CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Collapsible tubes

Collapsible tubes that may be made of metal or thermoplastic are flexible

composite containers for the storage and dispensing of product formulations that usually
have a pasty consistency.

The metal tubes were originally made from tin or lead that has been
manufactured since about 1885. The lead remained the principal metal for tubes until
the early 1930s, when aluminium alloys were used. The changes from lead was
because the aluminium has better forming and handling properties, and the metal tube
market now is about 90-95% aluminium, with the rest tin.

In the 1950s, plastics entered the field and increased the overall market for
collapsible tubes by their use in cosmetics and other products requiring good barrier
properties and an improved aesthetic appeal.

The laminated tube has taken over a large part of the aluminium tube market for
toothpaste in the United States in 1971 or 1972.

These containers also have some markets in the food industry for products such
as mustards, tomato pastes, etc

2.1 General description

 A collapsible tube is a cylindrical container with a shoulder, nozzle and closure at
one end; the other end is open to allow filling with the product before this end is finally
crimped to provide a completely sealed hygienic dispensing pack.

The size of the tube selected for any particular product will depend on the volume
of product it is intended to hold. To choose the suit dispensing properties of the product,
the nozzle and orifice sizes will be measured. The approximate quantity required to be
dispensed at a time also will be calculated. Dimensions of tubes range from a minimum
of 9 mm diameter up to 76 mm; lengths corresponding to these diameters are
dependent on the ultimate capacity of the closed tube and range from 40 mm to about
250 mm, but they can be longer if required. There is also a range of standard nozzle
sizes and orifice diameters.

2.2 Method of production

Most products packed in collapsible tubes are required to be hygienically stored.

The necessary features of the tube to provide maximum protection of the product have
been thoroughly investigated to filling and marketing.

Collapsible aluminium tube production may be divided into two main parts:
mechanical fabrication of the tube and treatment of the tube surfaces.

2.2.1 Mechanical fabrication

Mechanical fabrication of aluminium tubes involves the stages of processing.

Most of processing is carried out automatically on a mass-produced flowline basis, with
manual handling reduced to a minimum.

99.7% of purity aluminium is casted and rolled to a pre-determined thickness,

and blanked to provide cylindrical pieces of metal of a defined diameter. Slugs are
generally referred to the pieces of metal mentioned above. The slugs are treated with
heat to bring them to the desired metallurgical state for fabricating. The slugs are then
lubricated and, by a process of impact extrusion, the lubricated slugs are converted in a
specially designed press to the tube shape, with a shoulder and nozzle.

2.2.2 Treatment of the surfaces

Surface treatment of the tubes includes the coating of the internal surface of the
tube with a protective lacquer followed by a high-temperature stoving of the lacquer.
The whole of the outside wall of the tube is then coated with an enamel coating,
followed by a moderately high-temperature stoving period. This external enamelled
surface can then be printed with up to five colours as desired, on offset printing
machines using thermally or UV-cured inks. Tubes coming off the processing line at this
stage require only a cap or closure to be fitted to the nozzle before packing into suitable
boxes or cartons for dispatch. Inspection procedures ensure that a consistently clean
and good quality container is produced.
 Figure 2.2.2: Metal tube protection. (a) Beginning of impact stroke. (b) Bottom of
stroke. (c) Beginning to strip.

Figure 2.2.2 shows the first part of the process of making collapsible metal tubes. The
impact (Figure 2.2.2a) cold works the metal slug, first to form the nozzle and shoulder
and then (Figure 2.2.2b) to force metal up the surface of the plunger to form the tubular
body. The metal is considerably work-hardened in the process. The plunger then returns
allowing the completed tube to be removed (Figure 2.2.2c).

The tube is trimmed to the correct length and the threads in the nozzle are
formed by rolling, cutting etc. The work hardened tube is then annealed by heat
treatment (590-600C) to recover the flexibility, dead fold characteristics and removes
the traces of lubricant and sterilizes the tube. Product resistant lining is sprayed on,
dried and the tube is printed.
In 1970s in Europe, the tapered tubes were first used and the tubes to be nested are
allowed. The taper allows them just to fit inside one another. The coatings and inks must
withstand this without cracking or flaking. Makers and many packers prefer the tapered
tube because packaging can be accomplished for delivery and storage in much less
space. Nesting can be done by machine.

2.3 Laminated tubes

The barrier properties of the laminated tube were much better than the previously
used plastic tube. The laminate is produced by an extrusion process. Large rolls of
preprinted laminated and then slit into the correct width for making tubes by seaming
the long edges to produce sleeves. For this purpose the flat web is folded into a
cylinder, the edges are slightly overlapped. By heat and pressure some of the plastic
layer is squeezed out around the edge of the foil and paper layers to seal them. Radio-
frequency energy is used for induction heating in the seaming process for the aluminium
foil in the laminate since the foil is impermeable the seamed edges are the only places
where water vapour could enter or escape.

The tubular sleeve is now cut to the correct length using printed registration marks. The
head of the tube is a pre-moulded insert of polybutylene terephthalate (PBT). This is
placed on the heading tool, the sleeve put in position and the head plastic locks the
insert into place as it bonds to the sleeve. Several alternative methods of producing the
laminate and sleeves have been developed as well as methods for completing the
container. Inserts for the head are also made in a urea plastic.

2.4 Sealing

Different materials require different methods of closing the ends (see Figure
2.4). Metal tubes normally have their open ends closed after filling by some type of
crimping operation (Figure 2.4a). Plastic tubes are commonly sealed either by radiant
heat or heated jaws (Figure 2.4b). High frequency heating is the preferred method for
the laminated tubes but ultrasonic techniques can be used for both plastic and
laminated containers. Contamination of the seal area can cause problems with all but
ultrasonic sealing, but the last is a slower process.

Figure 2.4: Metal, plastic and laminated tube closure types. (1) Single-fold, (2) double-
fold, (3) saddle-fold, (4) double-fold, (A) plain, (B) crimped

2.4.1 Types of closure

Closures for collapsible tubes are generally made of plastic materials and both
thermosetting and thermoplastic types are available with a variety of external shapes
and internal threads for screwing tightly on to tube nozzles. Push-on varieties are also
available.

With certain shapes of nozzle or cannula, elongated caps are made to cover both
cannula and threaded portion, and seal the cannula at its top. Membrane seal-type
tubes are usually pierced open with a 'spike' cap of polythene or hard plastic. There are
also novel closures on the market which offer a captive feature.

2.4.1.1 Packing and dispatch

 Collapsible tubes are generally packed in the United Kingdom into paperboard
cartons or plywood boxes fitted with honeycomb-type divisions, so that individual tubes
do not damage easily in transit, nor have their highly decorative artwork scratched.
Tubes for the home market are delivered by the manufacturer to the filler's premises in
plywood or fibre cases, fitted with a flanged fibre lid to exclude dust. Palletized loads are
delivered and the cases, which are returnable against a nominal charge, are collected
for re-use at the tube works. Tubes are also exported packed in divisional paperboard
cartons inside stout wooden overcases.

2.5 Sterilization

Sterilization can be divided by dry heat sterilization and steam sterilization.

Steam sterilization which also known as autoclaving involves generating or injecting
saturated steam into a pressure chamber at a temperature range of 121-148 C (250-
300 F) at 15psi for a period of time sufficient to provide sterilization. Autoclaving can
degraded some plastics.

Dry heat sterilization involves heated air or fire in this process. As compared to
the steam sterilization, the temperature in this method is higher. The temperature is
usually higher than 356 F or 180 C to achieve an equal germicidal effect. Dry heat is
generally not suitable for plastics because of their low thermal conductivity as well as
the difficulty insuring that the complete part or assembly has been exposed to enough
heat to ensure sterilization.

The sterilization process consists of ethylene oxide gas (EtO) and ionizing
radiation. Ionizing radiation can be divided by gamma irradiation and electron beam
sterilization.

Ethylene Oxide gas (EtO) is frequently used to sterilize materials that are
otherwise too sensitive to heat or radiation sterilization. Many plastics fall into this
category and EtO sterilization is frequently used for single use medical devices made of
plastic. EtO gas requires careful handling because of its flammability and how
poisonous it is. Strict handling requirements and a technically complex sterilization
process makes EtO suitable primarily for large volume sterilizations.

Next, ionizing radiation sterilization. It involves irradiation with either gamma rays
or high energy electrons. Ionizing radiation affects every polymer's physical and
chemical properties but some plastic materials are more resistant than others to
degradation from radiation at sterilization doses. The degree and types of changes to a
particular plastic depend on the nature of the polymer, whether or not it has had
stabilizers added to it during manufacture, the intensity of the radiation used and how
long the parts are irradiated.

Gamma irradiation is an ionizing radiation sterilization technique that involves

exposing materials for sterilization to gamma rays. Cobalt-60 is the most common
gamma radiation source used for industrial ionizing radiation sterilization.

Electron beam is another widely used ionizing radiation sterilization technology.

High energy electron beams generate a higher dose rate than gamma irradiation. This
reduces exposure time necessary for sterilization which results in less chemical
degradation. Electron beam irradiation has significantly lower penetrating power than
gamma rays making the density of the material being sterilized an important
consideration.