ANNA KITOU

A review in Reuse of water in dairy

companies: Possible Solutions

1. INTRODUCTION................................................................. 1
2 . WASTEWATER OF MILK PRODUCTS................................. 1
2.1. USE OF WATER............................................................. 3
2.2.CHARACTERISTICS OF DAIRY WASTEWATER................. 3
2.3 WASTEWATER TREATMENT.......................................... 4
2.3.1.. PHYSICAL TREATMENT............................................. 4
2.3.2. CHEMICAL TREATMENT............................................ 4
2.3.3. BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT......................................... 5
2.3.4 ALTERNATIVES........................................................... 5
3. WASTERWATER OF CHEESE COMPANIES.......................... 7
3.1. INDUSTRIAL STRATEGIES FOR LIQUID WHEY............... 8
3.2 CHEESE WHEY WASTEWATER TREATMENTS............... 11
3.2.1. BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT........................................ 11
3.2.2 PHYSICOCHEMICAL TREATMENT.............................. 11
3.2.3 CONSTRUCTED WETLANGS...................................... 12
4. REUSE OF WATER ........................................................... 12
4.1. NANOFILTRATION...................................................... 14
4.2. REVERSE OSMOSIS..................................................... 15
4.3. COMBINATION OF METHODS.................................... 16
5. REFERENCES.................................................................... 19

1. INTRODUCTION

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Ever increasing industrialization and rapid urbanization have considerably increased the rate
of water pollution. The dwindling supplies of natural resources of water have made this a
serious constraint for industrial growth and for a reasonable standard of urban living. The
environmental protection agencies have imposed more stringent regulatory prohibitions and
they have started more strict vigil along with some non governmental organizations to protect
the environment. This has made the water treatment more expensive and to comply with the
discharge quality standard itself, is becoming a huge burden for the industries. It was therefore
felt that the possibilities of reuse of the wastewater for various purposes should be investigated.
The recycling or reuse of water for similar duties mainly depends on availability of suitable
process technology for water purification. Due to wide fluctuations in industrial effluent quality,
this becomes more challenging. With the advent of membrane technology and significant
improvements in efficiency and cost effectiveness, the competitiveness of recycling over
discharge has greatly increased. In dairy industries, water has been a key processing medium.
Water is used throughout all steps of the dairy industry including cleaning, sanitization, heating,
cooling and floor washing and naturally the requirement of water is huge. Dairy wastewater
is distinguished by the high BOD and COD contents, high levels of dissolved or suspended
solids including fats, oils and grease, nutrients such as ammonia or minerals and phosphates and
therefore require proper attention before disposal. Researchers have shifted their interests in
possibilities of reuse or recycling of industrial wastewaters. Dairy wastewater does not contain
toxic chemicals but it has high concentration of dissolved organic components like whey
proteins, lactose, fat and minerals and the decomposition of some of the contaminants causes
discomfort to the surrounding population. A suitable technology for recycling or reuse at least a
reasonable quantity of the wastewater produced in the plant is needed.

2. WASTEWATER OF MILK PRODUCTS

Dairy plants are found all over the world, but because their sizes and the types of
manufactured products vary tremendously, it is hard to give general characteristics. The dairy
industry can be divided into several production sectors. Each division produces wastewater of a
characteristic composition, depending on the kind of product that is produced (milk, cheese,
butter, milkpowder, condensate).
Wastewater from dairy industry may originate from the following sources: (Carawan,
Chambers, Zall, 1979)
1) The washing and cleaning out of product remaining in the tank trucks, cans, piping,
tanks, and other equipment is performed routinely after every processing cycle.
2) Spillage is produced by leaks, overflow, freezing-on, boiling over, equipment
malfunction, or careless handling.
3) Processing losses include: a) Sludge discharges from CIP clarifiers b) Product wasted
during HTST pasteurized start-up, shut-down, and product change-over c) Evaporator
entrainment d) Discharges from bottle and case washers e) Splashing and container
breakage in automatic packaging equipment f) Product change-over in filling machines.
4) Spoiled products, returned products, or by-products such as whey are wasted.
5) Detergents and other compounds are used in the washing and sanitizing solutions that
are discharged as waste.
6) Entrainment of lubricants from conveyors, stackers and other equipment appear in the
wastewater from cleaning operations.
7) Routine operation of toilets, washrooms, and restaurant facilities at the plant contribute
waste.
8) Waste constituents may be contained in the raw water which ultimately goes to waste.
Uncontaminated water from coolers and refrigeration systems, which does not come in
contact with the product, is not considered process wastewater. Such water is recycled in many

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plants. If wasted, it increases the volume of the effluent and affects the size of the piping and
treatment system needed for disposal.
FIGURE 1. MILK PROCESSING
WASTEWATER MILK
CLEANING AND
RECEIVING
SANITATION SOLUTIONS
EFFLUENT
STORAGE WASHWATER
TO DRAIN TANKS

CLARIFICATI
ONN
PASTEURIZATI
ON
MILK HOMOGENIZATION
CHEESE MANUFACTURE
BUTTER: CHURNING
MILK POWDER: DRYING
CONDENSATE:
CONDENSING
STEAM
COOLING STEAN
PACKAGIN
WATER COOLING
G
WATER
STORAGE
MILK
CHEESE WHEY/BUTTER
SHIPPING BUTTER
MILK POWDER
CONDENSATE

EPA assembled available information on the dairy industry. That included two major studies
of the industry, one by a private research firm, the other by a university. Those studies provided
basic data about the industry and virtually all available information on the technology of dairy
products processing. Out of this extensive study emerged this picture:
1) The more than 5,000 dairy plants in the United States discharge about 53 billion gallons of
wastewater each year - about 31 billion gallons into municipal treatment plants, and 22 billion
gallons directly into water bodies.
2) That the typical wastewater stream from a dairy plant has the following characteristics
Typical Waste Stream from a Dairy Plant a) BOD - 2300 mg/l b) SS- 1500 mg/l c) FOG - 700
mg/l
3) The major pollutant in waste discharges from dairy plants is organic material. Breaking down
the organic pollution, the micro-organisms consume oxygen in the water. A measurement of
pollutants that consume oxygen in water is called "biochemical oxygen demand," or BOD.
Water with high BOD contains a large amount of decomposing organic matter.
4) Another major pollutant in dairy plant discharges is suspended solid waste, such as
coagulated milk, particles of cheese curd, and in ice cream plants, pieces of fruits and nuts. The
measurement of this pollutant is called "total suspended solids," or TSS.
5) Raw wastes from dairy plants contain excessive amounts of organic materials and suspended
solids.

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6) Other identified pollutants in dairy plant wastes are phosphorus, nitrogen, chlorides, and heat.
7) Another consideration is the acid or alkali content of liquid wastes. The pH of many
individual wastes within a dairy plant fall outside the acceptable range for direct steam
discharge.
8) Finally, research also has revealed that wastes from most dairy plants can be successfully
treated by municipal treatment plants and pose no dangers to the municipal plants. However, in
some situations, a byproduct cheese-manufacturing - whey - may create problems in some
municipal treatment plants.
2.1. Use of water
Water is used for a number of purposes in a dairy plant. For example, water is used for
washing trucks, cooling products, make-up for products, as a cooling tower medium, for
washing and sanitizing and for employee drinking and restrooms. Relatively clean water from
condensers, refrigeration and air compressors and air conditioning systems can be a substantial
part of the water use in a dairy plant (Carawan, Chambers, Zall, 1979).
Depending on the type of installation and the cleaning system and its management, the total
quantity of water consumed in the process can reach several times the volume of milk
processed. Consumption is usually 1.3-3.2 litres of water/kilo of milk received, but can reach as
much as 10 litres of water/kilo of milk received. Nonetheless, it is possible to optimize this
consumption at 0.8-1.0 litre of water/kilo milk received using advanced equipment and proper
management (UNEP, 2000). As indicated in table 1, the greatest consumption of water occurs
during secondary operations, particularly in the cleaning and disinfection where 25-40 per cent
of the total is consumed.
TABLE 1: WATER CONSUMPTION IN THE DAIRY INDUSTRY (CARAWAN, CHAMBERS,
ZALL, 1979)

Productive Level Of Operations Observations

processes consuption with highest
water
consumption
Milk Low Heat treatment
Packaging
Cream and Low Pasteurization Rinsing of buttermilk before
Butter of cream churning
churning
Yogurt Low - Mainly secondary in operations
Cheese Medium Salting Salting using brine
Secondary High Cleaning and Consumption of water is the
operations disinfection greatest during these operations
Generation of
steam
Refrigeration

2.2. Characteristics of the dairy wastewater

Dairy effluent contains soluble organics, suspended solids, trace organics. All these
components contribute largely towards their high biological oxygen demand (BODS) and
chemical oxygen demand (COD). Dairy wastes are white in colour and usually slightly alkaline
in nature and become acidic quite rapidly due to the fermentation of milk sugar to lactic acid.
The suspended matter content of milk waste is considerable mainly due to fine curd found in
cheese waste. The pollution effect of dairy waste is attributed to the immediate and high oxygen
demand. Decomposition of casein leading to the formation of heavy black sludges and strong
butyric acid odors and characterize milk waste pollution. The characteristics of a dairy effluent
contain temperature, Color, PH (6.5-8.0), DO, BOD, COD, dissolved solids, suspended solids,

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chlorides, sulphate, oil & grease. It depends largely on the quantity of milk processed and type
of product manufactured. The waste water of dairy contains large quantities of milk constituents
such as casein, inorganic salts, besides detergents and sanitizers used for washing. It has high
sodium content from the use of caustic soda for cleaning.
Dairy effluents contain dissolved sugars and proteins, fats, and possibly residues of additives.
The key parameters are biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), with an average ranging from 0.8
to 2.5 kilograms per metric ton (kg/t) of milk in the untreated effluent; chemical oxygen demand
(COD), which is normally about 1.5 times the BOD level; total suspended solids, at 1001,000
milligrams per liter (mg/l); total dissolved solids: phosphorus (10100 mg/l), and nitrogen
(about 6% of the BOD level). Cream, butter, cheese, and whey production are major sources of
BOD in wastewater. The waste load equivalents of specific milk constituents are: 1 kg of milk
fat = 3 kg COD; 1 kg of lactose = 1.13 kg COD; and 1 kg protein = 1.36 kg COD. The
wastewater may contain pathogens from contaminated materials or production processes. A
dairy often generates odors and, in some cases, dust, which need to be controlled. Most of the
solid wastes can be processed into other products and byproducts . (Patil et al., 2014)

2.3. Waste water treatment

Common techniques for treating dairy industry wastewaters include grease traps, oil water
separators for separation of floatable solids, equalization of flow, and clarifiers to remove SS.
Biological treatment consists of the aerobic and anaerobic process. Sometimes anaerobic
treatment followed by aerobic treatment is employed for the reduction of soluble organic matter
(BOD) and biological nutrient removal (BNR) is employed for the reduction of nitrogen and
phosphorus. Aerobic biological treatment involves microbial degradation and oxidation of waste
in the presence of oxygen. Conventional treatment of dairy wastewater by aerobic processes
includes processes such as activated sludge, trickling filters, aerated lagoons, or a combination
of these. But there are more advanced techniques which will be beneficial to us by providing
energy generation and reuse and because energy conservation have become the words of the day
and anaerobic processes have emerged.
As described previously, dairy processing wastewaters contain substantial quantities of
organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus. If excessive concentrations of these enter waterways,
oxygen depletion and plant growth in the waterways may reach nuisance proportions.
The following methods can be used in appropriate combination to achieve the effluent treatment
objectives.
2.3.1 Physical treatment
Solid and suspended matter can be separated from the effluent stream by use of equipment and
separation methods such as dissolved air flotation, centrifugation and micro-
filtration.Wastewater, usually passes through screens to remove debris and solids. In addition,
solids that are heavier than water will settle out from wastewater by gravity. Particles with
entrapped air float to the top of water and can also be removed. These physical processes are
employed in many modern wastewater treatment facilities today.This type of treatment will not
only reduce sludge duild up in lagoons and wear on pumps, but also should be a rapid way of
reducing BOD concentration in effluent prior to disposal or reuse (Carawan, Chambers, Zall,
1979).
2.3.2. Chemical treatment
Chemicals can be used to enhance treatment characteristics, such as settling of solids by PH
correction, and to improve treatment performance or suitability for land application. Care
should be taken to ensure that concentrations of any trace elements such as copper or cadmium,
which may be present as impurities, do not have adverse residual impact on organisms in the
treatment and disposal systems and in the general environment. Chemical methods of
phosphorus removal utilize the low solubility of metal phosphates. Both ferric and aluminium
phosphates show minimum solubility between pH 5 and 6. A variety of different calcium
phosphates exist and these show minimum solubility at high pH values (usually greater than 9).
Reports exist in the literature on the use of iron (both ferrous and ferric ions), aluminium and
calcium salts for chemical phosphate precipitation. It has been found that about twice the molar
ratio of metal ion to phosphorus is required for effective phosphate precipitation. With milk

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processing wastes even higher metal to phosphate ratios are required, and that calcium ions are
not very effective at removing phosphates. It is assumed that this is in some way related to the
proteins that are present in milk wastes and that they compete with phosphates for bonding to
the metal ions. Typical treatment efficiencies for phosphate precipitation using ferric, ferrous
and aluminium salts results in phosphorus concentrations in the effluent of less than 1 g m -3.
Treatment to this degree will result in insufficient phosphorus being available for subsequent
biological treatment. Chemical precipitation of phosphorus will be most effective after
biological treatment (Carawan, Chambers, Zall, 1979).
2.3.3. Biological treatment
The dairy industry uses aerobic or anaerobic treatment, or a combination of both, to treat the
wastewater. Aerobic systems require an energy source to provide the oxygen required to
assimilate the organic matter in the wastewater and hence are more suited to low to moderate
strength wastewaters, since the higher the organic content the greater the oxygen demand and
the greater the costs. Anaerobic systems have been developed for their ability to treat high
strength wastes and the utilization of the methane gas.
In aerobic treatment systems, bacteria, in the presence of oxygen, convert the organic
components of the waste to carbon dioxide,water and bacterial biomass. All aerobic treatment
systems have the potential to cause odours if operated incorrectly. The industry worldwide has
tried many forms of aerobic treatment. These have included trickling filters, rotating biological
contactors and various forms of mechanically aerated lagoon systems. In New Zealand only
extended aeration activated sludge systems are used. Typical treatment parameters for an
activated sludge plant treating dairy plant wastewater are 94% COD, 99% BOD5 70% TKN and
50% total phosphorus removal (Carawan, Chambers, Zall, 1979).
Considerable experimental work has been undertaken on the anaerobic digestion of whey
from casein and cheese plants. Various forms of high rate anaerobic digestion systems have
been investigated with whey. In an anaerobic digester, anaerobic bacteria, acting in the absence
of oxygen, convert the organic components in the wastewater to methane, carbon dioxide and
water. Organic forms of nitrogen are converted to the ammonium nitrogen form. Anaerobic
digestion may be carried out in low rate lagoon systems or in high rate reactors. The advantages
of anaerobic digestion are: production of a valuable byproduct (methane), that can be recovered
and utilized as a fuel , removal substantial quantities of BOD5 and COD without the input of
mechanical energy for aeration, produce less sludge than aerobic systems.
2.3.4 Alternatives
A step away from pretreatment of dairy process wastewaters is its total treatment and discharge
to a tributary stream. Usually economic and political considerations move the processor toward
treating his own wastewater. As treatment alternatives are considered, there are two systems
which have received wide acceptance. These systems use either land application techniques or
the aeration lagoon - stabilization pond system. Both systems depend on land availability and
are applicable to rurally-operated plants. These systems offer a simplistic approach to
minimizing manpower requirements and operational logistics.
A third alternative for the treatment of-dairy process wastewaters is the extended aeration
system which includes the oxidation ditch operating mode. This type system is an activated
sludge system which can treat the wastewater within a 24 to 30 hour time frame. The extended
aeration system maintains the wastewater under aerobic conditions for the entire detention time
of treatment. The operation of this system requires a high level of operator skill and knowledge.
This activated sludge system is quite susceptible to "bulking" and requires close attention on a
daily basis. Considerable monitoring of the system is required to maintain the system at its peak
performance. The activated sludge process is a more sophisticated system to operate but is
probably the more efficient and effective form of treating dairy wastewaters. Again, cost
considerations must be determined when selecting an activated sludge system of this type.
(Carawan, Chambers, Zall, 1979).
Even at BOD5 reduction efficiency above 90%, biological treatment systems will generally
discharge BOD5 and suspended solids at concentrations above 20 mg/l. To achieve zero
discharge, systems such as reverse osmosis and ion exchange would have to be used to reduce
inorganic and organic solids that are not affected by the biological process. The following is a

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brief description of various tertiary treatment systems that could have application in aiming at
total recycling of dairy wastewater. (Carawan, Chambers, Zall, 1979).
FIGURE 2. DAIRY PROCESSING EFFLUENT TREATMENT AND DISCHARGE OPTIONS
(CARAWAN, CHAMBERS, ZALL, 1979)

Sand filtration involves the passage of water through a packed bed of sand on gravel where
the suspended solids are removed from the water by filling the bed interstices. When the
pressure drop across the bed reaches a partial limiting value, the bed is taken out of service and
backwashed to release entrapped suspended particles. In lieu of backwashing, the bed may be
taken out of service and the first few inches of sand removed and replaced with fresh sand. To
increase solids and colloidal removal, chemicals may be added ahead of the sand filter.
Activated carbon adsorption is a process wherein trace organics present in wastewater are
adsorbed physically into the pores of the carbon. After the surface is saturated, the granular
carbon is regenerated for reuse by thermal combustion. The organics are oxidized and released
as gases off the surface pores. Activated carbon adsorption is ideal for removal of refractory
organics and color from biological effluent. (Carawan, Chambers, Zall, 1979).
Lime precipitation clarification process is primarily used for removal of soluble phosphates by
precipitating the phosphate with the calcium of lime to produce insoluble calcium phosphate.
Lime is added usually as a slurry (10%-15% solution), rapidly mixed by flocculating paddles to
enhance the size of the floc, then allowed to settle as sludge. Besides precipitation of soluble
phosphates, suspended solids and colloidal materials are also removed, resulting in a reduction
of BOD, COD and other associated matter. With treated sewage waste having a phosphorus
content of 2 to 8 mg/l, lime dosages of approximately 200 to 500 mg/l, as CaO, reduced
phosphorus content to about 0.5 mg/l. (Carawan, Chambers, Zall, 1979).
Ion-exchange operates on the principle of exchanging specific anions and cations in the
wastewater with non-pollutant ions on the resin bed. After exhaustion, the resin is regenerated
for reuse by passing through it a solution having the ion removed by wastewater. Ion-exchange

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is used primarily for recovery of valuable constituents and to reduce specific inorganic salt
concentrations.
Reverse osmosis process is based on the principle of applying a pressure greater than the
osmotic pressure level to force water solvents through a suitable membrane. Under these
conditions, water with a small amount of dissolved solids passes through the membrane. Since
reverse osmosis removes organic matter, viruses, and bacteria, and lowers dissolved inorganic
solids levels, application of this process for total water recycles has very attractive prospects.
Ammonia air stripping involves spraying wastewater down a column with enforced air blowing
upwards. The air strips the relatively volatile ammonia from the water. Ammonia air stripping
works more efficiently at high pH levels and during hot weather conditions. A recycling system
utilizing tertiary treatment systems that could be used for treatment of secondary wastewater for
complete recycle would include a combination of the preceeding in the following order:
secondary treatment, lime precipitate-clarification, ammonia stripping, recarbonation, sand
filtration, reverse osmosis, and activated carbon filtration (Carawan, Chambers, Zall, 1979).
Besides the secondary biological sludge, excess sludge from the tertiary systems specifically
the lime precipitation clarification process would have to be disposed of. Sludge from sand
filtering backwash is recycled back to biological system. Organic particles, entrapped in the
activated carbon pores, are combusted in the carbon regenerating hearths. Thus, recycle of water
in dairy processing may be theoretically possible but the management and operational costs
would be prohibitive not even considering the high capital outlay needed for such an elaborate
system.

3. WASTEWATER OF CHEESE COMPANIES

According to FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization) cheese is one of the main agricultural
products worldwide. Whatever type of cheese (Parmesan, Mozzarella, Gouda, Danish blue,
Brie, Camembert, Feta, Serpa, etc.), the making factories generate effluents that represent a
significant environmental impact. Cheese effluents exhibit COD values in the interval 0.8102 g
L1 and BOD values in the range 0.660 g L1 leading to a high consumption of dissolved
oxygen in water bodies. The lactose and fat contents can be considered as the main responsible
for COD and BOD and because of their very high concentration of organic matter, these
effluents may create serious problems of organic burden on the local municipal sewage
treatment systems (Janczukowicz et al., 2008). This effluent has a low pH, although basic pH's
have also been reported in the wide interval 3.39.0. Suspended solids, TKN, and total
phosphorus oscillate in the intervals (g L1 ) 0.122.0, 0.011.7 and 0.0060.5, respectively.
Furthermore, the ammonium nitrogen (NH4 +-N) value ranging from 60 to 270 mg L1 can also
cause toxic effects to aquatic life (Farizoglu et al., 2007). In addition, cheese effluent
composition can be approached to the following ratio for carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus C/N/
P200/3.5/1 which may be considered as deficient in terms of nitrogen components for aerobic
or anaerobic processes. The cheese manufacturing industry is responsible for the three main
types of effluents; cheese whey (resulting from cheese production), second cheese whey
(resulting from cottage cheese production) and the washing water of pipelines, storage and tanks
that generates a wastewater called cheese whey wastewater (CWW). This effluent also contains
CW and SCW (Janczukowicz et al., 2008).
The whey is a by-product from the cheese or casein manufacturing. This effluent is a greenish-
yellow liquid and can be considered as milk free of casein and fat. Casein precipitation leads to
the formation of two whey types. Acidic whey (pH<5) is obtained after fermentation or addition
of organic or mineral acids. Sweet whey (pH= 67) is obtained by addition of proteolytic
enzymes like chymosin. The milk type used in the cheese production (cow, goat, sheep, buffalo
and other mammals) also influences the characteristics of the produced cheese whey. From the
valorization point of view, cheese whey has a high nutritional added value. Acid coagulation
occurs close to the isoelectric pH of casein (pH 4.6), as a consequence, more milk protein
precipitates. Acid whey has a limited use due to the acidic taste and high salt content. Calcium
(1.2 1.6 g L1 ) concentrations in acidic whey are approximately 2 times higher than the values

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observed in sweet whey. Thus, in the acidic coagulation, colloidal calcium contained in the
casein micelles is solubilized and partitioned into the whey (Panesar et al., 2007). The
lactose level is higher in sweet whey than in acidic whey. Cheese whey is considered the most
important pollutant in dairy wastewaters, not only because of the high organic load, but also for
the volume generated. Cheese whey has a biological oxygen demand in the range 2760 g L 1
and a chemical oxygen demand in the interval 50102 g L1. The BOD/COD ratio is normally
above 0.5 constituting a substrate easily biodegradable by anaerobic or aerobic digestions. The
high CW salinity (conductivity in the proximity of 8 mS cm1 ) is the consequence of the type of
whey produced in the process and NaCl addition during cheese production. Additionally, other
minor components such as citric and lactic acids (0.020.05%), non-proteinic nitrogen
compounds (urea and uric acid), and vitamins (B group), can also be found in CW. Acidic pH
favors the filamentous biomass growth. The low buffering capacity of CW is responsible for the
rapid acidification in biological treatments. The main mineral components (>50%) are NaCl,
KCl and calcium salts. The high sodium content of CW can cause problems when operating
biological digesters. Lactose is the main responsible of the organic load, and an extensive
number of microorganisms cannot directly use it as a carbon source.
When cheese whey is used in cottage cheese production, it generates the second cheese whey
(SCW). Second cheese whey has about 60% of the dry matter content of the original cheese
whey (Pereira et al., 2002). This effluent maintains a significant organic matter content
(COD values up to 80 g L1 ) and high salinity (723 mS cm1 ). This high salinity comes from
the second addition of salts like calcium chloride in the cottage cheese production. Once more,
lactose (around 50 g L1 ) is the principal constituent responsible of the high COD values
(>70%). The SCW has acidic characteristics with pH values within the range 36. A
biodegradability value close to 0.5 makes these effluents suitable to undergo biological
degradation. Protein (0.58gL1 ), total solids (6.8 g L1 ) and total nitrogen (2 g L1 ) contents
are similar to those reported for CW. The values of COD (6080 g L1 ), BOD (30 g L1 ), fats
(0.58gL1 ) and total suspend solids (8.0 g L1 ) are normally below the maximum values
observed in CW. These lower values are the consequence of the second flocculation carried out
to obtain the cottage cheese. SCW keeps a high lactose concentration similar to that observed in
CW. SCW is normally free of amino acids and vitamins (Minhalma et al., 2007). Cheese
whey wastewater presents characteristics similar to CW.
Cheese whey wastewater generally presents acidic characteristics; however basic pHs have
also been reported. This parameter is logically affected by the volume of alkaline reagents used
in washing stages. In general, CWW has an elevated concentration of organic matter, however
values in a wide range from 0.8 to 77 (COD) and 0.6 to 16 g L 1 (BOD) can be found. The high
biodegradability index (BOD/COD0.460.80) suggests the suitability of biological process
application. Lactose, protein and fat contents average concentrations of 45, 34 and 6 g L 1 ,
respectively (Yang et al., 2003). The low values of lactose and protein can be explained by the
tendency to acidification due to the fermentation of lactose to lactic acid. As a result, the
lowering of the initial pH causes the casein precipitation and a disagreeable odor of butyric acid.
Additionally, the CWW fat content can bring about sludge floatation and the washout of active
microbial biomass in biological processes. The level of total suspended solids is reported to be
in the range 0.15.0 g L1 while total solids average values of roughly 65 g L 1 (Yang et al.,
2003; Janczukowicz et al., 2008).

3.1. Industrial strategies for liquid whey

Whey concentration traditionally takes place under vacuum in a falling-film evaporator with
two or more stages. Evaporators with up to seven stages have been used since the mid-seventies
to compensate for increasing energy costs. Mechanical and thermal vapour compression have
been introduced in most evaporators to reduce evaporation costs still further. RO (reverse
osmosis) plants of tubular design have also been installed in many plants for preconcentration
before the whey is sent back to the farmers and before being evaporated to final concentration.
Concentrated whey is a supersaturated lactose solution and, under certain conditions of
temperature and concentration, the lactose can sometimes crystallise before the whey leaves the

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evaporator. At concentrations above a DM content of 65% the product can become so viscous
that it no longer flows.
Whey concentration by reverse osmosis (RO) is frequently used to reduce volumes and
increase solids content prior to transportation or further processing. Preconcentration of sweet
whey before evaporation allows for more energy efficient removal of water at lower solids and
increased capacity of existing evaporators. Total solids (TS) levels of 10-25% can be obtained in
an efficient, practical manner. Reverse Osmosis membranes are used to remove water and will
not alter the relative composition of the sweet whey components. Permeate quality from RO
systems depends on the quality and composition of the feed and the level of concentration. The
higher the TS, the greater the amount of constituents in the permeate. Typically, RO permeate
will contain small (but measurable) amounts of organic solids. The process performance is
greatly affected by operating parameters such as feed flow rate, pressure, temperature, pH and
micro-biological quality of feed stream, feed concentration and fouling characteristics of the
membrane for various components. Advantages of RO are the reduction salt content and
dissolved matter content in brackish water, reduction in heavy metals, reduction in nitrates and
sulphates, reduction in colour, tannins and turbidity, softens hard water, chemical-free e.g. needs
no salt or chemicals during operation, high retention for salts and particular univalent ions (up
to >99%), disinfection, including viruses. Disadvantages of RO are the higher operating costs,
high energy costs, high discharge volumes, high concentrate volume, high operating pressure
than NF, requires supply water to be treated (pre-filtration 0.1 - 20 microns), reverse osmosis
normally provides water with aggressive pH level (in other words, a low or high pH in water
with few ions), membranes sensitive to free chlorine.
Whey proteins were originally isolated through the use of various precipitation techniques, but
nowadays membrane separation (fractionation) and chromatographic processes are used in
addition to both precipitation and complexing techniques. The process that has been most
extensively used for separation of whey proteins from whey serum is heat denaturation. The
precipitated protein formed by this process is either insoluble or sparingly soluble depending on
the conditions prevailing at denaturation: it is called heat-precipitated whey protein (HPWP).
Native protein concentrates have a very good amino acid profile with high proportions of
available lysine and cysteine. Whey protein concentrates (WPC) are powders made by drying
the retentates from ultrafiltration of whey. They are described in terms of their protein content,
% protein in dry matter, ranging from 35% to 85%. To make a 35% protein product the liquid
whey is concentrated about 6-fold to an approximate total dry solids content of 9%. To obtain an
85% protein concentrate the liquid whey is first concentrated 20 30-fold by direct
ultrafiltration to a solids content of approximatively 25%; this is regarded as the maximum for
economic operation. It is then necessary to diafilter the concentrate to remove more of the
lactose and ash and raise the concentration of protein relative to the total dry matter.
Diafiltration is a procedure in which water is added to the feed as filtration proceeds in order to
wash out low molecular components which will pass through the membranes, basically lactose
and minerals. About 95% of the whey is collected as permeate, and protein concentrations
as high as 80 85% (calculated on the DM content) can be obtained in the dried product.
Advantages of ultrafiltration are the high throughput of production,it is economical, easy to
clean and operate, easy to scale up. Possible disadvantages of UF are that only removes
suspended matter and bacteria, is sensitive to oxidative chemicals, NaOCl exposure determines
the life-span of the membrane and is typically 150.000 to 500.000 ppm and pH dependent.
Damage may occur when trying to prevent hard and sharp particles > 0.1 mm, membrane
damage at pressure > 3 bar.
Defatted WPC powder containing 80 85% protein dry matter is a very interesting option for
some applications, e.g. as a replacement for white of egg in whipped products such as
meringues and as a valuable ingedient in various foods and fruit beverages. Treatment of the
whey retentate from a UF plant in a microfiltration (MF) plant can reduce the fat content of 80
85% WPC powder from 7.2% to less than 0.4%. Microfiltration also concentrates fat globule
membranes and most of the bacteria in the MF retentate, which is collected and disposedof
separately. The defatted MF permeate is routed to a second UF plant for further concentration;
this stage also includes diafiltration. The resulting WPC with about 20 25% DM is then spray-

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dried to reduce the moisture content to a maximum of 4% before bagging. The advantages of
MF are the low operating pressure required, low energy consumption for semi dead-end set-up,
compared to nano-filtration or reverse osmosis, few manual actions required, relatively cheap,
no energy-consuming phase transfer needed, such as e.g. evaporation techniques, quality of the
produced permeate is not determined by the management. Possible disadvantages of MF are that
only suspended matter and bacteria removed (~log 5 removal), sensitive to oxidative chemicals
(e.g. nitric acid, sulphuric acid, peroxide and persulphate in high concentrations), damage can
be caused by hard and sharp particles > 0.1 mm, whereby pre-filtration is necessary, membrane
damage if re-rinsed at pressure in excess of 1 bar.
As whey has a fairly high salt content, about 8 12% calculated on dry weight, its usefulness
as an ingredient in human foods is limited. By having the whey demineralised, various fields of
application can however be found for whey which is partially (25 30%) or highly (90 95%)
demineralised. Demineralisation involves removal of inorganic salts together with some
reduction in the content of organic ions such as lactates and citrates. The partial
demineralisation is mainly based on utilisation of cross-flow membranes specially designed to
leak particle species that have radii in the nanometer (10 9 m) range. This type of filtration is
called nanofiltration (NF).
Here are a few specific advantages and disadvantages of NF. Advantages: Lower discharge
volumes, lower retentate concentrations than RO for low value salts, reduction salt content and
dissolved matter content (TDS) in brackish water, reduction in heavy metals, reduction in
nitrates and sulphates, reduction in colour, tannins and turbidity, softens hard water when
specific softening membranes are used, chemical-free e.g. needs no salt or chemicals during
operation, pH of water after nano-filtration is normally non-aggressive, disinfection.
Disadvantages: Higher energy consumption than UF and MF (0.3 to 1 kWh/m), pre-treatment
is needed for some heavily polluted waters (pre-filtration 0.1 - 20 microns), limited retention for
salts and univalent ions, nano-filtration membranes are a little more expensive than reverse
osmosis membranes, membranes are sensitive to concentrations, free chlorine (life-span of 1000
ppmh), an active carbon filter or a bi-sulphite treatment is recommended for high chlorine
concentrations.
The high degree desalination is based on either of two techniques:
Electrodialysis: Electrodialysis is defined as the transport of ions through non-selective
semi-permeable membranes under the driving force of a direct current (DC) and an applied
potential. The membranes used have both anion and cation exchange functions, making the
electrodialysis process capable of reducing the mineral content of a process liquid, for example
seawater or whey. A major limiting factor for using electrodialysis in dairy processing is the cost
of replacing membranes, spacers and electrodes, which constitutes 35 40% of the total running
costs in the plant. Replacement is necessary due to fouling of the membranes, which in turn is
caused by precipitation of calcium phosphate on the cation exchange membrane
surfaces and deposition of protein on the anion exchange membrane surfaces.
Electrodialysis is best for demineralisation levels below 70%, where it isvery competitive
compared to ion exchange.
Ion exchange: In contrast to electrodialysis, the process which removes ionisable solids
from solutions on a continuous electro-chemical basis, an ion exchange process employs resin
beads to adsorb minerals from solution, in exchange for other ionic species. The resins have a
finite capacity for this, so that when they are completely saturated, the adsorbed minerals must
be removed and the resins regenerated before reuse. Normally the resins are used in fixed
columns of suitable design. Ion exchange resins are macromolecular porous plastic materials,
formed into beads with diameters in the range of 0.3 to 1.2 mm for technical applications.
Chemically they act as insoluble acids or bases which, when converted into salts, remain
insoluble. The main characteristic of ion exchange resins is their capacity to exchange the
mobile ions they contain for ions of the same charge sign, contained in the solution to be
treated. There are various types of resin, which often have a specific impact on particular ions.
This enables effective selectivity. It also enables particular heavy metals to be re-used.
Ion exchangers are quickly polluted, which considerably reduces the exchange capacity.
Another disadvantage is the relatively high operational costs for, among other things, the

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regeneration fluid. After use, this regeneration fluid forms a major concentrate flow that needs
to be disposed of.

3.2. Cheese whey wastewater treatments

3.2.1. Biological treatments
Anaerobic digestion: The conventional treatments of CWW effluents are based on anaerobic
and aerobic digestion processes. A number of researchers have claimed that the anaerobic
processes are essentially the only viable method of wastewater treatment with high organic load
from cheese making-plants. Accordingly, the majority of studies have been conducted under
anaerobic conditions using Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) reactors applied to raw
CWW. (Gutirrez et al., 1991; Gavala et al., 1999) and diluted CWW (Gavala et al., 1999).
COD removal values in the interval 8199% (raw CWW) and 8598% (diluted CWW) have
been reported. Despite the significant COD removal obtained by the anaerobic digestion of raw
CWW, in some cases, the residual COD of the effluent still presents unacceptable values as
high. The required HRT seems to be highly dependent on initial COD concentration. Thus, COD
values above 5 g L1 require more than 2 days of digestion reaching up to 13 days. Due to their
highly flocculation capacity with elevated sludge settling and compaction, the use of the up flow
anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors to treat CWW has been recommended. The
continuously stirred tank reactors (CSTR) and vertically moving biofilm system (VMBS)
configurations have been used to treat diluted (Yang et al., 2003) and synthetic (Rodgers et al.,
2004) CWW, respectively. A food amount of methane in the biogas is achieved with this
method. Disadvantages of the anaerobic digestion are that the biological degradation of CWW is
characterized by unstable operation, when the CWW has a high content of CW, the production
of volatile acids by acetogenic bacteria is faster than the consumption by the methanogenic
bacteria which causes a reduction of the pH and COD elimination extent (Rodgers et al., 2004),
difficulty of granular sludge formation when acidification occurs (Yang et al., 2003).
Aerobic digestion: Some studies have been carried out under aerobic conditions to treat raw
CWW, mainly by activated sludge (Fang, 1991; Martins and Quinta-Ferreira, 2010; Rivas et al.,
2010; Rivas et al., 2011) with high eliminations of the principal contaminant indicators. In the
majority of cases the process has been conducted by using high HRTs (8 days). Fang (1991),
reported a reduced HRT (19.8 h) by using a low initial COD cheese wastewater. This author
completed some activated sludge experiments in three stages achieving a residual BOD lower
than the value legally permitted for direct discharge. The aerobic digestion achieved an 89% of
COD elimination. The consecutive anaerobic+ aerobic digestions were tested thereafter. This
sequence led to COD removals close to 99% and an effluent in accordance with the legal limit
value. Similar results were reported by Frigon et al. (2009), when treating a reconstituted CW in
a SBR system. The COD reduction was 98% and the residual COD was only 33 mg L 1 .
However the initial COD of the reconstituted CW (2.0 g L1 ) does not approximate to the actual
organic load of typical CWW. Normally, the aerobic biodegradation is limited by excessive
sludge formation (Gutirrez et al., 1991); however Rivas et al. (2010), minimized this effect
when applying the aerobic digestion to a precoagulated CW.
3.2.2. Physicochemical treatments
Oxidation processes:. Oxidation is suggested to perform better as a post-treatment process, after
biodegradation (Martins and Quinta-Ferreira, 2010). Thus, the Fenton oxidation, as a post-
treatment process presents leads to a significant COD removal (final COD=20 mg L 1 ) using a
high concentration of hydrogen peroxide, 0.5 M and 2 g/L of Fe 3+ and a pretreated effluent with
low COD, 00.5 g/L. This need for high reactants concentration leads to the high operational
costs. The single ozonation and catalytic ozonation have also been tested, as pos-treatment,
allowing a very good COD removal. Oxidation processes are not recommended when dealing
with raw CWW.
Coagulation/flocculation and precipitation: Among the different physicochemical processes
coagulationflocculation is likely the most simple and economical system. A high COD removal
has been reported by using FeSO4 at pH 8.5 than FeCl3 utilized at pH 4.5 (Rivas et al., 2010).
The supernatant after coagulation/flocculation/precipitation is highly biodegradable and present
an odorless colourless aspect. The high salinity is the limiting factor for agricultural use. It can

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be used as fertilizer in fertigation, after the correct addition with irrigation water, according to
crop tolerance and nutrient needs.
3.3.3. Constructed wetlands
Typically the small and medium cheese factories are isolated from centralized wastewater
treatment facilities, and in some cases, located next to ecologically sensitive areas, which
exacerbates environmental risks. Land application is often the only viable option for wastewater
disposal. The presence of suspended solids and high salinity content might affect the physical
and chemical structures of soils and eventually pollute the groundwater. Constructed wetlands
are an emerging technology which uses plants and microbial communities from the rhizosphere
to eliminate various organic and/or inorganic chemical contaminants. Theoretically, this
technology could be a good environmental-friendly solution. The technology does not need a
full time monitoring strategy, presents low construction and operating costs with good
ecological and landscape integration. Thus, this wastewater needs a pre-treatment for previous
fat removal (Comino et al., 2011), or even fat removal plus dilution with domestic wastewater
(Farnet et al., 2008). Chemical pretreatment with lime (Rivas et al., 2010; Prazeres et al., 2012)
can be a solution to allow the use of wetlands in the CWW treatment.

4. REUSE OF WATER

Increasing prices of water supply and disposal, the availability and quality of water, and strict
legal environmental controls have increased concerns about sustainable development and the
preservation of the public image of companies. It has therefore been advised that industries
internally reclaim and reuse process waters in order to reduce water consumption and effluent
production. Dairy factories are characterised by high consumption of water, generating from 0.2
to 10 L of effluent per litre of treated milk (Balannec et al, 2005). Washing, rinsing, cleaning-in-
place (CIP), pasteurising, ultra-high temperature (UHT) processes, chilling, cooling, steam
production, etc. are the main processes in which large amounts of water are consumed. The
wastewater streams of this type of industry show variable composition, often containing
different concentrations of organic matter (proteins, carbohydrates and lipids), suspended solids
and oils/fats. According to the levels of these contaminants, the wastewater is considered to be a
low-, medium- or highpollution stream. The heterogenity of dairy industry wastewaters is one of
the problems with treating these effluents. (Suarez and Riera, 2015).
Several techniques have been assayed to reduce the pollutant load of wastewaters generated
by food industries in general, and dairy industries in particular: flocculation, deep filtration,
coagulation, etc. Membrane technologies (MTs), ranging from microfiltration (MF) to reverse
osmosis (RO), are among the most promising techniques due to their consideration as clean
technologies (Riera, Suarez, Muro, 2013). One-step ultrafiltration (UF) experiments were
performed but obtained permeates did not fulfil the quality levels to reuse the water. (Riera et
al., 2013). UF processes only reject proteins, passing lactose and other small molecules through
the membrane, which leads to high values of COD in dairy wastewater permeates. In other
cases, a combination of different technologies has been adopted to obtain higher quality water.
One of the aspects to bear in mind when selecting the type of membrane treatment is that of
deciding on the desired quality of the permeate, as this affects both the technology and the
process conditions used (effect of pressure, feed concentration, pH, etc., on membrane
selectivity). Different water specifications depending on its end use can be seen in Table 2. The
highest possible water quality is required when the aim is to reuse water to produce steam. Its
main properties must include a lowCa2+ content as well as low conductivity and a low
concentration of soluble solids. Water for boilers is only obtained using RO, combining two NF
steps or sequences of NF and RO. The characteristics of water that is to be used in cleaning and
watering are less restrictive and, in these cases, simple processes can be sufficient to achieve the
purpose. Bacteriological control is of paramount importance when the reused water may come
into contact with food (heat exchangers, etc.).

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TABLE 2. WATER SPECIFICATIONS ACCORDING TO END USES (RIERA, SUAREZ,

MURO, 2013)

Parameter Boiling Cooling/Heatin Water for Process Other

water g water cleaning uses
PH 7-10 6.9-9.0 6.5-9.0 6.5-9.5 6-9
Conductivity <40 1000 <200 2500 (20 C) /
(25 oC) S/cm
COD, mg O2/L <10 75 / <5 43
TOC, mg O2/L <4 14 <4 <4 16
BOD5, mg O2/L 1-50 25 / / 30
Ca2+, mg/L <0.4 240 <1 <400 /
Total 0.5-10 100 35 / <20
suspended
solids,
mg/L
Turbidity, / 50 / <5 <10
NTU
Colony / / <100 <100 /
count/1 mL
E. Coli/100ml / / ND ND <200
Coliform / / ND ND <200
bacteria/100
mL
Water used in the industry for production processes, equipment cleaning, heatexchangers,
etc., which could be in contact with food (must be drinking quality water).

Segregating wastewater streams or in situ wastewater treatment before mixing with other
currents can be a wise practice. It has the advantages of optimizing water use and the treatments
to reuse the water produced by MT, adapting the water composition to the most suitable
technology to obtain a certain water quality. Automatic online monitoring of each stream for
pH, conductivity and turbidity is recommended to control and isolate water streams with a
similar composition which could be processed using similar technology (Riera et al., 2013).
Membrane technologies (MTs), mainly nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO), have
shown satisfactory behaviour and are promising techniques due to their advantages as clean
technologies. The good quality of water obtained with these techniques, the high recovery
rates, space savings, chemical dosage savings, continuous and simple operation without phase
changes, easy transportation and reduced cost are important advantages. However, MTs
undergo a decline in permeate flux due to the problems of particle blocking, concentration
polarisation and fouling after continuous long-term operation. Biofouling problems can cause
frequent shutdowns and are related to the discontinuity of production cycles. Several researchers
have used MTs to produce water of different qualities using single or combination membrane
stages (with or without pre- and post-treatments), which include onestep processes such as
ultrafiltration (UF), NF or RO, and combinations of UF +NF, NF+NF, NF+RO or RO+RO
(Suarez and Riera, 2015).

4.1. Nanofiltration
The nanofiltration membrane allows permeates be obtained that can be reused in the industry
with high permeate flow rates (Riera et al., 2013). Riera et al. (2013), used flash cooler
condensates from a dairy factory . Condensates from evaporation and drying may be considered

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low pollutant waters, while end pipe wastewaters need intense treatment to obtain clean water.
Flash cooler condensates from a dairy factory (1.5106 L processed per day) were characterised
and then processed using a nanofiltration membrane (molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) 200
Da) in a single step pilot plant (1.6 m2 surface area) to study the effect of the main process
parameters (pressure, temperature, recovery rate) on the quality of the permeate thus obtained.
The effluent used in this study was taken from a Spanish dairy factory. The wastewater source
was collected at the output of four FCs used in a direct UHT process. A commercial spiral
wound SelRO MPS-34 2540 B2X (Koch Membrane Systems, USA) NF membrane was used.
The membrane was first characterised with prefiltered tap water. After stabilization, the
permeate flow rate was plotted versus temperature, TMP and time. Condensates from industrial
FCs were nanofiltered at pressures between 15 and 30 bar and temperatures between 30 and 50
C. Feed flow rates varied between 3.5 and 5 m 3/h. The permeate flow rate was measured
continuously and permeate samples were analyzed each hour.
FIGURE 3. SCHEME OF THE NF(RIERA ET. AL, 2013)

According to the final results and of the sudy and bearing in mind the limitations of their end
use, the generated permeates could be used first for indirect heating purposes, taking advantage
of the thermal potential of condensates. A subsequent secondary reuse would also be possible in
other miscellaneous services. A NF plant has been proposed (171 and 185.4 m 2 theoretical and
real membrane areas, respectively) to treat 20 m3/h of condensates with 87.5% water recovery
(Riera et al, 2013).
A study evaluated the application of MBR as secondary treatment and NF as tertiary treatment
for the reuse of dairy wastewater. Emphasis was placed on evaluating the best NF operating
conditions that would generate a better quality permeate and provide less membrane fouling
(Andrade et al., 2014). The wastewater that was fed into the MBR came from a large dairy
industry located in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, whose manufactured products are UHT
milk, yogurt, cheese, cottage cheese and petit suisse. The wastewater was collected from the
industry wastewater treatment station, following the stages of sieving and flotation with
compressed air. The bench scale membrane bioreactor used to conduct the tests was built by
PAM Membranas Seletivas Ltda (Rio de Janeiro Brazil). The MBR had one module of hollow
fiber, submerged microfiltration membranes (polyetherimide, average pore size of 0.5 lm,
membrane area of 0.044 m2, packing density of 500 m2/m3). MBR showed high removal
efficiency for COD (mean of 98%) and nutrients (86% total nitrogen and 89% phosphorus).
However, the concentration of dissolved solids in the permeate still prevented its reuse. For NF
testing, an NF90 commercial membrane from DowFilmtec was used. The membrane was cut
properly and inserted into an 8.9 cm diameter stainless steel cell, providing a 62 cm 2 filtration
area, which simulated a procedure with a flat membrane. Cross-flow velocity of 7.8 m/s was
selected as the most suitable for the NF of the MBR permeate, once this condition led to
increased turbulence and, therefore, less fouling and better permeate quality. It is observed that

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the quality of the NF permeate meets all the standards for cooling water and water for low
pressure steam generation, proving that it may be reused for these applications as well as for
washing floors, external areas and trucks, that require a lower quality water. The COD
concentration of 73 mg L-1 not only meets the discharge parameters of environmental legislation
in effect in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil (180 mgCOD L -1), but is also well below this
standard, thus contributing to the release of better quality effluent and to the preservation of
water bodies.
Vourch et al. (2005) used NF to treat a synthetic dairy wastewater, comprising whole milk,
skim milk and milk whey, with COD concentration of 8200 mg L-1and conductivity of 700 lS
cm-1. The NF permeate had a COD concentration of 87 mg L-1, conductivity of 637 lS cm-1 and
calcium concentration of 3.2 mg L-1. Fernandez et al.(2010) evaluated the operation of a pilot
NF unit used for the recovery of clean in place (CIP) solution consumed in the dairy industry.
The feed solution had a COD concentration between 3000 and 10,000, total dry extract between
1.0% and 2.0%, and conductivity of 15 mS cm_1; while the permeate had 15002500 mgCOD
L-1, conductivity of 1520 mS cm-1 and total dry extract of 0.91.0%. The concentrations of the
permeate obtained in the study of Andrade et al. (2013) were found to be lower, which is
probably due to the contribution of the high removal of pollutants in the MBR in order to
generate a final permeate with high quality.

4.2. Reverse Osmosis

Suarez and Riera (2015) used low-pollution flash cooler (FC) condensates from the direct heat
treatment of milk and milk-based products in order to treat them by means of reverse osmosis
(RO) to obtain high-quality water for use in boilers. Boiler water specifications (pH 710,
conductivity (25 oC) <40mS/cm, COD <10mg O2/L, total organic carbon (TOC) <4mg O2/L,
biological oxygen demand after 5 days (BOD5) 150mg O 2/L, Ca2+ <0.4 mg/L and total
suspended solids (TSS) 0.510 mg/L) are the most restrictive reuse parameters of all these
possibilities (Suarez and Riera, 2015). The water treated in their study was the
effuent from some of the FCs operating in a direct UHT process at a Spanish
dairy factory. For the RO experiments, a spiral-wound thin-flm Duratherm
HWS 4040 HR membrane was recommended by the manufacturer (GE
Water & Process Technologies, USA) to treat this type of effluent. The treated
condensates did not fulfil the characteristics of water if they are to be reused in boilers. But
high-quality water with low conductivity (up to 17.5 lS/cm) and COD (up to 10 mgO2/L) can be
obtained after discontinuous RO (Duratherm HF membranes) of low-pollutant direct UHT milk
condensates (156.2285.0 lS/cm conductivity and 589 mgO2/L
COD). Reductions up to 98.2% and 97.8% in conductivity and COD, respectively, were
achieved. Permeate conductivities and CODs lower than 40 lS/ cm and 10 mgO 2/L, respectively,
were obtained by single RO couple with an activated carbon column when working in
continuous modem (Suarez et al., 2014).
Reverse osmosis water similar to available vapour condensates (produced in drying processes)
can be achieved allowing this water to be reused for heating, cleaning and cooling purposes.
(Vourch et al., 2008). The objective of Vourch et al., (2008) study was to use RO units for the
treatment of several selected wastewaters from dairy plants for water reuse purposes. The study
also showed that RO operation gave better water quality than NF, as NF did not provide a better
permeate flux. These selected wastewaters of eleven French companies were mainly mixtures of
milk, whey and cream with dry matter (DM) ranging from 0.4 g.L -1 to 71 g.L-1, fat content (0 to
22%) and heat treatment (no heat treatment to high heat treatment: 130 oC, 20 min).
A commercially available RO spiral-wound membrane was used in this study, a TFC HR SW
2540 (provided by KOCH Membrane Systems) with a NaCl rejection of 99.5%. It is a thin film
composite (TFC) membrane with polyamide active layer and an effective filtration area of
2.5 m2. Inspection of data illustrated that RO operation can reach a water recovery of 90 to 95 %
with TOC of purified water lower than 7 mg.L -1. The removal efficiency for RO membrane was
high for all the compounds: organic matter removal was very high (>99.8 % for TOC and >
99.5% for lactose), nitrogenous matter removal was around 96% and conductivity removal was
about 97% (higher than 95% for multivalent ions and 87% for monovalent ions). RO treatment

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of the selected wastewaters was carried out until 9095% water recovery was achieved with an
average permeate flux around 11 L.h-1.m-2. TOC of purified water was lower than 7 mg.L-1and
came mainly from lactose (76100%). Purified water was low mineralised: conductivity <50
S.cm-1 corresponding essentially to monovalent ions (Na+, K+ and Cl-). Quality of purified
water was similar to vapour condensates, so it can be reused for the same applications as
heating, cleaning and cooling.
Pretreated dairy waste water using coagulation adsorption and membrane separation was
passed through a cross flow reverse osmosis membrane system and the permeate water was
found to have very good quality (Sarkar et al. 2006). Raw wastewater was collected from A.P.
Dairy, Hyderabad, India and was pretreated with different types of coagulants like inorganic
(alum and ferric chloride), polymeric (polyaluminium chloride) and natural organic (sodium
arboxymethyl cellulose commonly known as Na-CMC, alginic acid, and chitosan). Cellulose
acetate flat sheet membranes of 44 cm2 surface area having 10,000 Da and 1,000 Da molecular
weight cut off were supplied by Millipore Corporation, MA, USA. Permionics Pvt.Ltd.,
Vadodara, India had supplied nanofiltration membrane of 300 Da molecular weight cut off
(MWCO) and RO flat sheet membrane as complimentary samples. The membranes were
polyamide on non oven polyester. The ceramic microfiltration membrane having 0.45 micron
pore size used in pilot plant was purchased from Orelis, France. It is having tubular
configuration with 19 channels and 0.167 m2 surface area. Spiral wound RO membrane with 2
m2 surface area was procured from Osmonics, USA. The membrane is made up of cellulose
acetate and having more than 99% NaCl rejection. The nanofiltration/reverse osmosis
experiments were done in a stainless steel test cell of dead-end type having maximum pressure
limit of 50 bar. After coagulant and PAC (Powdered activated charcoal) treatment the pH of the
water was adjusted to 6.5 and was passed through UF and RO membranes separately. Pilot scale
experiment using spiral wound RO membrane yields better water quality compared to flat sheet
membranes used in bench scale experiments. The quality of water after reverse osmosis was
found to be comparable to that of process water used in the Dairy and can be recycled back.

TABLE 3. COMPARISON OF RO WATER WITH DAIRY PROCESS WATER (SARKAR ET. AL.,
2006)
Process water RO permeate
pH 7.3 6.5
Conductivity, S/cm 242 40
Turbidity, NTU 0.2 0.0
TDS, mg/L 128 33
Hardness, mg/L 88 3
FOG, mg/L Nil Nil
Chloride, mg/L 58 16
COD, mg/L 24.7 16.5

4.3. Combination of methods

Vourch et al., (2005) treated waste wasters of 10 French industrial dairy plants using two-stage
membrane treatments (NF + RO and RO + RO). Two commercially available spiral-wound
membranes were used in this study: one NF membrane (Desal5-DL, Osmonics) with a 150-
300 g.mol-1 molecular weight cut-off and one RO membrane (TFC HR, Koch) with a NaCI
rejection of 99.5%. Membranes are thin-film composite (TFC) with an active polyamide layer.
The filtration area of the spiral wound modules is 2.5 m2. Deionised water membrane
permeabilities (at 25C) were 3.3 and 7.3 L.h-l.m-2.bar-1 for Koch TFC HR and Desal-5 DL,
respectively. A two-stage NF+RO treatment of process waters, purified water was produced
with roughly the same quality as with the single RO stage: TOC <3.3 mg.L -1 and conductivity
<9/~S.cm-1. For the process waters processed by RO+RO operation, purified water was quite
significantly demineralised (conductivity <3/tS.cm -1) and TOC was <2.5 mg.L -1. Three qualities
of water could be produced: the poorest quality by a single NF, good quality for reuse in dairy

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plants by single-stage RO or by a two-stage NF+RO process, and very pure water by a two-
stage RO+RO. The quality of these purified waters is similar to the quality of vapour
condensate produced by the dairy industry. For water used for cleaning in place: preparation
of dilute acid or alkaline solutions, pre- and intermediate rinsing, for washing floors and the
outside of plant and vehicles, for heating and cooling applications. For such applications
purified water produced by a single RO operation or by two-stage operations (NF+RO or
RO+RO) can be reused as well as vapour condensates. For applications where unexpected
contact between milk products and water can occur, when there is a risk of leakage, drinking
water quality is required (TOC <2 mg.L (Vourch et al., 2005).
A two-stage ultrafiltration and nanofiltration (UF/NF) process for the treatment of model
dairy wastewater was investigated to recycle nutrients and water from the wastewater.(Luo et
al., 2011). A model effluent was prepared from commercial whole milk (Sanyuan pure milk,
Capital Agribusiness Group, China), skimmed by a refrigerated centrifuge (4k-15, Sigma,
Germany) at 4 C for 20 min (10,000 rpm, 10,733g). Then the skim milk was diluted with
deionized water. Three commercial UF membranes (UP005P, UH030P, Ultracel PLGC) and five
NF membranes (NF270, NF90, Nanomax50, Desal-5 DL, Desal-5 DK) were tested in this
study. As UF permeate of dairy wastewater with the Ultracel PLGC membrane contains lactose
and cleaning chemicals at low concentration, nanofiltration could be applied to obtain
dischargeable or reusable water. From the five NF membranes the NF270 membrane would
have higher productivity and lower operating cost in NF operation. Therefore, NF270 could be
considered as the most suitable membrane for the NF step in terms of its solutes rejection and
low TMP. The Ultracel PLGC membrane was suitable to concentrate proteins and lipids in
wastewater in the first stage because of its excellent antifouling performance and high
transmission of lactose and inorganic salt. The NF270 membrane was suitable to treat the UF
permeate in the second stage to obtain lactose in retentate and reusable water in permeate due to
its high permeability and high lactose rejection as well as the low retention of salts.

FIGURE4. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A TWO-STEP UF/NF PROCESS FOR DAIRY

WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION FOR BIOENERGY PRODUCTION. (LUO
ET. AL., 2011)

Dairy wastewater Lipid extraction

Biodiesel
Transesterifcati
Protein Algae
UF cultivatio on
Lipid
n
Starch + Biofuel
UF permeate cellulose
Fermentation

NF Lactose Biogas
Anaerobic
digestion

Reusable Water

Balannec et al.,(2002) compared membranes used for NF and RO in order to study their
ability to reject milk components. The effluent model solution was 1/3 diluted skimmed milk.
The following membranes were studied: in dead-end NF (Desal5-DL and Desa15-DK,150-
300 Da, Osmonics NF45 and the NF, 200 Da, FilmTec TFC S, Koch), in dead-end RO (Desal3-
SE Osmonics BW30, FilmTec TFC HR, Koch), in crossflow NF (Desal5 DL, Osmonics and
Nanomax 50, 400 Da, Millipore), in crossflow RO (TFC HR, Koch and Nanomax 95, 100 Da,

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ANNA KITOU

Millipore). Dead-end filtration experiments were carried out in a stainless steel cylindrical cell
installed on an anti-vibrating table in a thermostatic controlled room at 25C. Crossflow
filtration experiments were conducted with spiral wound organic membranes at 25 or 50C. As
expected, concentrations in permeate were higher with NF membranes than with RO ones.
Permeate COD ranged from 173 to 1095 mg O2.L-1 for NF. With RO membranes, COD rejection
was very high (99.88-99.96%) and permeate COD was low, in the range 45 to 120 mg O 2. L-1.
In NF rejection of multivalent ions (Ca2+ ,Mg2+, citrate, phosphate) ranged from 92.4 to 99.9%,
while for Na+ and K+ it was in the range 50-84% conversely, rejection of Cl - was negative in
some cases. The best COD rejection for NF was obtained with FilmTec new available NF and
Desa15 DL membranes. In RO, rejection of monovalent ions was higher than 93.8% and
multivalent ions were almost totally rejected (>99.6%). The best COD rejection for RO was
obtained with Desal3-SF and TFCHR membranes. Balannec et al., showed that one single
membrane operation is insufficient for producing water of composition
complying with the requirements for drinking water, but purified water in the dairy plant can be
produced if finishing step (membrane, other) is added.

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