by some spacecraft to help
them reduce fuel costs.

Student’s Workbook – Edexcel GCSE in Astronomy – Issue 1 – February 2005 115

PROJECT 5: BUILDING A TELESCOPE

Introduction
This project is to design and build a telescope. It could be either a reflecting or
refracting telescope. Once the telescope is built it should be tested by viewing
objects that are easily found in the night sky. You should compare the image from
your telescope, with naked eye observations, published images of the objects or with
observations with other telescopes (amateur or professional). This could be a group
project with each member of the group sharing the work equally between them. This
project could be extended by observing the objects from different locations, to
compare which is the best location for observing and why. Using digital cameras (or
mobile phone cameras) you could take images of what is observed from the
telescopes to use later in the classroom.

Resources
Suggested resources include:
• mirrors and lenses for telescope construction
• materials to make the body of the telescope
• paper and pencil for sketching the observations
• digital camera (or mobile phone camera)
• compass (for finding the locations).

Method
Design how you will build your telescope and decide upon either a reflecting or a
refracting telescope. Use various materials to build the telescope, ensuring that it is
both stable and working fairly accurately. Observe objects in the night sky with the
telescope that are visible to the naked eye. Take photographs or make sketches of
the object when viewed through your telescope. View these objects again with the
naked eye and with either an amateur or professional telescope (if possible). Repeat
these observations from different areas to compare the viewing conditions. Find
images of the objects from books or the internet, noting the instruments used to
observe them. Compare the quality of the images when viewed with all these
different devices.

Links to the specification

This project covers the Observing the Universe part of this unit (5.1-5.10).

When to start
This project could be started at the beginning of Unit 5. However, you may need to
continue the project throughout the unit in order to complete all the observations.

116 Student’s Workbook – Edexcel GCSE in Astronomy – Issue 1 – February 2005